EDN ECHO Development Notes
poison the termite digestive process July 2003 Borates for the Control Issue 80 over an extended period of time. of Termites (This paragraph is for those who want Edited by Martin Price By Darrell Cox, Ph.D. and Dawn Berkelaar more detail and who know some An article in the March 1998 issue of chemistry). Different borate ECHO is a Christian non-profit The IPM Practitioner featured the use compounds have different molecular organization whose vision is to bring of borates to protect wood against weights. Unless you happen to be glory to God and a blessing to termites, wood-boring beetles, using boric acid, a good portion of the mankind by using science and carpenter ants and decay fungi. “Boric weight of the molecule will come from technology to help the poor. acid and its salts, the borates, have been the part of the molecule other than used for wood protection in Australia borate. All borate compounds will and other countries since the 1940s,” contain the same amount of borate if Issue Highlights states the author. Because boric acid is expressed as “borate equivalent widely available and relatively weights.” Multiply the grams per kilogram in the previous paragraph by Borates for the Control of inexpensive, this information should be relevant to many in our network. the molecular weight of the borate 1 Termites compound and divide by the weight of Borates are salts with chemical the borate anion. For example, the Additional Uses for Boric structures closely resembling boric molecular weight of zinc borate Acid acid. For example, borax is a sodium 2 (ZnB2O4) is 250.9. The weight of the salt [in Fort Myers, Florida, borax sells 2- borate anion (B2O4 ) is 85.6. A Especially for Sub-Saharan for approximately US$0.63/lb or concentration of 0.5% w/w would 3 Africa: Mother and Baby US$1.39/kg]. Other formulations will contain 14.66 g of zinc borate (5 g/kg x Maize Variety Trials be less available in developing 250.9 /85.6 = 14.66 g/kg). Leaf Protein Concentrate countries, but you may want to be Treated wood possesses repellant from Chaya Leaves? aware of them; they include disodium 4 octaborate tetrahydrate (DOT) and zinc properties. When structural lumber Can You Help Us? borate. DOT is highly soluble and has used in new house construction is been used by the lumber industry in pretreated with borates, houses are 5 conjunction with the dip-diffusion termite resistant. “In Australia, where Echoes from our Network method for lumber protection. Zinc termites seem to be found everywhere, borate is much less soluble and this treatment is required by the 5 therefore is less likely to enter ground building codes for Eucalyptus timbers Books, Web Sites & Other water when used as an insecticide (i.e. in the states of New South Wales and Resources uses other than wood treatment). Queensland.” Even older houses can 7 be made more termite resistant by From ECHO’s Seedbank Borates can be used against termites in remedial treatment with borate sprays. 8 several ways: (1) as insecticides (killing In this case, termites already existing in termites on contact), (2) as antifeedants timber are hesitant to “tube over” (making treated material unappealing ECHO treated areas. Effectiveness of spray for insects to eat), (3) as a digestive 17391 Durrance Rd treatments is dependent in part on how poison, and (4) as repellants. Borate North Ft. Myers, FL 33917 well the spray penetrates wood. treatments kill termites by direct Borates that are readily soluble in USA contact when concentrations are at least Phone: (239) 543-3246 water, like borax or DOT, rapidly 0.5% w/w (where “w” equals weight, penetrate when applied to bare wood. Fax: (239) 543-5317 i.e. 5 grams of borate per kg of material This eliminates active infestations of [email protected] being protected). They act as termites near the surface of the timber. http://www.echonet.org antifeedants when concentrations are greater than 0.25% w/w. Freshly cut wood for new construction Concentrations of borates that are too also can be treated. According to the small to act as antifeedants are able to IPM Practitioner article, “Borates applied
1 ...... EDN Issue 80 right after fresh boards are produced can protect wood for a poison on one termite kills at least 10 others. If a persistent lifetime. One easy treatment method is dip-diffusion. No poison such as a borate is used, it can be spread further elaborate equipment is needed…Since borates penetrate wet through cannibalism. Theoretically, if 25,000 termites were wood better than dry, freshly cut wood averaging about 70% caught in traps, dusted with borates, then released back into moisture is easy to protect…Boards are dipped for about a their shelter tubes, a nest of 250,000 subterranean termites minute in a 130°F (50°C) solution of 25% DOT, then are could be destroyed. Zinc borate may be more useful for this stored from 2 to 8 weeks to allow borate diffusion into the wet purpose, as it is less water soluble.” Successful bait must be wood.” both non-repellant to promote feeding and slow acting so the poison can be distributed throughout the termite colony. In Very small doses of borates can poison termites. Borates addition, bait formulations must be attractive if they are to be inhibit many enzymes. The enzyme cellulase is particularly effective. One such bait is composed of sawdust (cellulose) important for termites, because it allows them to digest wood and boric acid mixed with honey and molasses. The honey and cellulose. Termites either secrete cellulase themselves or have molasses may act as a “sticker,” increasing the adhesion of access to a ready supply through intestinal protozoa that boric acid to the termite. produce cellulase. Small doses of borates cause termites to starve, because they no longer are able to digest cellulose. In There are a few cautions. Water-soluble borates should not be one study, all eastern termites were killed within two weeks used as a ground treatment because they are moderately toxic and all Formosan termites within three weeks of being fed a and persistent, and can pollute groundwater. High doses of diet of cellulose with 0.0625% boric acid equivalent by borates are poisonous to humans when ingested or inhaled. weight. At this lower dose, termites still ate wood and Therefore adequate care, including use of goggles and gloves, therefore benefits were not seen immediately. is recommended when a borate dust or solution is applied. Absorption through the skin is negligible unless there are Borates can act as rather long-lasting “antifeedants” when abrasions or other breaks in the skin. Masks for respiratory used at a higher dose. An antifeedant is a chemical that deters protection should be used in confined spaces where ventilation feeding. Many of the studies listed in the article reported is poor. antifeedant properties when doses were within the range of 0.25% to 1.0% boric acid equivalent by weight [that is, a solution of 0.25% to 1.0% boric acid by weight]. In one test, Additional Uses for Boric Acid “about 1% boric acid concentration kept the amount of pine By Dawn Berkelaar eaten by the termites Coptotermes lacteus and C. In addition to controlling termites, boric acid can be used to acinaciformis to 5% or less, while 80% or more of untreated control cockroaches and ants. The following “recipes” from a wood was consumed.” file in our library might be helpful to some of you. Note that Although borate-treated wood possesses repellant properties, any recipe containing boric acid is poison and should be kept borates in general should not be considered repellants. For out of reach of children, infants and pets. example, tunneling by termites in treated sand (0.5% to 1.5% House ants: Mix 1 level teaspoon (5 ml) of boric acid and 2 ½ boric acid) was not inhibited. In contrast, borates are contact fluid ounces (75 ml) of corn syrup or honey over heat until the insecticides. In another study, “all eastern subterranean boric acid dissolves. Dilute the bait with an equal volume of termites exposed for one minute to boric acid died within 8 water and mix thoroughly. Place two drops of the bait on a days … Though boric acid dust is an effective termiticide strip of white paper and put it where you tend to see ants. upon direct contact, a large proportion of a termite colony has Keep the bait moist by adding water or by replenishing the to be exposed to achieve acceptable control levels.” bait (ants seek both moisture and sugar). Borax washing Strategies devised to take advantage of the various termite powder can be used instead of boric acid. The bait takes a few control properties of borates include dusting galleries. “One weeks to work, so don’t give up if you don’t see an immediate possible method of control for both subterranean and drywood reduction in the number of ants. termites involves injection of finely powdered poisonous Cockroaches: Cream ¼ cup (60 ml) of shortening (or bacon [borate] dust into their galleries with a dust gun. Since termite drippings) and 1/8 cup (30 ml) of sugar. Mix 8 oz (240 ml or 1 biology involves extensive social grooming, if a small cup) of powdered boric acid (or borax), ½ cup (120 ml) of percentage of a gallery can be dusted, potentially the whole flour, and ½ of a chopped small onion. Add to the sugar and nest can be destroyed.” Field tests of this method against shortening mixture. Blend well, then add water to form a soft subterranean termites were not very successful, especially dough. Shape the mixture into small balls. Replace them when when the wood was damp. Other researchers believe that they are brick hard. If you keep them in open plastic sandwich injection of insecticidal dust into galleries is unlikely to result bags when baiting, they will stay soft longer. Another recipe in contamination of a sufficient number of individuals to included slightly different proportions and/or ingredients: 16 control ground-nesting species of termites. This difficulty can oz (2 cups) boric acid, 1 cup (240 ml) flour, ¼ cup (60 ml) be avoided by using the “Trojan termite” approach. “Small sugar, 1 onion (shortening or bacon drippings omitted). colonies of subterranean termites can be destroyed by presenting poisoned termites as gifts to the termite colony. Fire ants: An article in the Journal of Economic Entomology The poisoned termites are welcomed and groomed, and the (volume 90, number 2, pp. 488-491) described an experiment
2 ...... EDN Issue 80 testing the effectiveness of boric acid in killing fire ant about the respective merits of open-pollinated and hybrid colonies (Solenopsis invicta). varieties. Often a combination of hybrids and open-pollinated varieties is chosen. Boric acid was dissolved in a sugar bait (10 g of sugar per 100 ml of water) to make solutions of 0.25%, 0.50%, 0.75% and Testing of new varieties is done in communities through what 1.00% (wt:vol). have been referred to as Mother and Baby Trials. Here is how they work. A Mother Trial is managed by a researcher but After six weeks, all of the colonies that were given boric acid seeds are planted by partners (e.g. people working in the area were reduced in size (i.e. in number of workers and in amount of agricultural development, such as a missionary, Peace of brood) by more than 90%. By the sixteenth week, there was Corps worker, or NGO agriculturalist). In the trial, between a 99% reduction in the number of workers, no brood was ten and sixteen cultivars are evaluated under two different present, and any queens that were still alive were small and levels of fertilizer; an optimal level (according to the were no longer producing eggs. The control colonies, on the extension services in the area) and a suboptimal level. The other hand, grew in size throughout the course of the Mother Trial includes three replicates of each cultivar and experiment. permits evaluation of the cultivars under controlled conditions. Although the high doses of boric acid currently used in baits Baby Trials are grown by at least six farmers in the same are designed to eliminate ants quickly, the authors point out community, with each farmer growing four cultivars. Farmers that a high dose increases the likelihood that ants will learn to are selected by the community. They receive seed (free of avoid the bait. Because a high dose kills ants quickly, it also charge) in color-coded bags. Stones painted the same colors reduces the passing of food from one ant to another (which are used to mark rows and distinguish between varieties. The could ensure that many more ants encounter the poison). field layout of the trials is simple. For example, here is how The concentrations of boric acid used in this experiment are the farmers’ involvement was described to us: “Farmers are much less than the concentration that is currently being used asked to grow the Baby Trial using their usual management or recommended in ant baits. The authors concluded, “We practices, and are requested to treat the four cultivars suggest that if it is used at lower concentrations, boric acid has uniformly. Plot size in the Baby Trial is determined by the great potential for control of S. invicta.” amount of seed: 650 seeds per cultivar. Farmers are asked to plant the seed using a plot length of about 15 meters, but Especially for Sub-Saharan Africa: choosing their own planting distance between hills and rows.” Mother and Baby Maize Variety At the individual country level, the National Maize Program coordinates local partnership in the trials, while CIMMYT Trials provides the regional technical backstopping. By Dawn Berkelaar Currently, Mother and Baby Trials are being done in nine If you are doing agricultural development work in Africa, you SADC countries, involving up to 83 partner organizations will want to read about—and perhaps become involved in—an (research institutions, agricultural extension systems, NGOs, exciting program that includes agriculturalists and farmers in schools, farmer associations, etc.). 153 communities and over maize variety trials. CIMMYT (the International Center for 1000 farmers are involved. the Improvement of Maize and Wheat, based in Mexico) is working with collaborators in southern Africa to test and The Mother and Baby Trial system has many positive features introduce improved, open-pollinated (i.e. not hybrid) varieties that have made it very successful. Scientists and researchers of maize. The varieties were developed through SADLF, the work together with extensionists and development agents, and Southern African Drought and Low Soil Fertility Project, both parties recognize their responsibilities in the trials and the which is working to provide smallholder farmers with stress- benefits that they will receive. The trials are very cost- tolerant maize varieties. Of particular importance are varieties effective, because they are managed by local people. In that are tolerant of drought and poor soils. addition, varieties are tested in a number of different environments (under the very conditions in which they will For example, a few years ago, several new open-pollinated likely be grown), and they are managed by many different varieties of maize were evaluated. Some of these open- farmers. This means the average performance of a variety can pollinated varieties (ZM421, ZM521 and ZM621) were be better assessed. Farmers can compare varieties based on selected by farmers for their superiority during these trials and seeing and working with them through a whole growing have been released in several Southern Africa Development season. Consequently, improved varieties are adopted more Community (SADC) countries (Angola, Malawi, RSA, quickly by farmers than they often are otherwise. In some Tanzania and Zimbabwe). Varieties ZM421 and ZM521 cases, adoption of new varieties occurs as research is being yielded 30-50% more than other current varieties under conducted, and this can help direct future research. Both conditions of drought and poor soil fertility. Some hybrid researchers and farmers are gratified that seed becomes varieties that show even bigger gains have also been available much more quickly after a new variety is released. developed. The people involved in the trials decide which varieties will be tested, once they have received information We found a contact for the Mother and Baby Trials, and asked if it would be helpful for us to write about the trials in EDN, in
3 ...... EDN Issue 80 case some of you in our network want to become involved. would correspond to about 0.7 mg per kg for a 70 kg adult. Mick Mwala, Regional Coordinator of the trials in the This could be a lethal dose!” However, an adult would Southern Africa Development Community Region, responded: probably not eat uncooked leaves and certainly would not eat “The proposal you are making is very much welcome. As you that much—at most 250 grams which would only be one will see, the trial scheme depends on active partnership to be quarter of the amount of cyanide intake. Dr. Bradbury efficient and effective. To this end the interest and possible concluded, “Nevertheless, it could lead to acute intoxication involvement of some of your members is definitely welcome.” (i.e. headaches, dizziness, stomach pains, vomiting, etc.)” If you are working in sub-Saharan Africa and would like to Dr. Bradbury said that in general, 50 ppm is considered an find out more about these trials, contact Mick Mwala at intermediate level and 100 ppm is considered dangerous. The
4 ...... EDN Issue 80 right on the plant. When an insect or mammal chews the leaves, the structures keeping the enzyme and glucoside apart Can You Help Us? are destroyed and a dose of cyanide is released in the Some of the most important information that we share with stomach.) In an article in our files (from the publication our readers comes from people in our network. We would like Mandioca EM FOCO, Numero 4, Outubro 1994), the author to get your input on the following two topics. If we receive seems to confirm that blending or grinding greatly reduces the enough feedback, we will compile the information in an article toxicity. The author reported results of a study on cassava leaf for EDN (as we did for the recent article on chaya in Issue 78). flour. Blending fresh leaves in a blender reduced the level of Please help us if you have information on the following: HCN by up to 90% compared to leaves that were dried first Bananas and plantains. If bananas and plantains are grown and then ground. (However, according to the above-mentioned in your area, do farmers face banana disease problems? If you article on chaya in Economic Botany, blending leaves was can specify which diseases and what impact they have, that sufficient to remove the HCN IF it was left to sit for several would be helpful. Are bananas and/or plantains grown as a hours, but the normal LPC procedure does not sit that long.) cash crop or for home consumption? Another likely reason for the lower level of cyanide in LPC is We mentioned FHIA banana varieties at various times in the heating and pressing involved in later steps. According to EDN, and have distributed them at our conference. Have these David Kennedy’s Leaf Protein Concentrate Manual, heating varieties been grown in your area? If so, for how long have the leaf juice to boiling (which is typical when making LPC) they been established there? Did they come from ECHO, Dr. and pressing the curd very well should remove about 95% of Rowe in Honduras, or elsewhere? How have the FHIA banana hydrocyanic acid. hybrids performed in your area? What is their general Though not related to the cyanide question, we came across an acceptance by the local population? Please comment on the article with some additional helpful information about making individual varieties (e.g. FHIA-1, FHIA-3, etc.)—their LPC (Nagy, S., et al, 1978, Journal of Agricultural Food performance, use, acceptance or lack thereof. Chemistry 26(5): 1016-1028). The article includes cassava and How do the FHIA varieties compare to local varieties, in chaya plants in a list of 19 leaves that have protein content terms of yield, acceptance, disease resistance, commercial higher than 30% (i.e. crude protein contents as a percentage of potential, etc.? Which FHIA varieties, if any, are farmers dry matter). To make LPC, the authors ruptured the plant cells beginning and/or continuing to plant? Finally, what is your (this is often done by grinding, beating or blending the leaves) honest evaluation of their overall success, continued use, and then added water at a ratio of 1:1 of water and leaves (i.e. acceptance, and impact in your area? equal volumes of each). Soft succulent leaves are easier to extract than those that are dry and fibrous. In leaves Soybeans in the Tropics. We would like to hear from our containing high proportions of acid, the juice also tended to be network about raising soybeans in the tropics. Do soybeans acidic and the protein tended to precipitate along with the grow in your area, or have they been grown? If so, what fiber. It was better to make the pulp slightly alkaline (around varieties have done well? Are they used for human food or pH 8.2). The yield of protein was less from juice that was animal feed? What problems do farmers face? If soybeans are allowed to remain at room temperature for extended periods used as a human food in your area, do people like them? How before processing, due to actions of proteolytic and lipoxidase do they eat them (i.e. as tofu, tempeh, soy milk, etc.)? How are enzymes. they processed? If you write to us with information about soybeans, please include the approximate latitude and altitude at which you work. ECHOES FROM OUR NETWORK Update on Papaya Leaf Tea literature about papaya seeds. The high concentration of latex) can induce By Dawn Berkelaar abstracts that he sent indicated that abortion, and that consumption of ripe papaya seed extract has been found to fruit can act as a contraceptive. In the article about papaya leaf tea that lower sperm count in rats (this was a (References for the abstracts can be was published in EDN Issue 77, we did reversible effect, and sperm counts sent upon request). For perspective, not mention the possibility that regular gradually increased when the rats were however, we note that green papaya ingestion of the tea could lead to side no longer fed papaya seed extract). fruit is commonly eaten in many effects (because we had not heard of Papaya seeds have also been used by countries. any). Since we published that article, a some women to induce abortions, The above information applies few items have come to our attention though we do not know how many specifically to papaya seeds and fruit, that we would like to share. seeds were used or if the seeds actually not to tea made from papaya leaves. caused an abortion. In addition, some Dr. Phil Thuma with the Macha However, Dr. Thuma felt that a caution studies suggest that consumption of Malaria Research Institute in Zambia was in order, and commented, “It could unripe papaya fruit (which contains a read our article and pointed us to some well be that papaya leaves are safe—
5 ...... EDN Issue 80 but given the data on papaya seeds, I was effective in holding back an “1) Treat for malaria. Continue think we need to be cautious on untimely attack. We were pleased with drinking tea made from two leaves a recommending the leaves, until that. Although it’s bitter on the palate day for 3-5 days (if you can stand it— someone has shown that the leaves are it’s not bitter to the stomach. it's bitter) to see if you can completely also safe!” knock it out. [Later in this article, Ms. ”There is one concern I personally have Leonard describes her method of He added, “I think we have to be with drinking the tea. It made my hair preparing papaya leaf tea.] However, if careful with people saying papaya leaf fall out. I wasn’t bald but I was symptoms return one or two weeks worked for them to prevent malaria— shedding far more than the daily norm. later, you should take a regular malaria especially in areas where there is not If we had any kind of plumbing system, treatment. In my experience, papaya very high transmission of malaria! the local plumber would be a rich man. leaf can work for treating mild malaria, Since even in very high transmission “Needless to say my hair made me but it is not 100% [effective]. (It seems areas, only about 2 to 4 % of female question what the tea was actually to work well for the Baka who have Anopheles mosquitoes actually carry doing inside me. I had the same effect tried it as a treatment; perhaps it works malaria (Plasmodium falciparum), it several years ago while taking better for them because they have more could be just by chance that someone Paludrine daily.” immunity than we do. Whenever they drinking papaya leaf tea never appear to have malaria (not too severe) contracted malaria—and it might have We continue to hear from people about and tell me they have no money for a nothing to do with drinking the tea!” the use of papaya leaf tea in relation to treatment, I give them two papaya malaria. Christine Leonard, working We also heard from Christine Wiltse, leaves and tell them to get four more with SIL in Cameroon, wrote that she working in Ghana, who shared that she and keep drinking [tea made from the uses papaya leaf tea to test for malaria and her husband began drinking papaya leaves] until the symptoms have been at the onset of “mild” symptoms leaf tea in January 2002. She wrote, gone for a few days--it's a treatment (headache, nausea or a low-grade “We drank two cups weekly and were that anyone can afford!) fever). She commented that malaria is a free from malaria for two months or so. severely mismanaged disease, with “2) Complete the malaria test by That’s good for us. After the first bout people generally treating it too late for continuing to drink leaf [tea] until we couldn’t stop it. Let me mention— a variety of reasons. These include symptoms are gone (1 or 2 days), then we were very diligent in drinking our uncertainly if the illness is malaria, stop and see if the symptoms come tea. Then we missed one week. That’s hesitancy to send in a blood test if back (this could take from half a day to the mistake we made. A week later we symptoms are mild (because of the a week or two depending on the both fell sick. expense of the test and the chance of concentration of parasites in your “Thinking the dried leaves may not be false “negatives”), and a reluctance to body). If the symptoms don't come powerful enough, we changed to fresh use harsh medicines when they may be back, you probably didn't have malaria. picked and boiled leaves. I can’t say unnecessary. If the symptoms do come back, chances they stopped us from getting malaria. are you have malaria and should treat it In her e-mail, Ms. Leonard wrote, “We So we tried three cups a day for three to (either use papaya if symptoms are very are translators with SIL in Cameroon five days (depending on symptoms) as mild, or a regular treatment). and have been using papaya leaf [tea] a treatment. That didn’t really work for prophylaxis, and occasional “Remember, the key to avoiding severe either. What it did do was hold the treatment for mild malaria, for malaria, is to drink a leaf AS SOON AS malaria back. This is also very helpful approximately four years. Also, over YOU NOTICE ANY SYMPTOMS OF if a bout of malaria wouldn’t fit into our the years I've developed a way of using ILLNESS. If you take the leaf right schedule (if we were traveling or papaya leaf [tea] to test for malaria.” away, it will keep your symptoms from hosting guests, etc.). A bout of malaria getting unmanageable during the can take you out of action for a few “As soon as you recognize mild process of determining whether or not days. So we’d brew some fresh tea malaria-like symptoms, or whenever you have malaria. If I'm not mistaken, leaves and hold it off. Three cups a day you have a persistent headache, every case of severe malaria that we've usually did the trick. When the stomach upset, or slight temperature, seen. . .was a result of waiting too long symptoms began to rise we’d drink a drink [tea made from] 1 to 2 leaves to treat. The beauty of this method is cup. Within minutes they would throughout the day (1 leaf for a child). that, with the papaya leaf [tea], we can subside. Repeat the following day or two until treat for malaria right away, or prevent you are feeling better. If you notice “After our ‘program,’ travels or malaria from occurring with other you are feeling better within half a day whatever, we’d stop the tea and let the illnesses, and thus not allow symptoms or within 24 hours, this could mean one malaria come to a head—usually one to get out of control. I've been using of two things: a) you only had a 24- day is all it took. Then we took a this method for a couple of years now, hour flu (or the like), or b) you do have regular treatment (chloroquine, even with the children, and am very malaria and the papaya leaf is knocking fansidar, etc.)…the tea didn’t satisfied with it. it out. At this point you can either: necessarily stop or cure our malaria. It
6 ...... EDN Issue 80 “The ECHO article explains many through sieve as well. [My husband] would go away after he drank the leaf ways to prepare a papaya leaf, but I'll Yves and I like to refrigerate it and [tea], but return again every 7th day share with you what works for us. You drink it cold because this way we can (mild malaria). I think ideally, a smaller can use any kind of leaf (take the entire drink it fast and get it over with amount of papaya leaf tea should be "hand", not just a "finger"), dead, quicker. For the kids we add lemon and drunk twice a week instead of once.” brown, yellow, or green. I don't like sugar. When I asked where she and her using dead leaves because they break “A note about drinking papaya leaf husband had heard about papaya leaf up too much when you wash them. [tea] for prophylaxis: Yves has been tea, Ms. Leonard wrote, “We first heard Yellow ones seem to be less bitter, but I drinking it weekly for four years, about papaya leaf tea from a Catholic wonder if they are less effective (my myself for two. I think it works very sister who has been working in our area house help seems to think so but I have well when taken every 7 days or less. It for 25+ years. She started drinking it as not noticed this). Wash it and stuff it passed the Kribi test when we were a last resort when she had continued into a pot (you can rip the leaf up a eaten alive by mosquitoes for 7 days. bouts of resistant malaria and was bit). Cover with water (just enough to The drawback to papaya leaf [tea] for forced to leave the country. Her cover the leaves--remember the more prophylaxis is that it is more work than testimony is that it has kept her clear of water you add the more you have to just popping a pill. Sometimes it hasn't malaria to the degree that she could drink!) Boil for approximately 15 been convenient to get and prepare a continue working in Cameroon.” Ms. minutes. Pour through a sieve [and leaf, so I put it off for a day or two. Leonard does not know of anyone else collect the liquid]. When the leaf is When I did this too often, Yves started who uses papaya leaf tea to test for cool, squeeze out liquid and pour to get headaches after day 7 which malaria.
BOOKS, WEB SITES & OTHER RESOURCES Helpful Resources on the Web either from a list of available fact sheets story is: “Using Tithonia concoctions By Edward Berkelaar, Ph.D. (alphabetized by Latin name) or from a for termite control: As part of the Kenya ECHO Staff table of family names, so to access Woodfuel and Agroforestry Programme individual fact sheets, you need to have (KWAP) farmers in the Busia District ECHO’s technical staff recently learned some knowledge of classification or at of Western Kenya are taking part in an about some excellent technical least need to know the Latin name of on-farm experiment in pest control.” resources on the web that we wanted to the species you are interested in. share with our readers. By clicking on this link, a full-length TM Farming Solutions: Success stories story is opened up describing the results The NewCROP web site: for the future of agriculture: of on-farm trials testing various
7 ...... EDN Issue 80 Appropriate Technology Exchange policy advisor, consultant, researcher,
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