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African Leopard (Panthera Pardus) Rev. 22 July 2021 African Leopard (Panthera pardus) © Vanessa Mignon This factsheet is part of a series highlighting species vulnerability to trophy hunting and lethal offtake. IMPACTS OF TROPHY HUNTING QUICK FACTS: ■ Offtakes are not biologically sustainable Population Unknown, decreasing ■ Depressed reproduction rates Size: ■ Increased rates of infanticide Range: 48-67% of historic range lost ■ Increased inbreeding IUCN Red Vulnerable (2020) POPULATION List: CITES: Appendix I (since 1975) Although there is no reliable estimate on the num- ber of leopards in Africa, scientists believe that International 7,155 leopard trophies traded interna- leopard populations have declined considerably.1 Trade: tionally from 2009-2018 The IUCN Red List assessment estimates that leop- ard populations have experienced similar declines Threats: Habitat fragmentation, reduced prey to lion populations (which have decreased by 42% base, conflict with livestock and game in the last three generations) as they face simi- farming, excessive killing for ceremo- lar threats.1 Leopards may have experienced even nial use of skins and poorly managed greater declines due to a large proportion of their trophy hunting. range falling outside protected areas. Scientists also infer leopard population declines greater than 50% across East and West Africa.1 The IUCN Red List status of the leopard throughout its range has changed from Least Concern in 2002 to Near Threatened in 2008 to Vulnerable in 2016, which was maintained in 2020, highlighting the steady deterioration of the conservation status of this species. Species are classified as Vulnerable if they face a high risk of extinction in the wild in the immediate future. The status of leopard populations varies across re- gions. North African leopards potentially qualify as Critically Endangered due to extremely small popu- lation size and probable extirpation from Morocco and Algeria.1 Populations in Sub-Saharan Africa are Distribution of P. pardus. declining and predicted to continue decline to due Source: IUCN (2020). rapid human population growth and habitat loss.1 © 2021 Humane Society International 1 Leopard populations within Angola, Zambia, Mo- zambique, Zimbabwe and South Africa also appear to be decreasing.1 The African leopard has lost 48-67% of its historic range (since 1750),2 including regional losses of 93.9- 99% in North Africa, 86-95% in West Africa, 45-66% in Central Africa, 40-60% in East Africa, and 28-51% in Southern Africa.3 Only 17% of the leopard’s extant range in Africa is protected.2 The percent of extant range that is pro- tected in countries that allow leopard trophy hunt- ing includes: 29% in Botswana, 27% in Uganda, 24% from 9-35 months.7 Females care for only one litter in United Republic of Tanzania, 24% in Zambia, 19% at a time and average interbirth interval is around in Central African Republic, 19% in Namibia, 17% in 25 months,5,7 with a range from 11-39 months.7 This Zimbabwe, 15% in Mozambique, 10% in Ethiopia, and is important because long intervals between small 8% in South Africa.4 Such small percentages of pro- litters means that few offspring are produced and tected ranges leave leopards vulnerable to numer- population growth requires a long time; indicating ous threats, including trophy hunting. that populations are slow to recover from over-ex- ploitation. In addition, only 37% of cubs survive to RANGE independence.5 Females provide sole care to off- spring. Cubs who are orphaned while still dependent The African leopard has lost 48-67% of its historic have even lower survival rates, especially if they are range (since 1750),2 including regional losses of 93.9- young at the time of their mother’s disappearance.7 99% in North Africa, 86-95% in West Africa, 45-66% Therefore it is important that mothers remain alive in Central Africa, 40-60% in East Africa, and 28-51% throughout the cub dependency period to ensure in Southern Africa.3 survival. Individual females can have up to 11 litters, although less than half survive to independence.5 Only 17% of the leopard’s extant range in Africa is The average lifetime reproductive success for fe- protected.2 The percent of extant range that is pro- males, that is the number of offspring a female will tected in countries that allow leopard trophy hunt- contribute to the population over her lifetime, is ing includes: 29% in Botswana, 27% in Uganda, 24% 4.1.5 This illustrates the importance of the survival in United Republic of Tanzania, 24% in Zambia, 19% of each litter. Reproduction can also be slowed due in Central African Republic, 19% in Namibia, 17% in to prey declines, which is a major threat to leopards. Zimbabwe, 15% in Mozambique, 10% in Ethiopia, and During times of prey scarcity mothers will prolong 8% in South Africa.4 Such small percentages of pro- cub dependence which decreases lifetime repro- tected ranges leave leopards vulnerable to numer- ductive success.5,7 ous threats, including trophy hunting. One of the most important predictors of cub sur- LIFE HISTORY AND vival in leopards is infanticide.5 Infanticide occurs REPRODUCTION when an adult male takes over the territory of an- other male8 and kills the dependent cubs in order to Leopard population growth is slow due to long increase mating opportunities with resident females lifespans, low reproductive rates, long intervals be- (see Social Structure section). In the the Sabi Sand tween births, and long periods of cub dependency. Game Reserve in South Africa, infanticide by male The maximum lifespan in females in the wild is 19 leopards accounted for 49% of all cub mortality years and they continue to give birth up 16 years (where the cause of death was known), indicating old.5 Therefore, even the oldest females are im- that leopards have one of the highest rates of infan- portant for population growth. The average age ticide among mammalian carnivores.8 In addition, it of first birth is 3-4 years, depending on the popu- may take mothers nearly 3 times longer to replace lation.5,6 Most litters comprise 1-3 cubs that gain litters lost to infanticide than litters that survive to independence around 19 months,5,7 but can range independence.9 © 2021 Humane Society International 2 Multiple reproductive parameters have been linked High rates of human offtake disrupt complex terri- to anthropogenic, or human-caused, mortality. Fol- torial structure and can increase mortality caused lowing the implementation of stricter offtake re- by conflict between leopards and infanticide.9 Arti- strictions (both for farmers and trophy hunters), ficially high levels of male takeovers, due to trophy first birth for female leopards occurred at a younger hunting, promote lower cub survival rates, delay age age, mothers spent more time with dependent cubs, at first parturition, reduce conception rates, and mothers produced more litters, and mating success lower annual litter production.13 Given that cub sur- rate was higher.9 In addition, the average minimum vival is the most important measure of female life- territorial tenure time for males was longer,9 which time reproductive success,5 infanticide due to male would allow for increased cub survival due to fewer takeovers has long-term negative effects on popu- male takeovers and opportunities for infanticide. In lation growth. During male takeovers, adult females addition, survival rates were higher for juveniles and may also be killed while trying to protect their cubs.8 subadults which contributes to long-term popula- Therefore, maintaining social stability to prevent tion growth.9 These are multiple direct measures of male takeover is critical for cub survival and repro- reproduction and population growth that are stunt- ductive rates. Management strategies must consid- ed due to high offtake from trophy hunting.. er the negative effects of human-caused morality on social stability, especially given the high rates of SOCIAL STRUCTURE infanticide in leopards. Leopards are solitary but exhibit kin-related territo- Male-biased dispersal in leopards, where males ry structure where both sexes maintain and defend leave their natal range to establish new territories their own territories.8,10 Females stay near their birth and females stay, decreases the chances of inbreed- territories and share with related females, while ing, or mating with a close relative, due to physical males disperse from where they were born to es- separation of related individuals. This is important tablish new territories.8,10,11 In populations under high because inbreeding results in reduced genetic diver- hunting pressure, subadult males disperse shorter sity which can have many negative effects on surviv- distances and establish territories near their birth al and reproduction. However, long-term anthropo- habitat.11,12 In addition, trophy hunting can encour- genic mortality in leopard populations can disrupt age earlier natal dispersal.11 dispersal,9,11,12 thereby increasing levels of inbreed- ing.9 In the recovering leopard population at Phin- Although leopards are solitary, they exhibit complex da-uMkhuze Complex (PMC) in South Africa, more territory structures that are sensitive to disruption. than 50% of all leopard deaths between 2002 and After the death of an adult male, including by an- 2012 were due to human-related causes, primarily thropogenic factors such as trophy hunting, other persecution by farmers and trophy hunting.9 In this males will move into the previously occupied ter- population, where anthropogenic mortality was ritory. The number of male takeovers predicts the high, there was evidence of reduced dispersal and rate of infanticide and only male leopards commit increased inbreeding.12 In comparison, the leopard infanticide.8 Males in the early stages of their terri- population at the Sabi Sand Game Reserve in South torial tenure are most often responsible for com- Africa, which is at carrying capacity and has experi- mitting infanticide.8 Both natural and human-caused enced low levels of anthropogenic mortality (<2% mortality may contribute to the rate of infanticide between 1975 and 2015), exhibited normal dispersal by shortening territorial tenure in males.
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