Federal Register / Vol. 75, No. 143 / Tuesday, July 27, 2010 / Rules and Regulations 43853

List of Subjects in 50 CFR Part 17 Code of Federal Regulations, as set forth ■ 2. Amend § 17.11(h) by adding a new below: entry for ‘‘Puffleg, black-breasted’’ in Endangered and threatened species, alphabetical order under , to the Exports, Imports, Reporting and List of Endangered and Threatened recordkeeping requirements, Wildlife, to read as follows: Transportation. PART 17—[AMENDED] ■ 1. The authority citation for part 17 § 17.11 Endangered and threatened wildlife. Regulation Promulgation continues to read as follows: ■ Accordingly, we amend part 17, Authority: 16 U.S.C. 1361-1407; 16 U.S.C. * * * * * subchapter B of chapter I, title 50 of the 1531-1544; 16 U.S.C. 4201-4245; Pub. L. 99- 625, 100 Stat. 3500; unless otherwise noted.

Species Vertebrate population where Historic range endangered Status When listed Critical Special rules Common name Scientific name or threatened

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BIRDS

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Puffleg, black- Eriocnemis Ecuador, Entire E 767 NA NA breasted nigrivestis South Amer- ica

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Dated: June 29, 2010 DATE: This final rule is effective August published promptly in the Federal Jeffrey L. Underwood, 26, 2010. Register. If we find that the petition has Acting Director, U.S. Fish and Wildlife ADDRESSES: The supporting file for this presented substantial information Service. rule is available for public inspection, indicating that the requested action may [FR Doc. 2010–18018 Filed 7–26–10; 8:45 am] by appointment, during normal business be warranted (a positive finding), BILLING CODE 4310–55–S hours, Monday through Friday, in Suite section 4(b)(3)(A) of the Act requires us 400, 4401 N. Fairfax Drive, Arlington, to commence a status review of the Virginia 22203. species if one has not already been DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR FOR FURTHER INFORMATION CONTACT: initiated under our internal candidate Janine Van Norman, Chief, Branch of assessment process. In addition, section Fish and Wildlife Service Foreign Species, Endangered Species 4(b)(3)(B) of the Act requires us to make Program, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, a finding within 12 months following 50 CFR Part 17 4401 N. Fairfax Drive, Room 420, receipt of the petition on whether the requested action is warranted, not [Docket No. FWS-R9-IA-2008-0108] Arlington, VA 22203; telephone 703- 358-2171; facsimile 703-358-1735. If you warranted, or warranted but precluded [90100-1660-1FLA B6] use a telecommunications device for the by higher-priority listing actions (this deaf (TDD), call the Federal Information finding is referred to as the ‘‘12–month RIN 1018-AW01 Relay Service (FIRS) at 800-877-8339. finding’’). Section 4(b)(3)(C) of the Act requires that a finding of warranted but SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION: Endangered and Threatened Wildlife precluded for petitioned species should and Plants; Final Rule to List the Background be treated as having been resubmitted Medium Tree-Finch ( In this final rule, we determine on the date of the warranted but pauper) as Endangered Throughout Its precluded finding, and is therefore Range endangered status for the medium tree- finch (Camarhynchus pauper) under the subject to a new finding within 1 year AGENCY: Fish and Wildlife Service, Act. and subsequently thereafter until we Interior. take action on a proposal to list or Previous Federal Actions withdraw our original finding. The ACTION: Final rule. Section 4(b)(3)(A) of the Act requires Service publishes an annual notice of SUMMARY: We, the U.S. Fish and us to make a finding (known as a ‘‘90– resubmitted petition findings (annual Wildlife Service (Service), determine day finding’’) on whether a petition to notice) for all foreign species for which endangered status for the medium tree- add, remove, or reclassify a species from listings were previously found to be finch (Camarhynchus pauper) under the the list of endangered or threatened warranted but precluded. Endangered Species Act of 1973, as species has presented substantial On May 6, 1991, we received a amended (Act). This species is native to information indicating that the petition (hereafter referred to as the Floreana Island, one of the Galapagos requested action may be warranted. To 1991 petition) from the International Islands in Ecuador. This rule the maximum extent practicable, the Council for Preservation (ICBP), to implements the protections of the Act finding shall be made within 90 days add 53 species of foreign birds to the list for this species. following receipt of the petition and of Threatened and Endangered Wildlife

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(50 CFR 17.11(h)), including the taxa for listing under the Act is information on the ’s medium tree-finch that is the subject of warranted. In order to comply with the nesting success between 2004 and 2008; this final rule. In response to the 1991 recent court-order, the medium tree- indicating that between 4 and 8 percent petition, we published a positive 90– finch was included as one of the 30 taxa of nests produced fledglings. day finding on December 16, 1991 (56 for which listing is warranted. Our Response: This information has FR 65207), for all 53 species, and been considered and incorporated into Summary of Comments and announced the initiation of a status the rulemaking as appropriate. review. On March 28, 1994 (59 FR Recommendations Comment 2: Three commenters 14496), we published a 12–month In the proposed rule published on supported the proposed listing. finding on the 1991 petition, along with December 8, 2008 (73 FR 74434), we Our Response: While general support a proposed rule to list 30 African birds requested that all interested parties of a listing is not, in itself, a substantive under the Act. In that document, we submit written comments on the comment that we take into proposed listing 15 of the 53 bird proposal by February 6, 2009. We consideration as part of our five-factor species included in the 1991 petition, received six comments. We received a analysis, we appreciate the support of and announced our finding that listing comment from the Center for Biological these commenters. Support is important the remaining 38 species from the 1991 Diversity supporting the proposed to the conservation of foreign species. petition, including the medium tree- listing. Three comments received were Comment 3: One commenter finch, was warranted but precluded from peer reviewers, and two other suggested that tourist visitation to the because of other listing activity. comments were received from the highlands (the preferred habitat On May 21, 2004 (69 FR 29354), and public that contained no substantive of the Medium Tree finch) increased April 23, 2007 (72 FR 20184), we information. We did not receive any more than tenfold since 2004, indicating published in the Federal Register requests for a public hearing. that there has been an increase in the notices announcing our annual petition During the comment period for the number of bus rides and highland tours. findings for foreign species. In those proposed rule, we received three Our Response: We acknowledge that notices, we made warranted but comments containing substantive tourism may be increasing on Floreana precluded findings for all outstanding information. No comments in Island; however, no supporting foreign species from the 1991 petition, opposition of the rule were received. All information was provided with the including the medium tree-finch which substantive information provided comment for corroboration. The United is the subject of this final rule. during the comment period has either Nations Educational, Scientific, and Per the Service’s listing priority been incorporated directly into this final Cultural Organization (UNESCO) 2007 guidelines (September 21, 1983; 48 FR determination or addressed below. report indicated that visitation has 43098), our 2007 annual notice of New clarifying information, grown in Galapagos from 40,000 in 1991 review (ANOR) (April 23, 2007; 72 FR particularly concerning the degree of to over 120,000 in 2006 (pp. 9-10). This 20184) identified the listing priority threat by the parasitic fly (Philornis is discussed in factor B, below. numbers (LPNs) (ranging from 1 to 12) downsi) and confirmation of the success Comment 4: One commenter provided for all outstanding foreign species, of the goat eradication program, was additional information on this species, including the medium tree-finch, which provided by one peer reviewer and has specifically three research papers — two was designated with an LPN of 11. The been incorporated into this finding. published in 2008 and the other in medium tree-finch does not represent a 2007— regarding the avian parasite monotypic . As reported in the Peer Review discussed in factor C below. 2007 ANOR, the magnitude of threat to In accordance with our peer review Our Response: The Service has the species was moderate as the species policy published on July 1, 1994 (59 FR reviewed the research, and the was common in the forested highlands 34270), we solicited expert opinion information has been considered and and its habitat had not been highly from four knowledgeable individuals incorporated into the rulemaking as degraded. The immediacy of threat was with scientific expertise that included appropriate. nonimminent because the species’ familiarity with the medium tree-finch habitat is protected by the area’s and its habitat, biological needs, and Summary of Changes from Proposed national park and World Heritage Site threats. We received responses from Rule status. three of the peer reviewers. A commenter pointed out a On January 23, 2008, the United We reviewed all comments received typographical mistake, which we have States District Court ordered the Service from the peer reviewers for substantive corrected. Santa Maroa Island was to propose listing rules for five foreign issues and clarifying information corrected to Santa Marı´a Island. We also bird species, actions which had been regarding the listing of the medium tree- updated the clutch size to clarify that it previously determined to be warranted finch. The peer reviewers generally is generally between two and three for but precluded: The Andean flamingo concurred with our methods and this species, rather than between two (Phoenicoparrus andinus), black- conclusions and provided additional and four, which was the size indicated breasted puffleg (Eriocnemis nigrivestis), clarifications and suggestions to in the proposed rule. Additionally, the Chilean woodstar (Eulidia yarrellii), improve the final rule. Peer reviewer medium tree-finch population estimate medium tree-finch (Camarhynchus comments are addressed in the and trend has been updated in this pauper), and the St. Lucia thrush following summary and incorporated document (see Species Information (Cichlherminia herminieri into this final rule as appropriate. below). sanctaeluciae). The court ordered the Service to issue proposed listing rules Public Comments Species Information for these species by the end of 2008. Comment 1: Three independent The medium tree-finch On July 29, 2008 (73 FR 44062), we specialists agreed that our description (Camarhynchus pauper) is endemic to published in the Federal Register a and analysis of the biology, habitat, Floreana Island in the Galapagos notice announcing our annual petition population trends were accurate and Islands, Ecuador (Harris 1982, p. 150; findings for foreign species. In that agreed generally with our conclusions. Sibley and Monroe 1990, p. 771; notice, we announced that proposing 30 One researcher provided recent BirdLife International (BLI) 2010). This

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species is one of the 14 species of comm.) and O’Connor et al. (2009, p. blankets the highlands) keeps the area Darwin’s finches, collectively named in 862), the population density of the well watered during the cool season recognition of Charles Darwin’s work on medium tree-finch is declining. (Jackson 1985, p. 61; Fitter et al. 2000, the theory of evolution (Grant 1986, p. O’Connor et al found (2008a) density of p. 137). Currently, 12 to 17 km2 (4.6 to 6). It is approximately 12.5 centimeters the species decreased from 154 birds/ 6.6 mi2) of Scalesia-dominated forest is (cm) (5 inches (in)) in length (Harris km2 (59 birds/mi2) in 2004 to 60 birds/ believed to remain (O’Conner et al. 1982, p. 150; BLI 2010). Medium tree- km2 (23 birds/mi2) in 2008. 2008; p. 8). finches have wings and tails that are In 1996, Stotz et al. considered the On Floreana, other common trees in short and rounded, and often hold their relative abundance of the species to be the Scalesia zone are the endemic trees tails slightly cocked in a wren-like ‘‘common’’ (1996, p. 262). BirdLife Croton scouleri (Gala´pagos croton) and manner (Jackson 1985, p. 188). Males International currently estimates the Zanthoxylum fagara (lime prickly-ash). have a black head, neck, and upper population to be between 1,000 and Dominant plant species include breast (Harris 1982, p. 150; Jackson 2,499 birds (2010, p. 1). In 2006, Fessl Phoradendron henslowii (mistletoe), the 1985, p. 188; Fitter et al. 2000, p. 78), et al. reported that there were about 300 shrub Macraea laricifolia, and and an underside that is gray-brown, breeding pairs remaining on Floreana introduced fruit species such as Citrus and white or yellowish in color (BLI (2006a, p. 745). In another study, limetta, Passiflora edulis, and Psidium 2010). Their tail and back are olive researchers compared bird abundance guajava (Christensen and Kleindorfer green (Fitter et al. 2000, p. 78). Females survey data from 2004 and 2008 in order 2008, p. 5). Beneath the top of the have a head that is more gray-brown to estimate the population density of the canopy, epiphytes (plants that live on (BLI 2010), and a body that is generally medium tree-finch in the highlands of another plant without causing harm to olive-green above and pale yellowish Floreana (O’Connor et al. 2008, 20 pp). the host plant) cover trunks, branches, below (Fitter et al. 2000, p. 78). It is Based on the results of their study, twigs, and even leaves of some plant similar to the large and small tree- O’Connor et al. (2008, p. 1) estimate that species (Wiggins and Porter 1971, p. 24; finches of the same genus, but differs the total medium tree-finch population Fitter et al. 2000, p. 137). Common from the large tree-finch (Camarhynchus in 2008 consisted of 860 to 1,220 epiphytes found in the Scalesia zone are 2 psittacula) primarily due to its individuals (an average of 72 birds/km mosses, liverworts, ferns, Peperomia, 2 significantly smaller and less parrot-like (28 birds/mi )) observed in their prime bromeliads (such as Tillandsia), and beak, and from the small tree-finch habitat. Their study also showed that orchids (Wiggins and Porter 1971, pp. (Camarhynchus parvulus) because of its the population density of the species 22, 24; Jackson 1985, p. 60; Fitter et al. 2 larger beak (Harris 1982, p. 150; BLI overall decreased from 154 birds/km 2000, p. 137). Epiphytes are a prominent 2 2 2010). It is also known as the Charles (59 birds/mi ) in 2004 to 60 birds/km feature of the moist zones of the 2 tree-finch, the Santa Marı´a tree-finch, (23 birds/mi ) in 2008 (pp. 6-7). Galapagos Islands because of the large amount of time that clouds and mist and the Floreana tree-finch (Sibley and Habitat and Life History cover the upper reaches of the higher Monroe 1990, p. 771). This is due to the Floreana, one of the 19 principal fact that the island of Floreana is also islands (Fitter et al. 2000, p. 137). islands that make up the Galapagos In 1996, researchers reported that the referred to as Charles Island or Santa archipelago (McEwen 1988, p. 234), is elevational zone in which the medium Marı´a Island, the official Spanish name 173 km2 (67 mi2) in area, and has a tree finch is most common is ‘‘Hill of the island (Harris 1973, p. 265; Grant maximum elevation of 640 meters (m) Tropical,’’ described as hills and lower 1986, Appendix). The species is locally (2,100 feet (ft)) (Swash and Still 2005, p. slopes in the altitude range of 500 – 900 known as ‘‘Pinzo´ n Mediano de a´ rbol’’ 10). m (1,640 – 2,953 ft) (Stotz et al. 1996, (Castro and Phillips 1996, p. 130). The medium tree-finch mainly occurs pp. 121, 262). The species reaches its The species was first taxonomically in the moist highland (i.e., the minimum elevation in relatively low- described by Ridgeway in 1890 (Sibley Scalesia zone, named for the dominant relief lowland areas and its maximum and Monroe 1990, p. 771). Sulloway tree species, Scalesia spp., found in this elevation at 600 m (1,969 ft) (Stotz et al. (2008a, pers. comm.) recently conducted zone) (Stewart 2006, p. 193; Kleindorfer 1996, p. 262). As a result, one can infer an analysis of the relative numbers of 2007, p. 796), primarily above 300 m from this data that the medium tree- tree-finch specimens in the California (984 ft) (Castro and Phillips 1996, p. finch is predominantly found at the Academy of Sciences’ collections, 130). The Scalesia zone begins at an highest end of its elevational compared with the frequencies found by altitude of 180 - 200 m (591 - 656 ft), distribution, between 500 and 600 m Dr. Sonia Kleindorfer between 2000 and and ends at approximately 600 m (1,968 (1,640 and 1,969 ft). 2006. Sulloway found that the ft) ((Wiggins and Porter 1971, p. 22; These researchers found that the population of the medium tree-finch did Stephenson 2000, p. 34). On Floreana, medium tree-finch forages at more than not significantly change for over a the medium tree-finch’s habitat is a lush one level within its habitat; specifically, century, during which time settlers and evergreen cloud forest dominated by they noted that it can be found foraging introduced and plants were Scalesia pedunculata (daisy tree), the from the understory (undergrowth) to present on Floreana (2008b, pers. largest of the 20 species of Scalesia the canopy (Stotz et al. 1996, pp. 120, comm.). Sulloway’s analysis indicates found in the Galapagos, (Jackson 1985, 262). Camarhynchus species were found that the medium tree-finch is much less p. 95; Fitter et al. 2000, p. 137). Scalesia to spend a little less than 25 percent of common today than it was prior to 1961 form dense stands with S. pedunculata their time foraging at the ground level, (Sulloway 2008a, pers. comm.). frequently reaching 15 m (49 ft) in while spending the majority of their Specifically, the chance of seeing a height, and 20 m (66 ft) or more given time foraging above ground (Bowman medium tree-finch today is good environmental conditions 1963, p. 132). The medium tree-finch approximately 25 percent less than it (Wiggins and Porter 1971, p. 22; Fitter uses its powerful tip-biting bill to search would have been more than 50 years et al. 2000, p. 137). A large amount of under twigs and foliage, probe crevices ago, as compared to the likelihood of the Scalesia zone has been destroyed on in the bark of trees, and cut into tough spotting a large or small tree-finch the inhabited islands. The zone is the woody tissues in search of insect larvae (Sulloway 2008a, pers. comm.). As best area for agriculture because the (Bowman 1963, pp. 117, 125), which is reported by Sulloway (2008a, pers. garu´ a (dense sea mist that sometimes its primary food source (Bowman 1963,

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p. 121). The species also feeds, to a already showing signs of serious continues to decline due to the factors lesser extent, on seeds (Bowman 1963, population decline (1996, p. 262). described below. p. 121), nectar, young buds, and leaves Summary of Factors Affecting the Agriculture and Ranching (Castro and Phillips 1996, p. 130). Species The medium tree-finch prefers to Birds, such as the medium tree-finch, forage and nest in the tree Scalesia Section 4 of the Act (16 U.S.C. 1533) are currently facing problems in the pedunculata (O’Connor et al. 2009, p. and its implementing regulations at 50 highlands of inhabited islands like 855). Its clutch size is generally between CFR 424, set forth the procedures for Floreana due to the extensive two and three (Fessl et al 2006a, p. 740, adding species to the Federal Lists of destruction and degradation of habitat Dudaniec et al. 2007, pp. 326-327; Endangered and Threatened Wildlife as a result of agriculture (Castro and O’Connor et al. 2009, p. 855). The nests and Plants. A species may be Phillips 1996, pp. 22-23; Fitter et al. of Darwin’s finches are similar in determined to be an endangered or 2000, p. 74; BLI 2010). On Floreana, the threatened species due to one or more highlands (or Scalesia zone) cover an construction from one species to 2 2 another: the male builds a dome-shaped of the five factors described in section area of approximately 21 km (8 mi ) nest, made from twigs, grass, pieces of 4(a)(1) of the Act. The five listing factors (O’Connor et al. 2008, pp. 2-3). Within are: (A) The present or threatened this highland forest, approximately 4 bark, lichens, feathers, and other 2 2 materials, with a small, round side destruction, modification, or km (1.5 mi ) has been cleared for entrance (Jackson 1985, p. 191). In a curtailment of its habitat or range; (B) agriculture (O’Connor et al. 2008, p. 8). overutilization for commercial, study of the nesting success of the small Agriculture is concentrated at higher recreational, scientific, or educational elevations because of the availability of tree-finch in the highlands of Santa Cruz purposes; (C) disease or predation; (D) richer soil and greater moisture Island in the Galapagos, Kleindorfer the inadequacy of existing regulatory (Schofield 1989, p. 233). The Scalesia (2007, p. 796) found that all nests were mechanisms; and (E) other natural or zone is the richest zone in terms of soil located 6 to 10 m (20 to 33 ft) above the manmade factors affecting its continued fertility and productivity (Jackson 1985, ground, on horizontal branches of existence. Below is an analysis of these p. 61), and therefore has been Scalesia pedunculata, and were five factors. extensively cleared for agricultural and positioned by interweaving surrounding cattle ranching purposes (Grant 1986, p. smaller twigs and leaves. A. The Present or Threatened Destruction, Modification, or 30; Harris 1982, p. 37; Jackson 1985, pp. Range and Distribution Curtailment of its Habitat or Range 61, 233). Stotz et al. (1996) found that the medium tree-finch forages in In 1982, Harris reported that the Floreana has the longest history of multiple strata, including the species was common in the highlands human habitation of any of the understory (p. 262). When the forest is on Floreana and uncommon to rare on Galapagos Islands (Schofield 1989, p. cleared, as is done with agriculture and the coast (p. 150). Although the current 229; Fitter et al. 2000, p. 207). It was ranching, the understory layer is range of the medium tree-finch is first settled in 1832, 3 years before destroyed which, can have a negative officially estimated to be 23 km2 (9 mi2) Darwin’s historic visit (Jackson 1985, p. effect on the species (Stotz et al. 1996, (BLI 2010), which encompasses the 3; Stewart 2006, pp. 55, 68). With p. 121). entire highland area of Floreana, the human settlement came changes to the medium tree-finch is restricted to habitat on Floreana, including clearing Introduced Species fragmented forest patches within the of native vegetation for agriculture and Introduced species are currently highlands. The actual available habitat ranching, as well as the introduction of considered a major threat to the native has been estimated to be approximately nonnative animals and plants (Grant et species of the Galapagos Islands 2 2 4 to 17 km (4.5 to 6.5 mi ) (O’Connor al. 2005, p. 501). (Causton et al. 2006, p. 121; Fitter et al. et al. (2008, p. 8; O’Connor et al. 2009, The medium tree-finch prefers to nest 2000, p. 218). Since the early 1800s, p. 856). and forage in the tree Scalesia humans have introduced animals and Conservation Status pedunculata (O’Connor et al. 2009, p. plants to the Galapagos Islands that 856). Currently, S. pedunculata only have threatened the native vegetation The medium tree-finch is identified as occurs in small patches in the highlands (Schofield 1989, pp. 227, 233). These a critically endangered species under of Floreana because much of the are further discussed below. Ecuadorian law, Decree No. 3,516– highlands have been cleared for Unified Text of the Secondary agriculture, destroyed by introduced Animals Legislation of the Ministry of mammals, and outcompeted by invasive When settlers arrived in the Environment (ECOLEX 2003b). As of plants (O’Connor et al. 2008, p. 2). Galapagos Islands, they brought with 2010, this poorly known species is Although the Galapagos National Park them domestic animals, some of which considered ‘‘Critically endangered’’ by covers 97 percent of the land in the escaped and started feral populations the International Union for Galapagos Islands, a disproportionate (Jackson 1985, p. 233). On Floreana, Conservation of Nature (IUCN). This is amount of the limited moist highlands introduced livestock animals include because it (1) has a very small range, (2) falls in the remaining 3 percent (Stewart goats (Capra hircus), donkeys (Equus is restricted to a single island, and (3) 2006, p. 105), meaning the majority of asinus), cattle (Bos taurus), and pigs recent information suggests that it is the medium tree-finch’s habitat is (Sus scrofa domesticus) (Christensen declining rapidly due to the parasite unprotected. A large amount of the and Kleindorfer 2008, pp. 383-391; . (BLI 2010, p. 1). highlands has been cleared or altered for Jackson 1985, p. 232). These animals In 1996, in a review of neotropical farming. Much of it has been further impact the island by significantly birds, Stotz et al. described the degraded or destroyed by the altering the habitat. Goats and donkeys conservation priority for the medium introduction of animals and plants damage vegetation by trampling and tree-finch as ‘‘high.’’ During this review, (Stewart 2006, p. 105). Currently, only grazing to the point where native plants they defined this species as 12 to 17 km2 (4.5 to 6.5 mi2) of habitat are not able to regenerate as easily as ‘‘threatened,’’ which generally equated for the medium tree-finch remains in before. Wild pigs dig up and eat plant to range or habitat restriction, and the highlands of Floreana, and it roots. (Schofield 1989, pp. 229-233;

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Grant et al. 2005, p. 501). This impact, species consisting of Scalesia plants (Hoeck 1984, as cited in in addition to predation of endemic pedunculata, Zanthoxylum fagara, and Schofield 1989, p. 232). species by introduced cats (Felis catus) Psidium galapageium, in addition to the Eradication Programs: Since the and introduced black rats (Rattus rattus) forest understory (Schofield 1989, p. Galapagos National Park and the Charles (discussed under Factor C), have been 229). On Floreana, Schofield reported Darwin Foundation were established in linked with the extinction of at least that approximately 77 percent of the 1959, efforts to control and eradicate four bird species on the island of plant species other than cacti were introduced animals have been ongoing Floreana: the large ground finch either reduced in number or completely (Galapagos Conservancy n.d.(a)). In (Geospiza magnirostris), the sharp eliminated by goats ((1989, p. 229). As 1965, the Charles Darwin Research beaked ground finch (Geospiza discussed in detail below, however, Station began the first eradication difficilis), the Floreana mockingbird eradication programs have significantly program to rid the Galapagos island of (Nesomimus trifasciatus) (Christensen reduced the goat population on Floreana Santa Fe´ of goats (Fitter et al. 2000, p. and Kleindorfer 2008, pp. 383-391; Island. Grant et al. 2005, p. 501; Harris 1982, 218). Ten years after the program began, Cattle: Cattle were introduced to the last goat was culled and now, the pp. 36-37; Sulloway 1982, pp. 68-69, 88- Floreana in 1832 (Hoeck 1984, as cited 89), and most recently the warbler finch vegetation on the island has recovered in Schofield 1989, p. 231). Initially, and native species are beginning to (Certhidea fusca) (Grant et al. 2005, p. cattle were kept at lower elevations, but 501). thrive once again (Fitter et al. 2000, p. with inadequate moisture available in 218). Over the years, many of these Introduced animals magnify the the lower zones, they were allowed to detrimental effects of clearing large control programs have been successful move into the highlands (Kastdalen in eradicating introduced animals from areas of native vegetation on Floreana 1982, p. 9). Cattle trample and heavily for agriculture and ranching (Grant some of the Galapagos Islands including graze native vegetation (Hamann 1981 ridding Santiago Island of 25,000 feral 1986, p. 30), by further degrading and and Van der Werff 1979, as cited in pigs (Smith 2005, p. 305), removing destroying the habitat (Grant et al. 2005, Schofield 1989, p. 231). When allowed goats from Espan˜ ola, Plaza Sur, Santa p. 501). The habitat of the medium tree- to roam freely through highland forests, Fe, Marchena and Ra´bida Islands (Smith finch continues to be altered by they essentially destroy the understory 2005, p. 305), and the very successful herbivore degradation caused by free- layer (Stotz et al. 1996, p. 121). On ‘‘Project Isabela,’’ which recently ranging domestic livestock (BLI 2010; Santa Cruz Island, cattle inhibited eliminated goats from Pinta, donkeys Jackson 1985, p. 110; Lawesson 1986, p. growth of Scalesia pedunculata and goats from northern Isabela, and 12). Lawesson (1986) reported that the (Kastdalen 1982, p. 8). Schofield (1989) donkeys, goats, and pigs from Santiago Scalesia forest on Floreana is under the reports that no organized effort has been Island (Galapagos Conservancy n.d.(b)). most immediate threat from introduced made to eliminate cattle, but restrictions animals (p. 13). by the Galapagos National Park Service As a result of the success of Project Goats: Of all the introduced animals encourage ranchers to fence in herds on Isabela, the Charles Darwin Foundation in the Galapagos Islands, goats are the Floreana (p. 232). However, cattle still is planning and implementing several most destructive (Fitter et al. 2000, p. projects in partnership with the 218; Schofield 1989, p. 227). Goats were stray into native vegetation to graze Galapagos National Park Service, probably introduced to the Galapagos (Schofield 1989, pp. 232, 234). including eradication of goats and Islands in the 19th century by whalers, Donkeys: In 1887, large numbers of donkeys from Floreana (Charles Darwin fisherman, and pirates, who were donkeys (Equus asinus) were seen Foundation n.d.(c)). In December 2006, looking for an alternative source of meat grazing on hillsides and at the summit the Galapagos National Park started a (Charles Darwin Research Station 2008a; on Floreana (Slevin 1959, as cited in Fitter et al. 2000, p. 218). They were Schofield 1989, p. 232). By 1932, project with the goal of restoring the also brought to the islands by settlers as donkeys had already tramped out ecology of Floreana (Galapagos livestock (Charles Darwin Research regular paths through the vegetation on Conservation Trust News 2007). The Station 2008a). Goats are able to adapt Floreana (Wittmer 1961, as cited in first phase of ‘‘Project Floreana’’ was to to varying conditions extremely well Schofield 1989, p. 232). On Santa Cruz, eradicate some of the introduced and therefore they thrive at all Kastdalen (1982) noted that they animals, such as goats and donkeys, in elevations in the Galapagos Islands followed cattle into the humid order to stop the continuing degradation (Schofield 1989, p. 229), from the arid highlands (p. 9). Studies have shown of the vegetation of the island and allow lowlands to the moist highlands (Fitter that donkeys on Floreana have depleted some of the native and endemic plant et al. 2000, p. 218). They have a rapid some populations of Scalesia spp. and species to recover (Galapagos reproductive rate, which has allowed Alternanthera nesiotes, another Conservation Trust News 2007). From their population to flourish at the endemic plant (Eliasson 1982, p. 10). As the experience gained during Project expense of native animals and discussed in detail below, however, Isabela, the program was able to vegetation (Jackson 1985, pp. 232-233). eradication programs have significantly eradicate 98 percent of the donkeys and Goats destroy native vegetation by reduced the donkey population on goats on Floreana in 22 days (Galapagos eating plants down to the ground (Smith Floreana Island. Conservation Trust News 2007). Due to 2005, p. 304), converting forests into Pigs: Pigs (Sus scrofa) have lived in the removal of these invasive species, it barren grasslands and causing erosion the Galapagos Islands for over 150 years is expected that within the next few (Charles Darwin Research Station (Schofield 1989, p. 232). In 1835, years the benefits to the ecosystem on 2008a). Because goats are able to eat a Darwin remarked upon the many wild Floreana will be seen (Galapagos variety of vegetation, they have quickly pigs he observed in the forests on Conservation Trust News 2007). This eaten their way across an island (Smith Floreana (Schofield 1989, p. 232). Pigs will result in an increase in native flora 2005, p. 304). A study of goats on live primarily at higher elevations, and fauna, and the repopulation of Santiago Island in the Galapagos where abundant forage is available year- native flora and fauna in areas showed that at higher elevations, round (Schofield 1989, p. 232). Pigs previously destroyed on Floreana by browsing by goats had eliminated young destroy native vegetation (Jackson 1985, herbivore degradation (Galapagos trees of the dominant forest overstory p. 233) directly by digging up and eating Conservation Trust News 2007).

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Plants p. 233). Once guava becomes to eliminate goats and donkeys from On Floreana, small populations of established in an open habitat, it grows Floreana, we are not aware of any Scalesia forest still exist in the quickly and shades seedlings of native current programs to remove cattle and highlands, but these areas are under species like Scalesia pedunculata, thus pigs from the island. As a result, these pressure and competition from preventing their growth (Parque species will continue to destroy and agriculture and the aggressive Psidium Nacional Gala´pagos n.d.(a); Perry 1974, degrade the habitat of the species. guajava (guava) and Lantana camara p. 12). Therefore, we find that the medium (Lawesson 1986, p. 13). Introduced One obvious step to take in order to tree-finch is at significant risk by the plants outcompete native vegetation, minimize the further spread of guava is of the moist taking sun, water, and nutrients from to fence cattle (De Vries and Black, p. highland forests of Floreana, as a result 19; Tuoc 1983, p. 25). Although some native species (Smith 2005, p. 304). of agriculture and introduced species. residents have already done this, herds Agriculture is concentrated at higher of free-ranging cattle are unable to be B. Overutilization for Commercial, elevations because of the rich soil and restricted in this manner (Schofield Recreational, Scientific, or Educational moisture available in these areas. As a 1989, pp. 233-234). In 1971, a campaign Purposes result, escapes by introduced was started to cut down guava trees on agricultural plants are more frequently We are not aware of any scientific or Santa Cruz Island (Schofield 1989, p. found in the humid highland forests commercial information that indicates 234). One report indicated that over (Schofield 1989, p. 233). Schofield that overutilization of the medium tree- 95,000 guava trees had been eliminated found that accidental escape of finch for commercial, recreational, between 1980 and 1981 (Tuoc 1983, p. introduced plant species, as well as the scientific, or educational purposes poses 25). Schofield suggested that this a threat to this species. There is no purposeful introduction of these program should be expanded to other species, has altered the highland habitat known use by collectors or hunters of islands with large populations of guava this species. A comment received on the where tree-finches occur (1989, pp. 233- ((1989, p. 234). 235). Christensen and Kleindorfer found proposed rule suggested that tourist Other Plant Species: Floreana is also visitation to the Scalesia highlands (the that the medium tree-finch frequently impacted by other introduced plant forages on introduced fruit species preferred habitat of the Medium Tree species. Lantana camara was finch) increased more than tenfold since (2008, pp. 383-391). This observation introduced as an ornamental on may suggest that the species is able to 2004. The commenter indicated that Floreana in 1832, and now covers 3,000 there has been an increase in the adapt to and potentially benefit from ha (7,413 ac) (Parque Nacional this change in its environment number of bus rides and highland tours. Gala´pagos n.d.(a)). A quickly spreading However, no corroborating data was (Christensen and Kleindorfer 2008, pp. tropical shrub, that displaces native 383-391). These researchers did not provided with the comment. A UNESCO vegetation, it is now found on Floreana 2007 report on the Galapagos Islands observe any species of tree-finch, from the arid region up to the Scalesia including the medium tree-finch, did indicate that visitation has grown in forest (Hamann 1984, as cited in Galapagos from 40,000 in 1991 to over nesting in an introduced plant species Schofield 1989, p. 234). Citrus trees (Christensen and Kleindorfer 2008, pp. 120,000 in 2006 (pp. 9-10). This (Citrus spp.) have been reported as included all Galapagos islands, and the 383-391). However, a further study by ‘‘common’’ (Eliasson 1982, p. 11) and O’Connor et al. (2008, p. 17) found that increase mentioned an increase in have invaded the native vegetation at tourist boats. There was no specific the majority (99 percent) of nests built higher elevations on Floreana (Eliasson by medium tree-finches were mention of Floreana Island. According 1982, p. 11; Porter 1973, p. 276). Cattle to this report, tourism is being constructed in native species, Scalesia and pigs aide in the further spread of pedunculata (83 percent), Zanthoxylum monitored at many levels in Ecuador. citrus trees (Citrus spp.) by feeding on The unintended negative effects are fagara (14 percent), and Croton scouleri the fruits and dispersing seeds in new (2 percent), with 1 percent of the nests recognized and are being addressed locations (Wittmer 1961, as cited in (UNESCO 2007, Annex 3, pp. 1-3). built in the introduced species, guava. Schofield 1989, p. 234). Guava: The cultivated guava, with its Although tourism may be increasing on edible fruits, is the most widespread Summary of Factor A Floreana Island, a review of the best introduced plant species in the The medium tree-finch is found available information does not indicate Galapagos Islands (Schofield 1989, p. primarily in the moist highland forests that tourism is a threat to this species. 233). Guava has been characterized as (i.e., the Scalesia zone) on the island of As a result, we are not considering out of control and invading vast areas of Floreana. Since the island was first overutilization a contributing factor to native vegetation in the humid settled in 1832, the habitat of the the continued existence of the medium highlands on Floreana (Eckhardt 1972, medium tree-finch has been cleared for tree-finch. p. 585; Eliasson 1982, p. 11; Tuoc 1983, agriculture and ranching, and further C. Disease or Predation p. 25). It is an aggressive introduced degraded by introduced animals and plant that covers 8,000 ha (19,768 ac) on plants. Herbivores, such as goats, Disease Floreana (Parque Nacional Gala´pagos donkeys, cattle, and pigs, destroy the The discovery of an introduced n.d(a)). The dispersal of guava is aided species’ habitat by trampling and parasitic fly (Philornis downsi) on by introduced cattle, which eat the grazing heavily on native vegetation, Floreana Island has raised significant fruits and then wander from the farm including Scalesia pedunculata, the tree concerns about the impact this parasite into the National Park and excrete the primarily used by the medium tree- is having on the medium tree-finch seeds in their dung (De Vries and Black finch for nesting and foraging. In (Fessl et al. 2006b, p. 59; Wiedenfeld et 1983, p. 19; Tuoc 1983, p. 25). In addition, cattle and pigs help to spread al. 2007, p. 17; Dudaniec et al. 2008; addition, as cattle graze, they trample introduced plants, such as guava and O’Connor et al. 2009, p. 853). This other vegetation, providing the open citrus trees, by feeding on the fruits and parasite was recently added to the spaces and abundant light needed for depositing the seeds into native IUCN’s Global Invasive Species the germination of guava seeds (Van der vegetation. Although an eradication Database (O’Connor et al. pp 864-865). Werff 1979, as cited in Schofield 1989, program was started in December 2006 In March 1997, Fessl, Couri, and

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Tebbich first observed the presence of P. as adult flies (Dudaniec and Kleindorfer juvenile survival (Magrath 1991, pp. downsi in the nests of Darwin’s finches 2006, p. 16; Fessl et al. 2006b, p. 56). 343-344; Tinbergen and Boerlijist 1990, on the Galapagos Islands (Fessl and P. downsi occurs in finch nests on pp. 1123-1124). As a result, Fessl et al. Tebbich 2002, p. 445). Since then, Floreana (Wiedenfeld et al. 2007, p. 17), (2006b, p. 59) concluded that the results researchers have found that P. downsi and has been shown to significantly of their study showed that given the may cause up to 100 percent mortality lower fledgling success of the finches significant difference in body mass to exposed nestlings (Dudaniec and (Fessl and Tebbich 2002, pp. 448-450). between the two groups, parasitized Kleindorfer 2006, p. 17). This parasite is A number of studies have associated nests will likely provide less believed to be the most significant threat Philornis spp. parasitism with mortality recruitment into the breeding to the medium tree-finch (Causton et al., (Fessl and Tebbich 2002, p. 448), and population. Further, because species 2006; p. 125; O’Connor et al. 2009, p. reductions in nestling growth and with small broods have been found to 853). development (Fessl et al. 2006b, p. 58), suffer higher parasite loads and higher P. downsi was sampled by the and a reduction in hemoglobin levels nestling mortality (Fessl and Tebbich entomologists S.B. and J. Peck and B.J. (Dudaniec et al. 2006, p. 88). In Causton 2002, pp. 445, 449-450), infestation of P. Sinclair in 1989, although the fly was et al.’s proposed ranking system, P. downsi on species with naturally low not formally identified until the downsi was given the highest clutch sizes, such as the medium tree- collections were examined in detail in invasiveness ranking affecting fauna finch, is of particular concern (Fessl et 1998 (Fessl et al. 2001, p. 318; Fessl and endemic to the Galapagos Islands, al. 2006b, p. 59). Tebbich 2002, p. 445). However, it now because this insect seriously impacts Dudaniec et al. found a significant appears that P. downsi was present in species of high conservation value in negative correlation between P. downsi the Galapagos Islands at least 40 years the Galapagos (Causton et al. 2006, pp. parasite intensity and hemoglobin ago. It was recently identified from 123, 134). The ranking system was concentrations (2006, pp. 88, 90, 92). collections made on Santa Cruz Island based on species’ trophic functional She also found a positive correlation in 1964 (Causton et al. 2006, pp. 134, role, distribution in Galapagos, and between parasite intensity and 143). We are not aware of any history of invasiveness in areas other immature red blood cell counts in small information indicating when P. downsi than the Galapagos Islands. ground finches studied on Santa Cruz In 2002, 97 percent of finch nests may have been introduced to the island and Floreana Islands. Small ground were infected with the P. downsi of Floreana. finch nestlings with higher P. downsi parasite on Santa Cruz Island, both in densities suffered from lower P. downsi is a fly (Muscidae) from a the lower arid zone and the higher hemoglobin concentrations and reduced genus of obligate bird parasites (Couri Scalesia zone of the island (Fessl and fledging success (Dudaniec et al. 2006, 1985, as cited in Fessl and Tebbich Tebbich 2002, p. 449). Parasitism by P. p. 92). Furthermore, nestlings with 2002, p. 445; Fessl et al. 2001, p. 317), downsi caused complete brood loss in lower parasite intensity had higher and depends on a host for its survival. approximately 19 percent of the infected hemoglobin levels and increased The adult fly is free-living, non- finch nests and partial brood loss fledging success (Dudaniec et al. 2006, parasitic, and feeds on fruits, flowers, (defined as the loss of one or two p. 93). The same researchers also found and decaying material (Fessl et al. 2001, nestlings) in an additional 8 percent of a negative correlation between the p. 317; Fessl et al. 2006b, p. 56). Larvae the finch nests studied (Fessl and number of immature red blood cells and of P. downsi belong to the group of Tebbich 2002, p. 448). They also found hemoglobin levels in nestlings (2006, p. external blood feeders – first, second, that in parasitized nests, the percentage 92). The fitness impacts to nestlings of and third instar (developmental stage) of successful fledglings differed lower hemoglobin levels are significant larvae are haematophages which suck significantly depending upon brood (Dudaniec et al. 2006, p. 93). Other blood from nestlings at night and then size: Nests with only one nestling researchers found that 6 of 63 monitored retreat to the bottom of the nest during always failed, nests with two nestlings nests produced fledglings (O’Connor et the day (Dodge and Aitken 1968 and successfully fledged nestlings 50 al. 2008, p. 1). The results of another Skidmore 1985, as cited in Fessl et al. percent of the time, and nests with three study showed that low hemoglobin 2006b, p. 56). Adult flies lay eggs inside or four nestlings successfully fledged levels in nestlings reduce the transport the nasal cavities of newly hatched nestlings 75-85 percent of the time of oxygen to tissues (O’Brien et al. 2001, nestlings (usually one to three days old). (Fessl and Tebbich 2002, p. 448). p. 75). These fly eggs then hatch into first In 2006, nesting success in the Thus, fledglings that are anemic instar larvae (Fessl et al. 2006a, p. 744; medium tree-finch was examined for the (hemoglobin deficient) from parasite Muth 2007, as cited in Dudaniec at al. first time (Fessl et al. 2006a, p. 746). In feeding may have a reduced ability to 2008). As the larvae reach their second an experimental study conducted on sustain flight and consequently a instar stage, they exit the nasal cavities Santa Cruz Island, researchers found reduced ability to escape predators and of nestlings and begin to live as nest- that high mortality of nestlings was find food (O’Brien et al. 2001, p. 75). dwelling haematophagous larvae (Fessl directly attributable to parasitism by P. The high hemoglobin levels found by et al. 2006a, p. 744). Second and third downsi, as evidenced by a near threefold Dudaniec et al. in mature birds, instar larvae of P. downsi seem to be increase in fledgling success in a combined with their observation that exclusively external (Fessl et al. 2006b, parasite-reduced group (87 percent) adult finches were never found to be p. 59), feeding on the blood and tissues versus a parasite-infested control group actively parasitized, suggests that adult of nestlings (Dudaniec and Kleindorfer (34 percent) (pp. 58-59). They also birds are not physiologically affected by 2006, pp. 15-16). The majority of larvae found that within four days, mass gain P. downsi (2006, p. 92). Fessl et al. reach their third instar stage at the time was significantly higher (an almost reported extremely high levels of blood of host fledging (Dudaniec at al. 2008, twofold positive difference) in the loss in nestlings (18 to 55 percent) p. 5). At this stage, the larvae of P. parasite-reduced group than in the caused by P. downsi larvae ((2006a, p. downsi detach from the nestling and parasite-infested control group (Fessl et 745). Daily blood loss over 10 percent is form their pupae at the bottom of the al. 2006b, p. 58). In studies of other likely to have negative impacts on nesting material, remaining for avian species, fledgling body mass has nestlings, including health problems approximately 2 weeks before emerging been found to be a key factor for and developmental deficiencies, while

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blood loss over 25 percent would Although it appears that the fly does biological control approaches for P. become lethal (Kaneko, pers. comm., as more poorly in dry conditions (either in downsi (Charles Darwin Foundation cited in Gold and Dahlsten 1983, p. the lowland, arid zone of islands, or n.d.(c)). In 2008, CDF received $58,000 569). during drought), birds similarly do more for Phase I of the CDF Priority Project Another study of tree-finches in the poorly in these situations (Wiedenfeld ‘‘Control of the parasitic fly P. downsi’’ highlands of Floreana showed that the et al. 2007, p. 18). In addition, during (Charles Darwin Foundation 2008b, medium tree-finch had the highest P. years of abundant rainfall when birds 2008c). This project studies the biology downsi parasite intensity (an average of breed more successfully, the flies are and life history of P. downsi, aiding in 52 parasites per nest), compared to the also likely to be more plentiful and the development of effective, long-term small and large tree-finches (O’Connor therefore, can cause higher mortality control methods that will not harm et al. 2009, pp. 853–866). Of 63 active (Wiedenfeld et al. 2007, p. 18). other species (Charles Darwin medium tree-finch nests, only 16 nests Researchers believe that finches do Foundation 2008b). CDF reports that had nestlings that survived to six days not suffer from any type of endemic control methods are urgently needed to post-hatching, and only 4 nests haematophagous ectoparasite (Fessl et eliminate the threat of extinction among produced fledglings (O’Connor et al. al. 2006b, p. 56). Therefore, medium bird species, such as the medium tree- 2009, pp. 853-866). Most nests failed to tree-finches have not developed an finch, affected by this parasite (Charles produce fledglings: Approximately 68.8 adaptive response to this kind of Darwin Foundation 2008b). A recent percent (11 of 16) of medium tree-finch introduced pathogen (Altizer et al. 2003, study reported that sterile insect nests suffered total brood loss, while pp. 593, 594). Because the medium tree- technique (SIT) may be effective in 18.8 percent (3 of 16) of nests had finch is newly parasitized by P. downsi, controlling this parasite (Dudaniec et partial brood loss (O’Connor et al. 2009, it may experience significant initial al., 2010, p. 582); however, it has not pp. 853-866). P. downsi larvae or pupae mortality since the host has not yet been fully tested. were found in 100 percent (16 of 16) of developed a strong behavioral or medium tree-finch nests, and all immunological defense mechanism Predation nestlings had P. downsi parasites against the parasite (Dudaniec and Floreana has a suite of introduced (O’Connor et al. 2009, pp. 853-866). The Kleindorfer 2006, pp. 18-19). predators including black rats (Rattus majority (54 percent) of nestling As many of the above studies show, rattus) and cats (Felis catus) (O’Connor mortality in medium tree-finches was finches have a slim chance of et al. 2009, pp. 864). These predators due to parasitism by P. downsi reproducing without avoiding effects of feed on eggs, nestlings, and even adult (O’Connor et al. 2009, pp. 853-866). All P. downsi mortality (Dudaniec and birds (Castro and Phillips 1996, p. 22), nestlings found dead in nests had large Kleindorfer 2006, p. 18; Wiedenfeld et and have seriously depleted native open wounds on their bodies and al. 2007, p. 18). Researchers suggest that populations (Grant et al. 2005, p. 501; significant loss of blood or body fluids, the decline and possible local extinction Jackson 1985, p. 232). all of which are signs of P. downsi of one of Darwin’s finches, the warbler Rats: Second only to the parasitic fly parasitism (O’Connor et al. 2009, pp. finch (Certhidea fusca), on Floreana by (Philornis downsi), black rats are one of 853-866). O’Connor et al. discuss the 2004 may have been partially caused by the worst introduced species to the reasons why the P. downsi parasite P. downsi although there is no Galapagos Islands. They destroy bird intensity is high in the medium tree- conclusive evidence (Grant et al. 2005 nests and eggs and consume hatchlings finch (2009, pp. 853-866). One possible p. 502; Fessl et al. 2006b, p. 59; (Charles Darwin Foundation 2008d; explanation is that the medium tree- Dudaniec and Kleindorfer 2006, p. 13). Charles Darwin Research Station finch’s preferred breeding habitat is next Although it is better to eliminate 2008b). Rats arrived in the Galapagos to an agricultural area, where the close invasive species before they are able to Islands on ships beginning in the late proximity of the agriculture fields (with genetically adapt to the local 1600s, and currently are found on all citrus trees and other fruits) act as a environment in which they have inhabited islands, including Floreana feeding location for the adult flies colonized (Frankham 2005, p. 385), (Charles Darwin Research Station (O’Connor et al. 2009, pp. 853-866). In early eradication often does not occur. 2008b). Because rats can easily climb, addition, moist highlands favor A long-term eradication program in they have been implicated in the consistent breeding of medium tree- conjunction with continuous quarantine population declines of tree nesting birds finches, thus providing flies with a and monitoring practices is needed to such as the dependable supply of nestlings for P. eradicate P. downsi (Dudaniec et al. (Camarhynchus heliobates) (Charles downsi larvae to feed upon (O’Connor et 2008). Darwin Research Station 2008b). The al. 2009, pp. 853-866). Currently, the Programs to eradicate P. downsi from CDF’s long term plan is to successfully medium tree-finch has the highest P. the Galapagos Islands are difficult and eradicate introduced rats on all islands, downsi parasite intensity of any finch costly (Fessl et al. 2006b, p. 59). Fessl a necessary measure in order to restore species on Floreana, and the second et al. (2006b, pp. 57-59) found that a the Galapagos Islands and its endemic highest of any finch species studied on single insecticide treatment of 1 percent species (Charles Darwin Research the Galapagos Islands (O’Connor et al. pyrethrin solution (done at a nestling Station 2008b). One of the next steps in 2009, pp. 853-866). age of 4 days) was sufficient to reduce accomplishing this goal is to develop A study by Wiedenfeld et al. (2007) the number of parasites per nest to the capacity to attempt a rat eradication found that there was a significant almost zero. This treatment offers one program on large islands such as increase in the number of P. downsi short-term solution to locally protect Floreana (Charles Darwin Research parasites (larvae, pupae, or puparia) per single nests of species of high Station 2008b). nest at higher altitudes (i.e., in the conservation concern (Fessl et al. 2006b, Cats: Cats are highly predatory humid highlands) (pp. 17-18). p. 59). However, this treatment is not animals, targeting birds and other native According to their study, the feasible as a long-term solution for species (Charles Darwin Foundation distribution of P. downsi seems to be controlling the fly on the Galapagos 2008b; Charles Darwin Research Station related to the amount of humidity and Islands. 2008c; Smith 2005, p. 304). Cats were moisture available on the islands The Charles Darwin Foundation introduced to the Galapagos Islands by (Wiedenfeld et al. 2007, p. 18). (CDF) has begun an effort to develop ships and as domestic pets of settlers

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(Charles Darwin Research Station downsi of any finch species studied in known to have ever been hunted. 2008c). Both feral and domestic cats the Galapagos Islands. Although a study Although this law does not reduce any prey upon and impact the survival of examining the biology of P. downsi and threats to the species, hunting is not a Darwin’s finches, and are a threat to how to control it began in 2008, a long- threat to the species, so it is not endemic species on Floreana (Charles term (and wide-spread) control method applicable. Darwin Research Station 2008c). In the for the parasitic fly has not yet been The first legislation to specifically 19th century, cats may have caused developed. As a result, the medium tree- protect the Galapagos Islands and its significant declines in the populations finch and its reproductive success will wildlife and plants was enacted in 1934 of large ground finches, sharp-beaked continue to be negatively impacted by P. and further supplemented in 1936, but ground finches, and mockingbirds, downsi. Therefore, we find that effective legislation was not passed until pushing them toward extinction on parasitism by P. downsi is a significant 1959, when the Ecuadorian government Floreana (Grant et al. 2005, p. 501). All threat to the continued existence of the passed new legislation declaring the three species mostly forage on the medium tree-finch. islands a National Park (Fitter et al. ground and are approachable (Grant et Introduced predators on Floreana, 2000, p. 216; Jackson 1985, pp. 7, 230; al. 2005, p. 501). However, the more such as black rats and cats, feed on eggs Stewart 2006, p. 164). Ecuador arboreal finches, such as the medium and nestlings, causing dramatic designated 97 percent of the Galapagos tree-finch, may be less vulnerable to reductions in native populations. One land area as the National Park, leaving predation by cats, unless their nests are study found that 33 percent of medium the remaining 3 percent distributed constructed unusually low in the tree-finch nests experienced nestling between the inhabited areas on Santa vegetation (Grant et al. 2005, p. 501). predation; and egg depredation was Cruz, San Cristo´bal, Isabela, and The Galapagos National Park Service observed in 22 percent of the nests. In Floreana Islands (Jackson 1985, p. 230; and the CDF are working to control and an effort to help restore endemic species Schofield 1989, p. 236). National park eradicate domestic and feral cats on all in the Galapagos Islands, one goal of protection, however, does not mean the of the islands (Charles Darwin Research CDF is to develop programs to eradicate area is maintained in a pristine Station 2008c). This plan includes introduced rats and cats on all islands. condition. The park land area is divided working with communities to gain However, we do not have information to into various zones signifying the level of acceptance and compliance with the indicate that the eradication program human use (Parque Nacional Gala´pagos sterilization or removal of domestic cats, has been completed on Floreana island. n.d(b)). Although Floreana Island and the development of an eradication Therefore, we find that predation is a includes a large ‘‘conservation and program to eliminate feral cats from threat to the continued existence of the restoration’’ zone, it also includes a natural areas on all populated islands, medium tree-finch. significantly sized ‘‘farming’’ zone (Parque Nacional Gala´pagos n.d.(b)), such as Floreana (Charles Darwin D. Inadequacy of Existing Regulatory where agricultural and grazing activities Research Station 2008c). Mechanisms A study of tree-finches in the continue to impact the habitat. highlands of Floreana found that one The medium tree-finch is identified as In March 1998, the National Congress third of medium tree-finch nests a critically endangered species under and the Ecuadorian President enacted experienced nestling predation in both Ecuadorian law and Decree No. 3,516– the Law of the Special Regimen for the 2006 and 2008. Egg depredation was Unified Text of the Secondary Conservation and Sustainable observed in 22 percent of the nests (but Legislation of the Ministry of Development of the Province of the only in 2008) (O’Connor et al. 2009, pp. Environment of 2002 (ECOLEX 2003b). Galapagos, which has given the islands 853-866). Predators such as rats feed on Decree No. 3,516 of 2002 summarizes some legislative support to establish agricultural products being grown in the the legislation governing environmental regulations related to the transport of agricultural areas. Because agricultural policy in Ecuador and provides that the introduced species and implement a areas are close to the breeding sites of country’s biodiversity be protected and quarantine and inspection system the medium tree-finch, these areas used primarily in a sustainable manner (Causton et al. 2000, p. 10; Instituto provide a base for the continued (ECOLEX 2003b). Appendix 1 of Decree Nacional Gala´pagos n.d.; Smith 2005, p. persistence and movement of No. 3,516 lists the Ecuadorian fauna and 304). As a result, in 1999, the Inspection introduced predators, mainly rodents, flora that are considered threatened or and Quarantine System for Galapagos into medium tree finch habitat in danger of extinction. Species are (SICGAL) was implemented (Causton et (O’Connor et al. 2009, pp. 853-866). categorized as critically endangered (En al. 2006, p. 121), with the aim of peligro crı´tico), endangered (En peligro), preventing introduced species from Summary of Factor C or vulnerable. Resolution No. 105– reaching the islands (Causton et al. As stated above, we believe, based on Regulatory control of hunting seasons 2000, p. 10; Charles Darwin Foundation an abundance of research, that Philornis and wildlife species in the country, and n.d.(d)). Inspectors are stationed at downsi, the introduced parasitic fly, is Agreement No. 143–Standards for the points of entry and exit in the Galapagos the most significant threat to the control of hunting seasons and licenses Islands and Continental Ecuador, where survival of the medium tree-finch for hunting of wildlife, regulate and they check freight and luggage for (Causton et al., 2006 as cited in prohibit commercial and sport hunting permitted and prohibited items (Charles O’Connor et al. 2009, p. 854). The larvae of all wild bird species except those Darwin Foundation n.d.(d)). The goal is feed on finch nestlings, causing specifically identified by the Ministry of to rapidly contain and eliminate newly mortality, reduced nestling growth, the Environment or otherwise permitted arrived species (detected by SICGAL lower fledgling success, and a reduction (ECOLEX 2000; ECOLEX 2003a). The and early warning monitoring programs) in hemoglobin levels, which all Ministry of the Environment does not that are considered threats for the combine to severely affect the permit commercial or sport hunting of Galapagos Islands (Causton et al. 2006, reproductive success of the species. The the medium tree-finch because of its p. 121). However, a scarcity of medium tree-finch has the highest P. status as a critically endangered species information on alien insect species downsi parasite intensity of all the finch (ECOLEX 2003b). However, we do not currently in the Galapagos Islands species found on Floreana, and the consider hunting (Factor B) to be a risk prevents officials from knowing whether second highest rate of parasitism by P. to the medium tree-finch since it is not or not a newly detected insect is in fact

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a recent introduction (Causton et al. outstanding universal value that needs 1,000 and 2,499 individuals and 2006, p. 121). Without the necessary to be protected and preserved’’ decreasing in size. Small, declining information to make this determination, (UNESCO World Heritage Centre populations are vulnerable to they cannot afford to spend the time and n.d.(b)). The aim of establishment as a demographic stochasticity. In basic resources on a rapid response when the WHS is conservation of the site for terms, demographic stochasticity is ‘‘new introduction’’ is actually a species future generations (UNESCO World defined by chance changes in the that already occurs elsewhere in the Heritage Centre 2008). However, in June population growth rate for the species Galapagos Islands (Causton et al. 2006, 2007, due to threats to this site posed by (Gilpin and Soule´ 1986, p. 27). p. 121). introduced invasive species, increasing Population growth rates are influenced The April 2007 World Heritage tourism, and immigration, the World by individual birth and death rates Centre-IUCN monitoring mission report Heritage Committee placed the (Gilpin and Soule´ 1986, p. 27), assessed the state of conservation in the Galapagos on the ‘‘List of World Heritage immigration and emigration rates, and Galapagos Islands. Based on information Sites in Danger.’’ Placement on this list changes in population sex ratios. gathered during their monitoring is intended to increase support for a Natural variation in survival and mission and multiple meetings, they site’s conservation (UNESCO World reproductive success of individuals and found continuing problems with Heritage Centre News 2007a). In March chance disequilibrium of sex ratios may regulatory mechanisms in the Galapagos 2008, the UNESCO World Heritage act in concert to contribute to Islands (UNESCO World Heritage Centre Centre/United Nations Foundation demographic stochasticity (Gilpin and 2007, pp. 9-10). The UNESCO World project for invasive species management Soule´ 1986, p. 27). Genetic stochasticity Heritage Centre indicated that there is a provided funding of 2.19 million U.S. is caused by changes in gene continuing lack of political will, dollars (USD) to the Ecuadorian frequencies due to genetic drift, and leadership, and authority and it is a National Environmental Fund’s diminished genetic diversity, and effects limiting factor in the full application ‘‘Galapagos Invasive Species’’ account to due to inbreeding (i.e., inbreeding and enforcement of the Special Law for support invasive species control and depression) (Lande 1995, p. 786). Galapagos. They also reported that there eradication activities on the islands Inbreeding can have individual or appears to be a general lack of effective (UNESCO World Heritage Centre News population-level consequences, either enforcement (UNESCO World Heritage 2008). In addition, the Ecuador by increasing the phenotypic expression Centre 2007, p. 9). government previously had contributed (the outward appearance, or observable The risk from invasive species is 1 million USD to this fund (UNESCO structure, function, or behavior of a rapidly increasing, while the World Heritage Centre News 2008), living organism) of recessive, Agricultural Health Service of Ecuador demonstrating the government of deleterious alleles or by reducing the (SESA) and SICGAL have inadequate Ecuador’s commitment to reducing the overall fitness of individuals in the staff and capacity to deal with the threat of invasive species to the islands. population (Shaffer 1981, p. 131; nature and scale of the problem Charlesworth and Charlesworth 1987, p. (UNESCO World Heritage Centre 2007, Summary of Factor D 231). Environmental stochasticity is p. 9). SICGAL estimates that 779 Ecuador has developed numerous defined as the susceptibility of small, invertebrates [interpreted as 779 laws and regulatory mechanisms to isolated populations of wildlife species individuals] entered the Galapagos manage wildlife in the Galapagos to natural levels of environmental Islands via aircraft in 2006 (UNESCO Islands. The medium tree-finch is listed variability and related ‘‘catastrophic’’ World Heritage Centre 2007, p. 9). In as critically endangered under events (e.g., severe storms, prolonged addition, the staff of the Galapagos Ecuadorian law. Ninety-seven percent of drought, extreme cold spells, wildfire) National Park lack the capacity and the land in the Galapagos Islands is facilities for effective law enforcement designated as the National Park. Some (Mangel and Tier 1994, p. 612; Young (UNESCO World Heritage Centre 2007, of this park land on Floreana is 1994, pp. 410-412; Dunham et al. 1999, pp. 9-10). identified as a ‘‘farming’’ zone, where p. 9). Previous UNESCO-IUCN Galapagos agricultural and grazing activities The population size is significant mission reports (in 2005 and 2006) to continue to threaten the habitat of the because critically small and declining the World Heritage Committee have species. Although tourism is a problem populations such as that of the medium consistently outlined major threats to generally throughout the Galapagos tree finch face higher extinction risk the long-term conservation of the Islands, it was not found to be a specific than large, stable populations. Galapagos Islands, including the threat to this species. Additional Therefore, this species may be more introduction of non-native plant and regulations have created an inspection vulnerable to extinction relative to other species, and the inability to and quarantine system in order to species with larger, more stable apply laws (UNESCO World Heritage prevent the introduction of nonnative population sizes facing similar threats. Centre News 2007b). UNESCO World species, but are not being effectively Small, declining populations of wildlife Heritage Centre reports that despite an enforced. Additionally, this program species may be susceptible to excellent legal framework, national does little to eradicate species already demographic and genetic problems government institutions encounter introduced to the Galapagos Islands. (Shaffer 1981, pp. 130-134). These threat difficulties in ensuring its full Therefore, we find that the existing factors, which may act in concert, application (UNESCO World Heritage regulatory mechanisms currently in include: Natural variation in survival Centre News 2007b). place are inadequate for the and reproductive success of individuals, The Galapagos Islands were declared conservation of this species. chance disequilibrium of sex ratios, a World Heritage Site (WHS) under the changes in gene frequencies due to auspices of the United Nations E. Other Natural or Manmade Factors genetic drift, diminished genetic Educational, Scientific and Cultural Affecting the Continued Existence of the diversity and associated effects due to Organization (UNESCO) in 1978 Species inbreeding (i.e., inbreeding depression), (UNESCO World Heritage Centre This species exists on a single island dispersal of just a few individuals, a few n.d.(a)), as they were recognized to be with decreasing available habitat. The clutch failures, a skewed sex ratio in ‘‘cultural and natural heritage of population is believed to be between recruited offspring over just one or a few

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years, and chance mortality of just a few Determination for the Medium Tree- mi2) of the highland forests on Floreana reproductive-age individuals. finch have been altered or cleared for Various past and ongoing human We have carefully assessed the best agricultural purposes. Although the activities and their secondary influences available scientific and commercial Galapagos National Park covers 97 continue to impact all of the remaining information regarding the past, present, percent of the land in the Galapagos suitable that may still harbor and potential future threats faced by the Islands, the remaining 3 percent the medium tree-finch (see Factor A). medium tree-finch. The species is includes a large portion of the moist We expect that any additional loss or currently at risk throughout all of its highlands on inhabited islands, such as degradation of habitats that are used by range, primarily due to the immediate Floreana, which allows farming to the medium tree-finch will have and ongoing threat of the introduced continue in this area today. Introduced disproportionately greater impacts on parasitic fly Philornis downsi. The animals, both domestic livestock and the species due to the population’s clearing of native vegetation for feral populations, have magnified the small and declining population size. agriculture, the destruction and negative effects of clearing large areas of native vegetation for agriculture and degradation of habitat caused by We expect that the medium tree- ranching. Herbivores destroy the introduced animals and plants (Factor finch’s increased vulnerability to species’ habitat on Floreana by A); disease and predation, particularly demographic stochasticity and trampling and grazing heavily on native by the parasitic fly (Factor C); inbreeding will be operative even in the vegetation, including Scalesia inadequate existing regulatory absence of any human-induced threats pedunculata, the tree primarily used by mechanisms (Factor D); and small or stochastic environmental events, the medium tree-finch for nesting and population size (Factor E) are threats to which only act to further exacerbate the foraging. Non-native fruit trees, easily this species. species’ vulnerability to local spread by cattle and pigs, grow quickly Philornis downsi is the most severe extirpations and eventual extinction. and shade native seedlings of this threat to the survival of the medium Demographic and genetic stochastic species’ preferred habitat of Scalesia tree-finch (Causton et al. 2006). As forces typically operate synergistically. pedunculata. Initial effects of one threat factor can shown in numerous studies (Fessl and Even though the Galapagos National later exacerbate the effects of other Tebich 2002, Dudaniec et al. 2006, Fessl Park Service encourages ranchers to threat factors (Gilpin and Soule´ 1986, et al. 2006b, O’Connor et al. 2009, and fence in their cattle on Floreana, cattle pp. 25-26). For example, any further Dudaniec et al 2010), the fitness costs of still stray into native vegetation to graze. decrease of the populations will, by P. downsi parasitism in finches is Other introduced species, such as black definition, result in the further removal severe, with high incidences of nestling rats and cats, predate on the eggs and of individuals, which will exacerbate mortality. This parasite causes lower nestlings of birds. One study (O’Connor the other threats. fledgling success, reduced nestling et al. 2009) found that 33 percent of growth, and a reduction in hemoglobin medium tree-finch nests experienced Small, declining populations such as levels (i.e. anemia) in nestlings. the medium tree-finch may also nestling predation, while egg Currently, the medium tree-finch has depredation was observed in 22 percent susceptible to natural levels of the highest P. downsi parasite intensity environmental variability and related of the nests. Because agricultural areas of all the finch species found on are close to the breeding sites of the ‘‘catastrophic’’ events (e.g., severe Floreana, and the second highest of any storms, prolonged drought, extreme cold medium tree-finch, non-native, finch species studied in the Galapagos introduced predators, mainly rats are spells, wildfire), which we will refer to Islands (O’Connor et al. 2009, pp. 853- as environmental stochasticity (Dunham able to easily access the habitat of the 866). These researchers also found P. medium tree-finch. Although an et al. 1999, p. 9; Mangel and Tier 1994, downsi in 100 percent of medium tree- p. 612; Young 1994, pp. 410-412). A eradication program has been developed finch nests, causing parasitism of all on Floreana to eliminate some of the single stochastic environmental event nestlings (2009, pp. 853-866). Their introduced species, such as donkeys can severely reduce existing wildlife study found that only 6.3 percent of and goats, we are not aware of current populations and, if the affected active medium tree-finch nests programs to remove other herbivores or population is already small and produced fledglings, with the majority introduced predators from Floreana. declining, it is likely that demographic (54 percent) of nestling mortality caused Even though the medium tree-finch is stochasticity or inbreeding may become by P. downsi parasitism. With severely listed as a critically endangered species operative, which would place the low reproductive success, the medium under Ecuadorian law and its range population in jeopardy (Gilpin and tree-finch is likely to provide very little includes the Galapagos National Park, Soule´ 1986, p. 27; Lande 1995, pp. 787- recruitment into the breeding existing regulatory mechanisms are 789). population. Since finches are not known inadequate to protect the habitat of the Summary of Factor E to suffer from a similar type of endemic species and have been ineffective in parasite, it appears that they have not controlling the primary threat to the The small and declining numbers that yet developed an adaptive response or medium tree-finch, which is parasitism make up the medium tree-finch’s defense mechanism against this kind of by Philornis downsi. population makes it susceptible to parasite. Therefore, a long-term control The Endangered Species Act defines natural environmental variability or method for P. downsi is needed in order an endangered species as ‘‘any species chance events. In addition to its to eliminate this threat to the species. which is in danger of extinction declining numbers, the high level of The medium tree-finch is found only throughout all or a significant portion of parasitism by P. downsi makes the on the island of Floreana; primarily in its range,’’ and a threatened species as species more susceptible to genetic and the moist highland forests (i.e. the ‘‘any species which is likely to become demographic stochasticity. Therefore, Scalesia zone) which currently covers an endangered species within the we find that demographic stochastic approximately 21 km2 (8 mi2). Because foreseeable future throughout all or a events are an additional threat to the of the significant amounts of moisture significant portion of its range.’’ Based continued existence of the medium tree- and fertile soil available in the on the immediate and ongoing finch. highlands, approximately 4 km2 (1.5 significant threat to the medium tree-

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finch throughout its entire range, as Interior determines to be necessary or Internet at http://www.regulations.gov described above, we determine that the useful for the conservation of or upon request from the Endangered medium tree-finch is in danger of endangered species in foreign countries. Species Program, U.S. Fish and Wildlife extinction throughout all of its range. Sections 8(b) and 8(c) of the Act Service (see the FOR FURTHER Therefore, on the basis of the best authorize the Secretary to encourage INFORMATION CONTACT section). available scientific and commercial conservation programs for foreign Author information, we have determined the endangered species and to provide species is in danger of extinction assistance for such programs in the form The primary author of this final rule throughout all of its range primarily due of personnel and the training of is staff of the Branch of Foreign Species, to ongoing threats to its habitat (Factor personnel. Endangered Species Program, U.S. Fish A), predation (Factor C), and We may issue permits to carry out and Wildlife Service, 4401 N. Fairfax inadequacy of regulatory mechanisms otherwise prohibited activities Drive, Arlington, VA 22203. (Factor D), and we determine involving endangered and threatened endangered status for the medium tree- wildlife species under certain List of Subjects in 50 CFR Part 17 finch. circumstances. Regulations governing Endangered and threatened species, Available Conservation Measures permits are codified at 50 CFR 17.22 for Exports, Imports, Reporting and endangered species, and at 17.32 for Conservation measures provided to recordkeeping requirements, threatened species. With regard to Transportation. species listed as endangered or endangered wildlife, a permit must be threatened under the Act include issued for the following purposes: For Regulation Promulgation recognition, recovery actions, scientific purposes, to enhance the requirements for Federal protection, and propagation or survival of the species, ■ Accordingly, we amend part 17, prohibitions against certain practices. and for incidental take in connection subchapter B of chapter I, title 50 of the Recognition through listing results in with otherwise lawful activities. Code of Federal Regulations, as set forth public awareness and encourages and below: results in conservation actions by Required Determinations Federal governments, private agencies National Environmental Policy Act PART 17—[AMENDED] and groups, and individuals. Section 7(a) of the Act, as amended, We have determined that ■ 1. The authority citation for part 17 and as implemented by regulations at 50 environmental assessments and continues to read as follows: CFR part 402, requires Federal agencies environmental impact statements, as defined under the authority of the Authority: 16 U.S.C. 1361-1407; 16 U.S.C. to evaluate their actions within the 1531-1544; 16 U.S.C. 4201-4245; Pub. L. 99- United States or on the high seas with National Environmental Policy Act of 625, 100 Stat. 3500; unless otherwise noted. respect to any species that is listed as 1969 (42 U.S.C. 4321 et seq.), need not endangered or threatened, and with be prepared in connection with ■ 2. Amend § 17.11(h) by adding a new respect to its critical habitat, if any is regulations under section 4(a) of the entry for ‘‘Tree-finch, medium’’ in being designated. However, given that Act. We published a notice outlining alphabetical order under ‘‘BIRDS’’ in the this species is not native to the United our reasons for this determination in the List of Endangered and Threatened States, no critical habitat is being Federal Register on October 25, 1983 Wildlife, as follows: proposed for designation with this rule. (48 FR 49244). Section 8(a) of the Act authorizes the § 17.11 Endangered and threatened provision of limited financial assistance References Cited wildlife. for the development and management of A complete list of all references cited * * * * * programs that the Secretary of the in this proposed rule is available on the (h) * * *

Species Vertebrate population Historic range where Status When listed Critical Special rules Common name Scientific endangered habitat name or threatened

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BIRDS

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Tree-finch, medium Ecuador Entire E 767 NA NA. Camarhynchus pauper (Galapagos Islands)

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* * * * * Dated: July 7, 2010 Wendi Weber, Acting Director, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. [FR Doc. 2010–18025 Filed 7–26–10; 8:45 am] BILLING CODE 4310–55–S

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