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To Leave Or Not to Leave: a Population Study Investigating How Compensation and Auxiliary Spending Influence Teacher Turnover in the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania

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To Leave Or Not to Leave: a Population Study Investigating How Compensation and Auxiliary Spending Influence Teacher Turnover in the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania TO LEAVE OR NOT TO LEAVE: A POPULATION STUDY INVESTIGATING HOW COMPENSATION AND AUXILIARY SPENDING INFLUENCE TEACHER TURNOVER IN THE COMMONWEALTH OF PENNSYLVANIA A Dissertation Submitted to The Temple University Graduate Board In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY URBAN EDUCATION by Ethan S. Ake-Little May 2019 Examining Committee Members: Will Jordan, Ph.D., Advisory Chair, Urban Education Christopher McGinley, Ed.D., School Leadership Joshua Klugman, Ph.D., Sociology Douglas Webber, Ph.D., External Member, Economics ii © Copyright MMXIX by Ethan S. Ake-Little All Rights Reserved. iii ABSTRACT Teacher turnover is a well-studied phenomenon, particularly in highly urbanized locales, but not well researched in a state as geographically and demographically diverse as Pennsylvania, which is a composition of two major metropolitan areas combined with smaller urban centers and expansive rural regions. Those retention studies that do exist have been mainly exclusive to the Philadelphia region, with limited research devoted to the remainder of the state. This lack of a comprehensive empirical approach that compares turnover in three distinct settings limits a nuanced understanding of the issue and, in turn, can lead to incomplete policy considerations. This study utilizes Pennsylvania Department of Education data from 2012-2017, which describes the entire public-school workforce in all local education agencies (LEAs), to study how compensation and auxiliary spending (per student spending sans instructional costs) influence teacher turnover using multiple, parallel Cox Proportional Hazards survival models. Findings suggest that despite a “one size fits all” approach to public school funding policy popular amongst politicians on both sides of the political aisle, the effects of a monetary increase in reducing the likelihood of turnover varies considerably when accounting for the region, Title I status, experience and subject matter. The study highlights how the lack of monetary investment can lead teachers to seek employment elsewhere since low pay functions as a strong demotivator. Additionally, the results suggest that while a pay raise may arrest turnover risk, it is a poor long-term motivator or cause of job satisfaction. The study concludes by offering state and LEA leaders with policy recommendations that may improve both retention and job satisfaction. To date, this is the only study in the current literature that explores teacher turnover extensively in the nation’s fifth most populous state. iv "In a completely rational society, the best of us would be teachers and the rest of us would have to settle for something less." Lee Iacocca, Former President, Chairman, and CEO of Chrysler Corporation and Allentown, Pennsylvania's Native Son This study is dedicated to teachers within and outside the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, who dedicate themselves every day to one of the noblest pursuits of humankind, and without whom the advancement of society would not be possible. v ACKNOWLEDGMENT “No man is an island, entire of itself; every man is a piece of the continent, a part of the main.” John Donne, Devotions upon Emergent Occasions, Meditation 17 This study began as a reflection of my own experiences as a high school science teacher – first in an urban, charter school and later at a suburban, independent school – in the Greater Philadelphia region. These reflections evolved into opportunities for growth and research that were nurtured by my supervisors in the General Education program and the faculty within and outside the College of Education. Consequently, I would like first to acknowledge my colleagues and instructors, past and present, who encouraged me to explore the world through a multitude of perspectives. Second, I would like to acknowledge my Examining Committee for helping this study come to fruition. Specifically, I want to thank Will Jordan and Christopher McGinley, whose wisdom I value, experiences I honor, and careers I aspire to emulate. Throughout my graduate career, they have simultaneously viewed me as a student, colleague, and friend. I also want to acknowledge my colleagues at the American Federation of Teachers/Pennsylvania and the Temple University Graduate Students Association (TUGSA AFT Local #6290), without whom I would not have developed a deep appreciation for the complexities associated with organizational leadership. Perhaps, most importantly, I want to acknowledge my mother and husband, Drs. Stacey Ake and Shaun Ake-Little. Both not only serve as my support system but also are my better angels since neither hesitates to speak truth to power while providing unconditional love. Both came into my life during a critical period and are living testaments that Divine Providence is the real author of our lives. TABLE OF CONTENTS Page ABSTRACT…………………………………………………………………………….. iii DEDICATION……………..……………………………………...……………………. iv ACKNOWLEDGMENTS …………………………………………………………….... v LIST OF TABLES…………………………………………............................................. x LIST OF FIGURES……………………….…………………………………………… xii CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION…………………………...……………………………………… 1 Impetus for the Study……………………………………………………………….. 1 The Age of Mass Teachers’ Strikes………………………………………………. 2 The Rapidly Changing Labor Landscape………………………………………… 4 The Flood of New School Funding Lawsuits…………………………………….. 6 A Declining Interest in Teaching…………………………………………………. 8 Background of the Study…………………………………………………………... 10 The Commonwealth of Pennsylvania: A State of Contrasts……………………. 10 Geographic, Political, and Educational Character of the State……………... 10 Economic and Demographic Diversity………………………………………. 19 Policy Context I: School Funding Sources……………………………………… 28 Federal Lines of Support…………………………………………………..... 28 The State’s Regressive Funding Formula……………………………………29 The Weight of Local Taxes…………………………………………………... 30 Policy Context II: Per Student Spending Management…………………………. 34 Components of Per Student Spending………………………………………. 34 Collective Bargaining and Per Student Spending…………………………... 36 Major Stressors on Per Student Spending…………………………………... 38 Purpose of the Study………………………………………………………………. 41 Research Questions………………………………………………………………... .43 Operational Definitions…………..……………………………………………… 45 Clarifying Educator Experience Terminology………………………………. 45 Clarifying Monetary Investment Terminology………………………….…… 46 Clarifying Subject Area Terminology……………………………………….. 46 Significance of the Study…………………………………………………………... 46 2. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK AND LITERATURE REVIEW…………… 49 Theoretical Framework……………………………………………………………. 50 Teachers and Teaching…………………………………………………….……. 51 Motivations to Teach…………………………………………………………51 Comparing Teachers with Other Professionals………….…………….……. .52 The Burdens of High Teacher Turnover………………………………………… 55 Detriment to Student Learning………………………………………...……..55 Impact on Workplace Morale…………………………………………….…. 56 Financial Costs……………………………………………………………… 57 vii Theories of Turnover……………………………………………………………. 58 Human Capital Theory……………………………………………………… 58 Motivation-Hygiene Theory…………………………………………………. 61 Person-Environment Fit Theory…………………………………………….. 63 Towards a Synthetic Maslowian Approach…………………………………. 65 Literature Review………………………………………………………………….. 67 Teacher Turnover and Compensation…………………………………………… 67 Teacher Turnover and the School Environment……………………………….... 70 The Connection Between Workplace Stress & Burnout…………………….. 70 The Role of Support Services………………………………………………... 71 The Tempering Effects of Organized Labor………………………………….73 Teacher Turnover in Relation to Preparation & Age……………………………. 74 Debating the Utility of Teacher Certification……………………………….. 75 The Generational Divide in the Teacher Workforce………………………… 78 Teacher Turnover and High Need Subject Area………………………………… 80 Math and Science Teacher Turnover………………………………………... 80 Special Education and ESL Teacher Turnover……………………………… 82 Teacher Turnover by Geography and LEA Type……………………………….. 84 Unique Properties of Urban LEAs…………………………………………... 85 Unique Properties of Rural LEAs…………………………………………… 86 Unique Properties of Suburban LEAs………………………………………..87 3. DATA & METHODS…………………………………………………………….... 88 Overview of Data & Variables…………………………………………………….. 88 Data Acquisition………………………………………………………………… 89 Data Collection Procedures………………………………………………… 89 Significance of the Observation Period……………………………………... 89 Data Preparation………………………………………………………………….90 Working with Population Data……………………………………………… 91 Data Restructuring Procedures……………………………………………... 91 Missing Data Analysis………………………………………………………. 92 Summary of Variables…………………………………………………………... 95 Defining Dependent and Independent Variables……………………………. 95 Recalculating Continuous Variables of Interest…………………………….. 98 Modeling Theory: Survival Analyses……………………………………………... 99 Understanding the Concept of Hazard……………………………...………….. 100 Overview of Cox Proportional Hazard Models………………………………... 101 Satisfying the Proportional Hazards Assumption………………………….. 102 The General Estimation Equation Approach………………………………. 103 Data Analytic Plan……………………………………………………………..…. 107 Accommodating Discrete Time Points into Cox Models……………………… 107 Building the Model Structure…………………………………………………...109 Coding Technique in R……………………………………………………...109 Excluded Cases…………………………………………………………….. 111 viii 4. RESULTS…………………………………………………………………………. 113 Descriptive Results…………………………………………..……………………. 114 Overview of LEAs……………………………………………………………... 114 Demographic Trends………………………………………………………. 114 Financial Trends……………………………………………………………
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