The Fortress at Isthmia

chapter 5 Reuse as Rejection: The Fortress at Isthmia

In the previous two chapters, studies of the process of erecting the fortifica- tion walls at Aegina and at Sparta have shown that the builders in these two locations took markedly different approaches to the use of spolia. In the case of the Inscription Wall at Aegina, the masons seem to have been motivated much more by an interest in re-establishing and renovating a barrier wall than explor- ing the aesthetic potential of the recognizable parts of the building they used as a quarry. Yet their apparent indifference to the appearance of the spolia is countered by their utilization of traditional building techniques to overcome the added difficulties involved in erecting a wall from recycled architecture. On the other hand, in addition to the greater care that they showed in select- ing the most suitable pieces from a much wider variety of spolia, the builders at Sparta were also motivated to explore the visual effect that could be achieved through alternations in the shape and color of the reused blocks. At the same time though, their attention to these non-traditional traits in an effort to cre- ate a pattern reminiscent of a Doric style frieze course suggests a continued understanding of and esteem for architectural motifs of the classical period. Perhaps then, it will come as no surprise that the late Roman Fortress at Isthmia, the object of our third case study, represents yet another unique approach to spolia in which builders consistently oriented or recarved blocks with molded or inscribed surfaces in a way that effectively “erased” any clear sign of prior use. As an example of reuse as a rejection of the classical past, this last case study further widens the spectrum of possible motivations for spolia use in late antiquity. Even more importantly, because the Fortress at Isthmia is preserved as a complete defensive circuit, it is possible to study of the use of recycled architecture along its entire length and not simply as isolated sections. As a result, where the previous two case studies could only hint at the existence of individual work crews, here at Isthmia it has been possible not only to identify the work of unique teams of masons and builders, but also to determine that each of these groups differed in the manner in which they utilized the same supply of recycled architecture. Such evidence for different approaches to reuse within an overall site-based plan for civic defense stands as a convincing argument not only for the utility of a process approach in the study of spolia, but also for the immense potential for the evidence of fortifications to make a significant contribution to our understanding of the phenomenon of post-classical reuse.

The Sanctuary and Fortress at Isthmia

Located at the eastern end of the seven-kilometer wide isthmus connecting northern and southern Greece, the Sanctuary and later Fortress at Isthmia were positioned at the crossing of two major routes of travel in antiquity. For those entering into the Peloponnesos by land, the most popular route was the one that hugged the cliffs along the northern shore of the Saronic Gulf and passed through the center of the site on its way west in the direction of Corinth.1 More remarkably, in certain circumstances, it was considered more advantageous to transport goods east and west over the isthmus by means of a paved roadway, known as the diolkos.2 In general, this roadway followed the same course as the modern canal so that its eastern terminus was located just north of the Isthmian sanctuary. In short, nearly all traffic moving in every direction, by land or sea, passed through the isthmus, making it “a natural crossroads of the Greek world.”3 As a result, Isthmia became not only an important cult center as early as the seventh century b.c. but also part of the cycle of panhellenic games in 582b.c.4 The excavated remains of the Templeof Poseidon, hero shrine, theater, and three different stadia attest to its prominence as an athletic sanctuary.5 Perhaps even more importantly, beginning in the time of the Persian invasion, this site also came to be used as a meeting place for Greeks in moments of crisis or political change. “As the religious and political center of the Hellenic League in the Persian War, the Isthmian Sanctuary took on a new stature. It was the first and, in fact, only topographical symbol of Hellenic unity, of freedom for Greece.”6 Thus, Isthmia appears in the historical sources as the setting for several important meetings and pronouncements in the time of Philip of Macedon, Alexander the Great, Quinctius Flamininus, and the Emperor Nero.7

1 Wiseman 1978, 17; Gregory 1993, 8; Kardulias 2005, 31–33. 2 Gregory 1993, 146. Ν. Βερδελή (1956, 1958, 1960, 1962) excavated large sections of the diolkos between 1956 and 1962. D. Pettegrew (2011) has recently offered a much more critical look at the historical and archaeological evidence. 3 Broneer 1958b, 80. 4 Broneer (1971; 1973, 4) dated the first Temple of Poseidon to 700b.c., but excavations in 1989–1990 yielded evidence of a slightly later date in the first half of the seventh century. See Gebhard and Hemans 1992. 5 Broneer 1971, 1973; Gebhard 1973; Gebhard and Hemans 1992; 1998; Gebhard, Hemans and Hayes 1998. 6 Wiseman 1966, 142. 7 Broneer 1958b, 85; Wiseman 1966, 15, 19.