The Far East in Early Modern Globalization: China and the Mongols in Donne and Milton by Mingjun Lu A thesis submitted in conformity with the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in English Language and Literature Department of English University of Toronto ©Copyright by Mingjun Lu 2012 The Far East in Early Modern Globalization: China and the Mongols in Donne and Milton Mingjun Lu Doctor of Philosophy in English Language and Literature Department of English University of Toronto 2012 Abstract Using both modern and early modern globalization theory, I explore an increasingly troubled awareness of Far Eastern culture as it is revealed in English Renaissance literature. The “China” of each generation tended to serve for western Europe a distinct set of discursive functions and rhetorical purposes. I study how China served as a cultural stimulus that compelled early modern Europeans to rethink their economic, theological, and political assumptions. I argue that in representing the images of China and the Far East transmitted by travelers and Jesuit missionaries in their works, images that caused considerable controversies in the early modern intellectual sphere, both Donne and Milton demonstrate an increasingly global consciousness, or what I call “global cosmopolitanism,” that responds with unexpected generosity to cultural and religious differences. Donne and Milton’s global cosmopolitanism is chiefly manifested in their ii attempts to grapple with the implications —economic, political, and theological—of China’s reemergence in the world stage. Specifically, I study how Donne’s image of the “Anyan” strait in his “Hymne to God, my God” captures his awareness of the geographical discovery and cartographical mapping of the Pacific region and how he responds theologically to this global consciousness. I also explore how Donne’s depiction of Spanish “pistolets” in his elegy “The Bracelet” signals a perception of the early modern global commerce of gold and silver dominated by Ming China. Donne and Milton’s cosmopolitan reaction to Chinese culture registers in their willingness to engage the challenge posed by eastern antiquity to the authority of biblical chronology. Far Eastern imperialism as is represented by the Mongol Empire, I claim, constitutes a major inspiration behind Milton’s representation of empire in Paradise Lost. Unpacking richly layered allusions in Donne and Milton’s works at once reveals the commercial, cultural, and political messages they encode and illustrates the interpretive strategies used by Renaissance imaginative writers to decipher the Far East. Donne and Milton’s responses are exemplary because the issues their works raised reflect the larger concern in the early modern encounter with a highly civilized “other” that boasted an antique history, an advanced ethical system, and a powerful monarchial empire. iii Acknowledgements This dissertation was made possible through the wise supervision of my supervisory committee. I alone am responsible for any remaining defects and infelicities. When I first started the graduate program in the department of English in the University of Toronto, I had only a superficial knowledge of western culture because I viewed the world through my Sinocentric lens. My enlightenment and achievement came chiefly from the generous help of the various people and sources I seek to acknowledge here. Just as the west discovered the Far East in the Renaissance, my supervisor, Prof. Elizabeth D. Harvey discovered me. With a remarkable cosmopolitan spirit, Elizabeth embraces the cultural diversity epitomized in me. Elizabeth supported the current project when I first started it: she believed in its feasibility and worth, even when I myself was at loss. Without Elizabeth’s ardent passion, genuine interest, and unyielding faith in the project, I could not have brought it to completion. All along the way, Elizabeth has remained the lighthouse she always is—an infinite source of inspiration that encourages me to scale new heights. Elizabeth is not merely a dream-inspirer: my intellect sharpened and my English became polished under her magical touch. No words, whether in English or Chinese dictionaries, could fully express the profound gratitude I owe to Elizabeth. It is a 知遇之恩 that transcends any mundane expressions. My deepest gratitude goes with no less intensity to my co-supervisor Prof. Mary Nyquist. Like Milton’s Muse Urania, Mary has guided me from imaginative heights down to the solidity of the ground. A strict, highly demanding, and ever inspiring mentor, Mary trained me in the very art of the discipline. Under her step-by-step guidance, I feel my footing steadying and my intellectual muscles flexing. It is Mary’s liberal cosmopolitanism that has inspired me to shed Sinocentric lens and put on cosmopolitan spectacles in order to view cultural diversities. To use the Chinese saying, Mary is my 师 父 to whom I owe a lifelong debt. If Elizabeth has led me into a new world and Mary trained me in the art of the trade, my committee member Prof. David Galbraith taught me how to explore the new terrains. The materials and sources David recommended to me have not only helped shape the contour of my research but also infinitely broadened my visions. David directed me through the entangled jungle of exegetical literature and discovery stories. David did me a special favor by offering to proofread my manuscript before the final submission. I’m deeply indebted to David for his generous and sustaining support. My special thanks are also reserved for my graduate instructor Prof. Lynne Magnusson. Lynne’s was the first course I took in Canada. It was her recognition of my humble gifts that set the stage for my academic life. I firmly believe that women’s solidarity can nourish the finest things in the world. Without the three remarkable western women, that is, Elizabeth, Mary, and Lynne, the intellectual life of this woman coming from the east could not have been as meaningful. My highest respect for these three贵人in my life! In addition to the amazing professors in the Department of English, my project has also benefited tremendously from other sources. I’m especially grateful to Prof. Anthony Grafton at Princeton University for his helpful instruction on my knowledge of Joseph Scaliger’s chronology. My chapter on the resonance of global gold and silver flow in iv Donne’s works has profited from the anonymous readers’ reports from Comitatus. The chapter on Donne and Chinese chronology has improved much after incorporating the comments from the reader for John Donne Journal. My sincere thanks also go to Esther de Bruijn, a great friend who spared her limited free time to proofread the chapters amidst the intense writing of her own dissertation. I’m deeply moved by this extraordinary kindness from Esther. I should also acknowledge here my intellectual debts to all the members of SSHRC’s (Social Sciences and Humanities Research Committee) Programs and Quality Committee (Sept 2008-Sept 2011). My participation in this cutting-edge committee in Canadian academic and cultural sphere, as well as my engaging conversations with those highly inspirational members, especially Chad Gaffield, Gisèle Yasmeen, and Carmen Charette, has opened up a new dimension in my work. My acknowledgements include, of course, the invaluable input from my defense committee. The examiners raised such sharp and pertinent questions that the contemplation of these issues has greatly improved the dissertation. My warmest thanks go to my external examiner Prof. David Porter from the Michigan University. Porter has not only given me a highly knowledgeable and affirmative appraisal but also suggested crucial moves for the theoretical framework of the dissertation. Porter’s expert comments and suggestions are 画龙点睛 masterstrokes, and my work has risen to a higher level after incorporating them. I also gratefully acknowledge here the various scholarships that contributed substantially to the completion of my dissertation: an Ontario Graduate Scholarship (OGS)—a named Thomas and Beverley Simpson / OGS at the Faculty of Arts and Science; a Folger Shakespeare Institute Grant; a SGS travel grant; and fellowships from the University of Toronto. My project has profited hugely from the two prestigious scholarships from SSHRC—a Canada Graduate Scholarship (CGS) and the SSHRC William E. Taylor Fellowship for the most outstanding doctoral award recipient for the year 2006. These two generous scholarships have not only showed great recognition of my work but also helped me through the most difficult time in my family, allowing me to concentrate on the research without financial concerns. Last but the most important, I owe all my achievements to my husband Rongzhou, whose constant support and sacrificial spirit have been an infinite source of solace and strength. Rongzhou is the pillar that buttresses the roof under whose protection I read and wrote without worries. My two sons, Tianhao and Tianqi, have always been an inspiration and motivation. My heartfelt gratitude also goes to my parents and parents-in- law, whose selfless care of Tianhao and Tianqi has spared me the necessary time to devote to my work. I must say that since I was a Chinese and came to Canada only in my thirties, in supporting me, these various sources and resources have helped nourish an east-west communication no less intense and significant than that in the Renaissance I have traced in the dissertation. So my work on early modern universalism and global cosmopolitanism is also a tribute to the universal vision and cosmopolitan spirit of the patrons and guardians of this project, an acknowledgement of their contribution, albeit in an indirect way, to the cultural dialogue between east and west in modern times. v vi Tables of Contents Abstract ……………………………………………………………………………….ii Acknowledgments…………………………………………………………………….iv Introduction: China and the Far East in Early Modern Globalization: A Universalism/Global Cosmopolitanism Approach…………………………………………………………….1 1. General Introduction 2. Western Discovery and Re-discovery of the Far East 3.