KERALA SOCIETY AND POLITY IN THE SECOND HALF OF NINTEENTH CENTURY Kerala is the tract of land between the Arabian Sea and the Western Ghats. At the time of Chattampi Swami it belonged to earlier princely states of Travancore, Cochin, the British District of Malabar and the South Canara. Kanyakumari District, which is presently in Tamil Nadu, also formed part of Travancore. From very ancient times travellers have been full of appreciation of Kerala. Nature has spent upon this land her richest bounties; the sun never fails by day, the rain falls in due season and an eternal summer gilds the scene; stated Lord Curzon in 1900. The people of Kerala had no social inequalities or caste system in the ancient period1. The people pursued their spiritual and material welfare for centuries with equal opportunities. But with the coming of Aryans situations changed. Customs and rules related to religion, family, caste etc as followed in the north were introduced in Kerala also. Gradually the social situation of the region started to deteriorate. The most important feature with which social reform movements in Kerala have concerned themselves is 'inequality' based on birth, which is common in India but cannot be found anywhere else in the world. Another is the superstitious practices connected to religion, which existed in some form or other everywhere. An overview of the society of Kerala in the nineteenth century with a historical perspective is essential to understand the work done by Chattampi Swami and his disciples who initiated reform in the last quarter of that century. Freedom and Equality The first five centuries of the Christian era known as Sangham age witnessed important social and cultural development in Kerala. The region was not a separate cultural or political entity. It shared with Tamils a cultural heritage that was common to the region, consisting of present Tamil Nadu and Kerala. The Sangham age, which coincided, with the Gupta age in the north was a period of organized society and settled government. The basic elements necessary for the flowering of a composite culture were present in Kerala society. The rigid caste division was absent. Society was organized on the basis of the principles of social freedom and equality. Dignity of labor received universal recognition. It was a period of economic prosperity. Agriculture was the chief occupation of the people. The land was fertile and it produced a variety of agricultural products including food grains and spices. Fine arts like music and dancing were promoted on a large scale by all sections of the people. Introduction of Caste Aryan immigration caused far-reaching effects in the social economic and political life of South India. Aryans started moving into the regions south of the Vindhyas about 1000 BC. These Brahmins moved to Kerala from third century B.C. along with the Jain and Buddhist monks. There was a large-scale intrusion of Aryan ideas and practices into the native society. Kadamba King, Mayuravarman (AD 345-379) invited large colonies of Brahmins and made them settle down in the Kerala and Tuluva regions. In the sixth, seventh and eighth centuries, South Indian rulers like the Chalukyas, the Pallavas and the Rashtrakutas speeded up the process of Aryanization. From the Malayalam work Keralolpathi, it can be observed that by the eighth century A.D. the Brahmins had established their social supremacy in Kerala. The region was dotted with Brahmin settlements or villages each of which had its own landed properties, tenants and exclusive privileges. The intellectual superiority, sense of solidarity, administrative skill and advanced techniques of cultivation and social organization enabled the immigrants before long to bring the ruling classes and the business community under their effective control. They also imposed the caste system modifying the Chaturvarnya with its hierarchy of castes so as to suit their own needs. Its impact in Kerala society continued for centuries. Entry of Religions The people of ancient Kerala followed Dravidian practices, which were not based on any particular religious philosophy. Jainism and Buddhism made their entry into Kerala by third century BC, Christianity and Judaism in the first century AD and Islam at the end of seventh century. Few minor kingdoms of Kerala like the Ays and the Mushikas patronized non-Vedic religions. It was in a society where Buddhism and Jainism had already made their presence felt that the Brahmins established the Hindu religion on a firm basis. By the eighth century A.D Hinduism got well established in the region. The rulers gave all facilities to the missionaries of the foreign religions for establishing their settlements or pockets of influence in different parts of Kerala, particularly the coastal towns. Their cooperation and assistance were considered invaluable for the commercial prosperity of the land. All these religions, co-existed in the land without any inter religious conflict or communal discord. Their mutual interaction in the course of centuries helped to set in motion a process of cultural synthesis and social assimilation and it later helped to mould the culture of the region on composite and cosmopolitan lines. The post Sangham period from AD 500 to 800 was a Dark Age in Kerala history as in the history of South India. At the beginning of the ninth century the Cheras had re-established themselves as the dominant power in Kerala. During the reign of Kulasekharas of Mahodayapuram (AD 800- 1102) of the Second Chera Empire Kerala emerged as a distinct political and cultural entity. The greatest of the reformers, the philosopher and scholar extra ordinary, Sankaracharya (A.D. 788-820) belonged to this period. Systematization of Indian Thought Born towards the close of the eight century AD at Kalady, a village on the banks of the river Periyar, and acquiring considerable spiritual powers by study and meditation, Sankara traveled all over India defeating Buddhist theologians and dialecticians by argument, and establishing the supremacy of the principles of Hinduism. He set himself to the task of systematizing the philosophy of Upanishads. He taught that the various Gods and Goddesses were really manifestation of the same Supreme Being. Sankara emphasized the supreme importance of sanyasa ashrama and established four mutts at Badrinath, Jagannath, Sringeri, and Dwaraka, which are still in existence. The main field of Sankara's activity lay in the realms far away from his native country. But his teachings soon seeped into different layers of Kerala society and created a new outlook in religious and social matters. Though in the beginning his own community, the Namputhiries, disliked him, later the name was invoked in support of some of the peculiar practices in Kerala called Keralacharams. But the Sankara Smriti, which is often cited as an authority for those practices, appears to be a later fabrication. The period saw Hindu religious revival of impressive dimensions. The Bhakti movement which was inspired by the great Saiva and Vaishnava saints of the period generated a wave of religious enthusiasm among the masses and paved the way for the triumph of Hinduism. The age also saw the construction of temples in most of the villages and cities of Kerala. The economic condition also progressed. Eleventh Century AD witnessed prolonged warfare between Cheras and Cholas and Kerala came under Chola domination for a period. The conflict has economic, political and social repercussions. New socio economic institutions like Marumakkathayam system of inheritance, jenmi system, devadasi system, kalari etc emerged. The Namputhiri Brahmins who stood at the apex of the society established their ascendancy in the social and political life of Kerala. The post Kulasekhara period 1102-1498 saw the emergence of four kingdoms : Venad, Calicut, Cochin and Kolathu Nadu of which the first two later became powerful military States. Rulers pursued a tolerant policy towards all religions. But the period saw the operation of caste system at its worst. Namputhiries enjoyed all kinds of privileges and immunities. Institutions like polyandry and polygamy came into existence, which led to the lowering of moral standards. Contact with the West The landing of Vasco da Gama in Calicut in A.D 1498 totally altered the nature of further progress. There was religious intolerance by the Portuguese, economic depression and unrest. This created a feeling of insecurity in the minds of the people. Then there was the revival of the Bhakti cult in Kerala with Thunjath Ezhuthachan as the leading spirit. Marthanda Varma (AD 1729-1758) in Travancore and Sakthan Tampuran (AD 1790-1805) in Cochin gave fatal blows to the feudal nobility and established strong and centralized administration in respective States under their control. Mysore invasions and resultant persecutions gave a shock treatment to the high caste Hindus who remained the privileged class in the society. By the end of eighteenth century the British became the dominant political power in Kerala. But in early nineteenth century, British supremacy was challenged by patriotic elements of the population led by Kerala Varma Pazhassi Raja in the north and Velu Thampi Dalawa in the south. These rebellions were suppressed and the whole of Kerala came under British hegemony. Social Prohibitions Though the Caste system with its rigorous social exclusivity did not crystallize in early Sangham period, later social stratification started. Caste is an endogamous group or a collection of endogamous groups. It bears a common name and its membership is hereditary. Certain restrictions relating to social intercourse, occupations, etc. are imposed on every member. Unchangeable inequality on the basis of birth and profession; and restrictions on marriage outside one's own group are indispensable principles of the caste system. Under the caste system an individual's status is wholly predetermined. Men are born to their lot without any hope of changing it.