A. CONDITIONAL SENTENCES
Conditional sentence is a sentence that contains a requirement. It’s always formed as compound sentences that consist of main clause and subordinate clause. Conditional sentence usually linked with if.
Main clause is a part of compound sentence which can stand independently and also has a complete meaning even though it’s separated from another part of compound sentence. Meanwhile, Subordinate clause is a part of compound sentence which can’t stand independently if it’s separated from another part of compound sentence.
In English, there are three types of conditional sentences as follows:
• Future Possible or Future Conditional Sentence • Present Unreal or Present Conditional Sentence • Past Unreal or Past Conditional Sentence
1. Future Possible or Future Conditional Sentence
Future conditional is a sentence that contains requirement that will happen in the future if one of the conditions is fulfilled.
The tenses that used in this sentence are:
• Simple Future Tense in Main Clause • Simple Present Tense in Subordinate Clause Example:
) If it rains tonight, I will not attend the meeting ) If he passes all his exams, he will graduate in June The word if that followed by negative subordinate clause not can be changed with unless. Example:
) I will come if I’m not busy ) I will come unless I’m busy (= except if I’m hurry)
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But if the main clause is used for expressing something that permanent, the main clause or subordinate clause is simple present tense.
Example:
) He can pass the exam if he study hard
2. Present Unreal or Present Conditional Sentence
This form is used if we want to imagine something that contrary with the condition in the present time. In this case, the speaker is quite pessimist because the possibilities of this event is a little.
The tenses that used in this sentence are:
• Simple Past in If Clause • Past Future Tense (would, could, might, + infinitive) in main clause Example:
) I would buy a new house if I got much money ) He would marry you if you loved him In this case, auxiliary BE in If Clause become WERE for all kinds of subject.
Example:
) If I were you, I would leave college ) They would understand things better, if they were given laboratory experience
3. Past Unreal or Past Conditional Sentence
This form is used if we want to imagine other possibilities from an event that have been happened in the past. In other words, this form can be used for expressing some conditions or events that contrary with the reality in the past.
The tenses that used in this sentence are:
• Past Perfect in If Clause • Past Future Perfect (would, could, might, + infinitive) in main clause.
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Example:
) She would have passed the exam if she had studied hard before ) If I had known it was going to rain, I would have taken my umbrella with me.
Conditional without If
Conditional sentence can also be used without using conjunction if. We can use these following words:
Unless
We often use unless in warning
) We’ll be late unless we hurry (= except if we hurry) ) Unless you work harder, you’re not going to pass the examination (= except if you work harder) As long as provided (that), providing (that)
These expression mean but only if:
) You can use my car as long as you drive carefully (= but only if you drive carefully) ) Traveling by car is convenient provided (that) you have somewhere to park (= but only if you have somewhere to park) ) Providing (that) she studies hard, she should pass the examination (= but only if she studies hard). When you’re talking about the future, don’t uses will with unless, as long as,
provided, providing. Use a present tense:
) We will be late unless we hurry (not unless we will hurry)
Wish
It is used to express improbable or impossible desire. (Expressing regret)
Example:
) I wish I knew her address (= I don’t know her address)
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) I wish I had arrived at the station on time this morning (=I was late at the station this morning) If only
It is used to express improbable or impossible desire, or strong regret.
Example:
) If only I had more money, I could buy some clothes (= I don’t have money so I don’t buy clothes.)
) if only somebody had told us, we could have warned you. (= somebody didn’t tell us, we couldn’t warn you)
The differences of the form and use between conditional sentences Type I, II, and
Type III can be seen in the following table:
Type I Type II Type III Simple present Simple past Past perfect Basic - will + infinitive - would + infinitive - would have + PP
Pattern If he goes, we will give If he went, we would If he had gone, we
give would have given
The Future Present Past reference If he goes there, we If he went there, weIf he had gone there, will give a permit would give a permit we would have given
Tomorrow Now Yesterday The use Open condition, or a Unreal present Unreal past real condition. To express possibility To express a wish To express a regret the event is possible to The event is not The event is not take place possible to take place possible to take place
Special Use of were for all Inversion of subject characteristic subject and verb
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EXERCISE:
I. Choose the correct answer
1. My neighbors …………… if we’d invited them a. would come c. will have come b. would have come d. would have came
2. …………………., I would study hard. a. were I student c. was I student b. Am I student d. had I student
3. If he …... he would have gone abroad.
a. has a rich man c. has been a rich man
b. was a rich man d. had been a rich man
4. I’d have bought a car if I ………… much money a. had c. had been b. had had d. have had
5. ……... You’d have passed the exam. a. You had studied hard c. You have studied hard. b. Had you studied hard d. If had you studied hard.
6. If it rains tonight, I will not attend the meeting a. I would not attended c. I would not attend. b. I will not attend d. I will not attended
7. I would buy a big car house if I got much money. It means that : a. I didn’t buy a big car c. I bought a big car b. I will by a big car later d. I will not buy a big car
8. If only I had much money, I could buy some clothes. It means that : a. I had much money c. I don’t buy clothes b. I will not have much money d. I will buy clothes
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9. I was late at the station this morning. I wish …….at the station on time. a. I arrived c. I had arrived b. I arrive d. I have arrived
10. Providing (that) she studies hard, she should pass the examination. It means that she will not pass the examination if ……. a. she studies hard c. she did not study hard b. she studied hard d. she does not study hard
II. Change the following conditional sentence to other types He would marry you if you loved him Type I ……………………………………………………………….. Type III ………………………………………………………………..
III. What is the meaning or the real fact of the following sentences?
1. I wish I were a student
………………………………………………………………………..
2. I could have attended the seminar if I had been invited
……………………………………………………………………….
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B. ACTIVE AND PASSIVE SENTENCE
a. Definition Active and Passive sentences
¾ Active sentence is the verb form used when the subject of a sentence does the
action.
Example: She drove a car
¾ Passive sentence is the verb form used when the subject of a sentence is affected
by the action.
Example: A car was driven by her
b. The Way to Form Active and Passive sentences
¾ Active sentences
If we want to form an active sentence, we do not need any special regulations,
because there is no special key. Just pay attention with the tenses. As we know
that English has movement verb that we have to know well.
Example: She goes to school She went to school yesterday
¾ Passive Sentences
The passive sentence has special ways to form it. Beside we have to pay attention
with movement of verbs, we have to give special attention with such thing.
According to Mas’ud, there are four ways to form passive sentences.
1. Put an object of active sentence in the beginning of passive sentence (object of
active sentence becomes subject in passive sentence).
Example: He ate banana (active) Banana was eaten by him (passive)
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2. If in the active sentences do not have auxiliary (to be), so just add to be that is
suitable with the subject of passive sentence and the tenses.
Example: Jojo invited them (active) They were invited by Jojo (passive) 3. Put the main verb from active sentences after auxiliary verb (to be) in past
participle form.
Example: My father is reading newspaper (active) Newspaper is being read by my father (passive) 4. Put the preposition By after the main verb before object in passive sentences.
(in some cases, the preposition By can be omitted when it is not known or not
important to know exactly who performs the action).
Example: This house was built in 1987 (By is omitted)
The most important thing that you have to know well and remember in forming passive sentence is the general formula of passive sentences. Here is the formula:
To Be + Past Participle
c. The Use of Active and Passive sentences
As we know together that English has 16 tenses which have differences in using and forming. Beside that English also has modals auxiliary which have some differences each others. So here we just want to make classification active and passive sentences to show the differences, based on the tenses and modal auxiliary.
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Tenses 1. Simple Present Passive Active (+) Lapa- lapa is eaten by my brother (+) My brother eats lapa-lapa (-) Lapa- lapa is not eaten by my brother (-) My bother does not eat lapa- lapa (?) Is lapa- lapa eaten by my brother? (?) Does my brother eat lapa- lapa?
2. Present Continuous Active Passive (+) Tono is writing a letter (+) A letter is being written by Tono (-) Tono is not writing a letter (-) A letter is not being written by Tono (?) Is Tono writing a letter? (?) Is a letter being written by Tono?
3. Present Perfect Active Passive (+) She has closed the door (+) The door has been closed by her (-) She has not closed the door (-) The door has not been closed by her (?) Has she closed the door? (?) Has the door been closed by her?
4. Present Perfect Continuous Active Passive (+) He has been waiting for you (+) You have been being waited for by him. (-) He has not been waiting for you (-) You have not been being waited for by (?) Has he been waiting for you? him (?) Have you been being waited for by him?
5. Simple Past Active Passive (+) He stole a present (+) A present was stolen by him (-) He did not steal a present (-) A preset was not stolen by him (?) Did he steal a present? (?) Was a present stolen by him?
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6. Past Continuous Active Passive ( + ) She was explaining lessons ( + ) Lessons were being explained by her ( - ) She was not explaining lessons ( - ) Lessons were not being explained by ( ? ) Was she r explaining lessons/ her ( ? ) Were lessons being explained by her?
7. Past Perfect Active Passive ( + ) Jono had helped me ( + ) I had been helped by Jono ( - ) Jono had not helped me ( - ) I had not been helped by Jono ( ? ) Had Jono helped me? ( ? ) Had I been helped by Jono?
8. Past Perfect Continuous Active Passive ( + ) She had been driving a car ( + ) A car had been being driven by her ( - ) She had not been driving a car ( - ) A car had not been being driven by her ( ? ) Had she been driving a car? ( ? ) Had a car been being driven by her
9. Simple Future Active Passive ( + ) He will open the door ( + ) The door will be opened by me ( - ) He will not open the door ( - ) The door will not be opened by me ( ? ) Will he open the door? ( ? ) Will I be opened the door?
10. Future Continuous Active ( + ) Some books will be being read by me ( + ) I will be reading some books ( - ) Some books will not be being read by ( - ) I will not be reading some books me ( ? ) Will I be reading some book? ( ? ) Will some books be being read by Passive me?
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11. Future Perfect Active ( + ) Your heart will have been won by me ( + ) I will have won your heart ( - ) Your heart will not have been won by ( - ) I will not have won your heart me ( ? ) Will I have won your heart? ( ? ) Will your heart have been won by Passive me?
12. Future Perfect Continuous Active Passive ( + ) I will have been leaving you ( + ) You will have been being left by me ( - ) I will not have been leaving you ( - ) You will not have been being left by ( ? ) Will I have been leaving you? me ( ? ) Will you have been being left by me?
13. Past Future Active Passive ( + ) I would buy a house ( + ) A house would be bought by me ( - ) I would not buy a house ( - ) A house would not be bought by me ( ? ) Would I buy a house? ( ? ) Would a house be bought by me?
14. Past Future Continuous Active Passive ( + ) She would be reading novel ( + ) Novel would be being read by her ( - ) She would not be reading novel ( - ) Novel would not be being read by her ( ? ) Would she be reading novel? ( ? ) Would novel be being read by her?
15. Past Future Perfect Active Passive ( + ) They would have eaten cake ( + ) Cake would have been eaten by them ( - ) They would not have eaten cake (-) Cake would not have been eaten by ( ? ) Would they have eaten cake? them ( ? ) Would cake have been eaten by them?
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16. Past Future Perfect Continuous Active Passive ( + ) He would have been leaving her ( + ) She would have been being left by ( - ) He would have been leaving her him ( ? ) Would he have been leaving her? ( - ) She would not have been being left by him ( ? ) Would she have been being left by him? ¾ Modals Auxiliary Active Passive I can do it It can be done by me She must do it It must be done by her You may do it It may be done by you You might do it It might be done by you He could do it It could be done by him Etc. Etc.
12 d. Other Passive Sentences
It is like active sentences; generally passive sentences are used to describe an action. But we have to know that passive sentences may be used to describe an existing situation or state. It is called stative passive (Betty Schrampfer Azar; Using and Understanding English
Grammar;135). No action is taking place in stative passive sentences. The past participle
functions as an adjective. Often stative passive verbs are followed by a preposition other
than by.
Example: The door is locked The window is broken Where is she now? She is gone I am Interested in you Are you satisfied with her job?
EXERCISE
Choose the correct answer
1. That novel has already ………….. by Mayangsari a. read c. been read b. been reading d. being read
2. Mathematics …………….. at semester V. a. are taught c. was taught b. were taught d. has taught
3. The door of the room is being ….. by Ani right now. a. lock c. been locked b. being locked d. locked
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4. Many of Gold medals …… by China’s Athletics in Olympiad. a. were get c. were gotten b. are gotten d. got
5. They were not ……to repair the chair that has been broken by Jojo yesterday. a. asks c. asked b. has asked d. have ask
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C. DIRECT AND INDIRECT SPEECH
A. The Meaning of Direct and Indirect Speech
1. Direct speech refers to a sentence which is said by the speaker directly (speaker’s
actual words). It must be started with capital letter and ended with quotation mark.
Example: My mother said, “I will call you”.
2. Indirect speech refers to a sentence reporting what someone has said without using
his/her actual words.
B. The Changing of Pronouns, Time Signifiers, and Tenses
1. Changing of Pronouns
When changing from direct speech to indirect speech, it is often necessary to change the pronouns to match the subject of sentence.
Example: He said, “I wait for you”.
He said that he waited for me.
2. Changing of Time Signifiers
It also important to change time words (signifiers) when referring to present, past of future time to match the moment of speaking.
Example: He said, “I wait you tomorrow”.
He said that he waited me the next day.
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Several Changing of Time Signifiers
Direct Speech Indirect Speech This That These Those Now Then/at the time Here There Ago Before Tonight That night Today That day Last night The night before Yesterday The day before Last month The month before Last week The week before Next week The following week Tomorrow The next day
3. Changing of Tenses
In the direct speech, there are reporting verbs and reported speech.
Example: My father said, “It is time to go away” My father said = reporting verb “It is time to go away” = reported speech *) If the reporting verb is in the past, the reported speech must be changed (for indirect
speech).
Example:
Direct speech: My father said, “It is time to go away”. Æ Reported speech = simple present Indirect speech: My father said that it was time to go away.Æ Reported speech = simple past
Let’s see diagram bellow:
Direct Speech Indirect Speech
Simple Present Simple Past
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Example :*) Emi said, “I have a good idea tomorrow”. Emi said that she had a good idea the next day. *) Ratna told me, “I go to school every day”. Ratna told me that he went to school every day.
Present Continuous Past Continuous
Example :*) Budi said, “Ani is cooking in the kitchen”. Budi said that Ani was cooking in the kitchen. *) Lutfi told me, “I am studying English now” Lutfi told me that he was studying English at that time.
Present Perfect Past Perfect
Example :*) She said, “Bakri has bought a new car”. She said that Bakri had bought a new car. *) Ita told me, “I have visited Surabaya twice”. Ita told me that she had visited Surabaya twice.
Present Perfect Continuous Past Perfect Continuous
Example :*) He said, “I have been working here for three years”. He said that he had been working there for three years. *) Umi told me, “I have been studying English for two hours”. Umi told me that she had been studying English for two hours.
Simple Past Past Perfect
Example :*) He said, “I visited her last night”. He told me that he had visited her the night before. *) Anis said, “Umar bought a car”. Anis said that Umar had bought a car.
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Past Continuous Past Perfect Continuous
Example :*) Andy said, “My mother was coming” Andy said that his mother had been coming. *) He said, “I was joking about the price” He said that he had been joking about that price.
Simple Future Past Future
Example :*) Bagas said, “Deddy will work hard tomorrow”. Bagas said that Deddy would work hard the following day. *) He said, “I shall go to Solo next week”. He told me that he would go to Solo the following week.
Future Continuous Past Future Continuous
Example*) She said, “I will be using the car my self”. She said that she would be using the car herself.
Another situation is the one in which modal construction are used. If the verb “said” is used, then the form of the modal or another modal that has a past meaning is used.
Direct Speech Indirect Speech Can Could May Might Shall Should Will Would Must Had to Must Would have to Must Musn’t /wasn’t to
*) If Simple Present, Present Perfect or The Future is used in the reporting verb, the tense
is retained (for indirect speech).
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Example: Direct Speech : He says, “The test is difficult”. Indirect Speech : He says that the test is difficult. *) If reported speech is a general truth, so it will be retained (there isn’t changing of the tense)
Example: Direct Speech : He told me, “The Sun rises in the east”. Indirect Speech : He told me that the Sun rises in the east.
C. Kind of Using Direct and Indirect Speech
Statement Imperatives / Request Questions Exclamation and Yes / No Answer
1. Statement
There are some rules to change direct speech into indirect speech as statement:
*) Direct speech which is changed into indirect speech doesn’t have changing of tenses if
the reporting speech uses present, present perfect, and future tense. a. Present Tense
Example: Hanif says, “I am a farmer”. Hanif says that he is a farmer. b. Present Perfect Tense
Example: Heri has said to me, “I have met the girl”. Heri has said to me that he has met the girl. c. Future Tense
Example: Ilham will say, “My mother is at home”. Ilham will say that his mother is at home.
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*) If the reporting speech of direct speech is in the past form, there will be changing of
tenses at indirect speech.
*) The changing of direct speech into indirect speech will change the pronoun, verbal
form, time signifiers, and place.
2. Imperatives / Request
There are some rules to show indirect speech imperatives / request.
Reporting verb and reported speech is connected by “to”.
Use not + verb I for negative command.
Put in “please” for more polite.
Use “told, ordered or commanded” for imperative and use “asked” for request.
Example: He asked me, “Open the door!” He asked me to open the door. She told me, “Don’t go alone!” She told me not to go alone. 3. Questions
* The questions are question words (who, what, where, when, how, etc)
* Indirect speech questions use positive statement.
Example:- Nina said to me, “What are you doing?”
Nina asked to me what I was doing.
- My friend said, “Whom did you call?”
My friend asked whom I had called.
* The question which is begun by Yes / No questions use if or whether at indirect speech.
* Indirect speech question use positive statement.
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Example:- Yudi asked me, “Do you love me?”
Yudi asked me whether I love him.
- Rani said to her mother, “Can I help you?”
Rani asked to her mother if she could help her.
4. Exclamation and Yes / No answer
* Exclamatory sentences (Exclamation in the direct speech must be changed into indirect speech statement)
Example:- He said, “What a beautiful hair she has?”
He said that she had a beautiful hair.
- He said, “Hurrah! My old friend has come”
He exclaimed with joy that his old friend had come.
Except:- He said, “Thank you”.
He thanked me.
- He said, “Congratulation!”
He congratulated me.
* Optative sentences
Example:- He said, “God bless you, my dear son”
He prayed that God would bless his dear son.
* Yes / No answer are expressed by subject + auxiliary verb (modal) at in direct speech.
Example:- He said, “Can you swim?”. I said, “No”. He asked me if I could swim and I answered that I couldn’t. She said, “Will you have time to do it?”. I said, “Yes”. She asked me if I would have time to do it and I answered that I would.
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EXERCISE
Choose the correct answer
1. Arni said, “I have a beautiful black cat at my house”. Arni said that ……a beautiful black cat at her house. a. I had c. She has b. She had d. I has
2. Budi said, “Rani is writing a letter for her grandfather”. Budi said that Rani …… a letter for her grandfather. a. was writing c. is writes b. is writing d. is write
3. He said, “Imran has repaired his computer”. He said that Imran …… his computer. a. has repaired c. had repaired b. has repair d. had repair
4. She said, “Her father has working as a taxi driver three years”. She said that her father …… as a taxi driver three years. a. has been working c. had working b. had been work d. had been working
5. Risman said, “I cleaned my motorcycle yesterday”. Risman said that he ……his motorcycle yesterday. a. had been cleaned c. has cleaned b. has been cleaned d. had cleaned
6. Randy said, “My cat was eating in the kitchen Randy said that his cat ………….. in the kitchen. a. has been eating c. has been eat b. had been eating d. had eating
7. Mr. Rumianto said, “Darman will conduct a research next week”. Mr. Rumianto said that Darman ………… a research the following week.
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a. would conduct c. would have conduct b. will conduct d. will be conduct
8. “What is your father job?” He asked me ………………………………… a. What is my father job. c. What was my father job. c. What my father job was. d. What my father was job.
9. “Can I help you?” My mother in-law asked my brother in-law whether ……………….. a. he could help her c. she could help him c. I could help him d. he could help him
10. “Don’t smoke in the class!” The Dean said ……………………………. a. Don’t smoke in the class c. Not smoke in the class b. Didn’t smoke in the class d. Not to smoke in the class
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D. ELLIPTICAL SENTENCE
A. Definition
Ellipsis is leaving out words of the sentences when the meaning can be understood without them.
For example : Instead of a knife and a fork, we can say a knife and fork;
Instead of Have you seen John? We can say Seen John?
B. Kinds of Ellipsis
1. Ellipsis of subject and/or auxiliary verb at the beginning of sentences
In informal spoken English, we often leave out words at beginning of sentences if the
meaning is clear from the context. Words that can be left out are articles, possessives,
personal pronoun, and auxiliary verbs.
For example:
- The cars giving trouble again.
We can say: Cars giving trouble again.
- I couldn’t understand what he wanted.
We can say: Couldn’t understand what he wanted.
- What’s matter? My stomach’s sore
We can say: stomach sore.
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2. Ellipsis with and, or, but
When expressions are joined by and, it is very common to leave out words to void repetition.
Various kind of word can be left out:
a. When two verbs have the same subject or object, it is not necessary to repeat
it.
For example:
- He sang and (he) played the guitar
- She felled (the unions) and chopped the unions.
b. Repeated auxiliary verb can also be left out
For example: You could have come and (you could have) told me
c. And repeated main verbs
For example: Please clean my father’s office and (clean) the kitchen.
d. Articles, possessives, demonstratives and other determiners
For example:
- A man and (a) women
- My wife and (my) children
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- Those book and (those) pepper
- Several trains and (several) buses e. A noun that is repeated with two or more adjectives can be left out, and so can
a repeated adjective.
For example: young boys and (young) girls.
f. Repeated conjunctions and prepositions may be left out
For example:
She was late because she had overslept and (because she had) missed the
train.
“But” is used if the first sentence is positive, so “but” negative and if the first
sentence is negative, so “but” positive.
For example:
- I like durian very much but he doesn’t
- She ate breakfast this morning but he didn’t
- They are happy today but I’m not.
- You haven’t bought an English book but I have.
- Your mother will not go to Padang next week but you will
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- The man couldn’t come here three days ago but Maulid could
Similar structures are possible with or
For example: Is it a color film or black and white film?
C. Ellipsis after adjectives
- What kind potatoes would you like?
Boiled (potatoes) please
D. The use of to instead of a complete infinitive
- My parents hope I would study medicine, but I didn’t want to (study
medicine)
E. Ellipsis after auxiliary verbs
- He said he’d write, but hasn’t (written)
- I haven’t phone her yet, but I will (phone her)
F. Ellipsis with too and so
• Too;
- I like playing badminton
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- He like playing badminton
We can say from the both of sentences above:
- I like playing badminton and he does too.
• So;
- She is a student and I am a student
We can say
- She is a student and so am I
G. Ellipsis with either and neither
• I won’t come to his house and she won’t come to his house.
We can say:
- I will not come to his house and she will not either, or
- I will not come to his house neither will she.
• She didn’t read a novel last week and I didn’t read a novel last week
We can say:
- She didn’t read a novel last week and I didn’t either, or
- She didn’t read a novel last week and neither did I
• My uncle doesn’t have a large house and I don’t have a large house
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We can say:
- My uncle doesn’t have a large house and I don’t either, or
- My uncle doesn’t have a large house and neither do I
• He can’t speak English well and I can’t speak English well.
We can say:
- He can’t speak English well and I can’t either, or
- He can’t speak English well and neither can I
H. Ellipsis of both….and
• I study English. He studies English
We can say;
- Both he and I study English
• Amir was happy. Udin was happy
We can say:
- Both Amir and Udin were happy
I. Ellipsis with either….or positive auxiliary (modal)
• We can read newspaper. We can play the guitar
We can say:
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- We can either read newspaper or play the guitar
• He will take it. I will take it
We can say:
- Either he or I will take it.
J. Ellipsis with neither….nor
• I can’t read. Mary can’t read
We can say:
- Neither I nor Mary can read
• He doesn’t want a pencil. He doesn’t want a book
We can say:
- He wants neither a pencil nor a book
K. Ellipsis of direct object or subject complement
For example:
- Hasan likes (Dewi) and Agus hates Dewi
- Salim opened (the door) and (Salim) closed the door
- Ismail was happy, and Rahmad certainly seemed so ( happy)
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EXERCISE
1. Neither Mr. and Mrs.Barbara nor Novia ……………………………
a. are attending the meeting c. attends the meeting
b. attend the meeting d. are attend the meeting
2. My father reads a newspaper and ………………………
a. so does my brother c. so did my brother
b. my brother so does d. so my brother did.
3. I like playing badminton and he like playing badminton
I like playing badminton and ……
a. so does too c. so did he
b. he does too d. so he did.
4. She is a student and …..I am a student
a. so does I c. so do I
b. so am I d. so I am
5. I won’t come to his house and she won’t come to his house.
I will not come to his house ……..
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a. neither will she c. will not she
b. she will not either d. she will neither
6. She didn’t read a novel last week and ……
a. I didn’t either c. I did neither
b. neither I did d. either I didn’t
7. My uncle doesn’t have a large house and I don’t have a large house
a. I don’t either c. either I don’t
b. neither I do d. I do neither
8. I can’t read. Mary can’t read
……I nor Mary can read
a. don’t either c. either b. neither I do d. neither
9. He wants neither a pencil nor a book
He doesn’t want a pencil. ………….
a. He does want a pencil c. He wants a book
b. He doesn’t a book d. He doesn’t want a pencil
10. He can’t speak English well and …………
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a. I can’t either c. I can either
b. either I can d. either I can’t
E. CAUSATIVE VERBS
1. Meaning of causative verbs
Causative verb are a group of verbs that used to show that something is done by someone because of command from someone, though by paying, asking or forcing.
2. Function of causative verbs
Causative verbs express the idea of someone causing something to take place, examples:
- My hair was cut. (positive)
- I have my hair cut. (causative)
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Causative verbs show that somebody or something is indirectly responsible for an action. The subject doesn’t perform the action his/her self, but causes someone or something to do it instead.
Examples:
- Jack had his house painted
That sentence means that someone pointed Jack’s house or Jack’s house was painted by someone. It means that Jack didn’t it by himself but by the other one.
3. Basic causative structures
There are two basic causative structures. One is like an active, and the other like a passive.
1. The active causative structure
2. This is the basic structure of the active form.
In the passive form, there is usually no agent. The action verb is in the past, and the
object comes before it.
Example: Susan had her brother do her home-work Mary had her friends paint her house The passive causative structure
Example: Yukiko had her hair cut Sanjay have the windows cleaned.
4. Forms of Causative
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There are many causative verbs: have, get, make, let (allow or permit), want, help, require, motivate, convince, hire assist, encourage, employ, and force, but we just explain about have till at help.
A. “Have”
“Have” as a causative verb expresses the idea that the person wants something to
be done for them and to give someone the responsibility to do something. This
causative verb is often used when speaking about services.
Ö There are two forms of the causative verb “have”.
1. Construction chart: use 1.
Subject + have + person + base form of verb
Examples:
They had John arrive early She had her children cook dinner for her
2. Construction chart: use 2.
Subject + have + object + past participle
Examples:
I had my hair cut last Saturday She had the car washed at the weekend Note: this form is similar in meaning to the passive
B. “Get”
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This construction usually means to convince someone to do something “or” to
trick some one onto doing something.
1. “Get” in active object
Form: Subject + get + person + to infinitive
Example: The governments TV commercial are trying to get people to stop
smoking.
2. “Get” in Passive object
Form: Subject + get + object + (verb in past participle)
Example: 1. She will get the room cleaned
2. She gets the water boiled
C. “Make”
This construction means to force someone to do something but stronger than
“have” or “get”.
Form: Subject + make + person + (verb in simple form)
Example: She made her children do their homework
The teacher always makes the children stay in their seats.
D. “Let” (Allow or Permit)
This construction means to give permition or allow somene to do something.
Form: Subject + let +person + verb in simple form
For permit
Or allow Subject + {permit or allow} + person + to + infinitive +person + verb in simple form
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Example: 1. John let his daughter swim with her friends.
2. We are going to permit her to write a letter.
3. Prof. Ali is allowing the student hand in the paper on Friday
E. “Want”
That means asking (requesting) in passive meaning.
Form: Subject + want + pro (noun) + past participle
Example: 1. He wants the car repaired
2. She wanted their document signed
F. “Help”
“Help” it means assist someone to do something.
Form: SuSubjectbject + +help help + +person person + Verb in simple form (to + infinitive)
Example: 1. Budi help Tuti wash the dished.
2. Jono helped the old women to find a taxi
Note: causative “have” also have form with present participle
Subject + have + object + present participle Form:
Example: He will have as working
I had them all studying
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EXERCISE
1. My mother gets my youngest sister ………….
F. PREFERENCE
I. PREFER….
A. PREFER…TO ….
Pattern;
1. SUBJECT + PREFER + NOUN + TO + NOUN
EXAMPLES;
INCORRECT : My uncle prefers tea than coffee
CORRECT : My uncle prefers tea to coffee
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INCORRECT : They prefer Chinese food better than sea food
CORRECT : They prefer Chinese food to sea food
INCORRECT : Santo prefers donut rather than hamburger.
CORRECT : Santo prefers donut to hamburger
2. SUBJECT + PREFER + VERB 1-ING…+ TO + VERB 1-ING
EXAMPLES;
INCORRECT : His sister prefers staying home to go out on Sunday
CORRECT : His sister prefers staying home to going out on Sunday
INCORRECT : I prefer play football to swimming in my spare time
CORRECT : I prefer playing football to swimming in my spare time
B. PREFER….. INSTEAD OF ….
Pattern: SUBJECT + PREFER + VERB 1-ING + INSTEAD OF + VERB 1-ING
EXAMPLES;
INCORRECT : His sister prefers staying home instead of go out on Sunday
CORRECT : His sister prefers staying at home instead of going out on Sunday
INCORRECT : I prefer play football instead of swimming in my spare time
CORRECT : I prefer playing football instead of swimming in my spare time
2. WOULD RATHER …..
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Remember that the phrase would rather is similar to a modal. Although would rather appears to be a past, it expresses preference in present and future time. Avoid using an infinitive or an –ing form instead of a verb word.
Ex. I would rather drive
I would rather not drive
INCORRECT: If you don’t mind, I’d rather not going
CORRECT : If you don’t mind, I’d rather not go.
A. WOULD RATHER ….. THAN…
Pattern:
SUBJECT + WOULD RATHER + VERB 1…+ THAN + VERB 1.
EXAMPLES:
INCORRECT : We would rather going somewhere than staying at home on Sunday
CORRECT : We would rather go somewhere than stay at home on Sunday
INCORRECT ; His aunt would rather to drink coffee than drinking tea in the morning
CORRECT : His aunt would rather drink coffee than drink tea in the morning
B. WOULD RATHER ….. INSTEAD OF…
Pattern:
SUBJECT + WOULD RATHER + VERB 1.....+ INSTEAD OF + VERB 1-ING
EXAMPLES:
INCORRECT : We would rather go somewhere instead of stay at home on Sunday
CORRECT : We would rather go somewhere instead of staying at home on Sunday
INCORRECT : His aunt would rather drink coffee instead of to drink tea in the morning
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INCORRECT : His aunt would rather drink coffee instead of drinking tea in the morning
C. WOULD RATHER ….. THAT
Remember that when the preference is for another person or thing, would rather that introduces a clause. The other person or thing is the subject of the clause. Although the verb is past tense, the preference is for present or future time.
Avoid using a present verb, a verb word or should instead of a past verb. Avoid also using don’t instead of didn’t.
Pattern:
SUBJECT + WOULD RATHER THAT... VERB II
EXAMPLES:
INCORRECT : We would rather that you don’t do that.
CORRECT : We would rather you didn’t do that.
INCORRECT : We would rather that you should come tomorrow.
INCORRECT : We would rather that you came tomorrow.
3. LIKE …BETTER THAN…
Pattern:
A. SUBJECT + LIKE + NOUN + BETER THAN + NOUN
EXAMPLES:
INCORRECT : Merry likes apples than grapes
CORRECT : Merry likes apples better than grapes
INCORRECT : Mr. Fernando likes coffee to milk
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CORRECT : Mr. Fernando likes coffee better than milk
B. SUBJECT + LIKE + VERB 1-ING + BETTER THAN + VERB 1-ING
EXAMPLES:
INCORRECT : Mrs. Magdalena likes reading instead of watches television
CORRECT : Mrs. Magdalena likes reading instead of watching television
INCORRECT : Novia likes to sing better than dancing
CORRECT : Novia likes singing better than dancing
4. WOULD PREFER…
A. WOULD PREFER….RATHER THAN…
Pattern:
SUBJECT + WOULD PREFER + TO VERB 1 + RATHER THAN + TO VERB 1
EXAMPLES:
INCORRECT : My grand father would prefer to swim rather than playing Badminton.
CORRECT : My grand father would prefer to swim rather than to play Badminton.
INCORRECT : They would prefer going rather than staying at home on Sunday
CORRECT : They would prefer to go rather than to stay at home on Sunday.
B. WOULD PREFER … INSTEAD OF …
Pattern:
SUBJECT + WOULD PREFER + VERB 1 + INSTEAD OF + VERB ING
EXAMPLES:
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INCORRECT : My grand father would prefer to swim instead of playing Badminton.
CORRECT : My grand father would prefer swim instead of playing Badminton.
INCORRECT : They would prefer go instead of stay at home on Sunday
CORRECT : They would prefer go instead of staying at home on Sunday.
G. C L A U S E
A clause is a word or group of words ordinary consisting of a subject and a predicate.
In English there are two kinds of clauses, they are:
1. Main clause
2. Subordinate clause
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Main clause, also called independent clause, is a group of words that contains a subject and verb and expresses a complete thought. An independent clause can stand alone complete simple sentences.
E.g. I want to the store.
Subordinate clause, also called dependent clause, is a group of words that contains a subject and verb but does or not express a complete thought. A dependent clause cannot be a sentence. It must be connected to or part of another clause.
E.g. Because I went to the store.
Based on it’s function, there are three main types of clause:
A. Noun clause B. Adjective clause C. Adverb clause
A. Noun clause is clause that used a substitute of noun or has function as noun.
According to it’s derive sentence, noun clause can be classificated into four kinds :
1. Statement
2. Question
3. Request
4. Exclamation
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Noun clause from statement
- Noun clause derived from statement introduced by conjunction that. Noun clause with
that used as the subject of a sentence with certain verb. The most important verb is
linking verb especially be.
e.g. I think that he is a good doctor.
- Noun clause with that often be the object of verb. The following verb has human as
the subject, especially verb in indirect speech and verb states mental activity.
VERB OF INDIRECT SPEECH Admit declare Dis (agree) deny Allege explain Announce hint Argue inform, etc
VERBS OF MENTAL ACTIVITY Ascertain feel Believe guess Calculate hear Decide hope Expect imagine, etc
e.g. Amir thinks that Farida is ill.
- Omission of that
In informal conversation, that often omitted from object clause if the meaning has
been clear without that.
E.g. I’m sorry (that) I couldn’t meet you at the station.
Noun clause from question
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- Noun clause from question that placed after verb that needs 2 objects perhaps has
function as one of or the two objects.
E.g. Indirect object direct object
Give the man what is in this envelope
Give whoever comes to the door what is in this envelope
- Noun clause from question perhaps begun by question words that have function as :
1. Pronoun : who (ever), what (ever), which (ever)
2. Adjective : whose, what (ever), which (ever)
3. Adverb : how (ever), when (ever), where (ever), why
e.g. We don’t know who will be caning from the employment agency.
- In noun clause from question, subject and verb have general structure, namely after
introductory word.
e.g. Noun Clause Clause Original Question Introductory Subject Verb Word
I don’t know whether he did it Did he do it ? When they are coming when are they coming ? Who she is who is she ? What her name is what is her name? Noun clause from request
- Noun clause from request introduced by that.
This clause most is often as subject of the verb that stacks request, advice, desire, etc.
e.g. He is requesting that a company car be placed at his hospital.
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- Sometimes that at the beginning of clause can be substituted by infinitive structure
after verbs that shown request.
( verbs of requesting )
Advise Ask Beg Command Desire I Forbidden him to leave soon or that he leave soon Order Request Require Argue
- Subject from that clause is often in passive form verbs of requesting by anticipatory if
structure.
e.g. I was requested that all gentlemen wear coats tied.
Noun clause from exclamation
Noun clause from exclamation introduced by same that introduce exclamation, they
are : what, what a, or how.
e.g. 1. Exclamation : How beautiful his wife is!
Noun clause : I’m amazed at how beautiful his wife is.
2. exc. : What a beautiful figure his wife has!
Noun clause : He is always boasting about what a beautiful figure
his wife has.
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3. Exclamation : How small their house was!
Noun clause : I was astonished at how small their house was.
B. Adjective clause or relative clause is a clause that has function as adjective that
modifies noun / pronoun.
e.g. I have read the book (that) you just mentioned.
Based on the antecedent that shown by introductory words, there are 2 kinds of
adjective clauses:
1. Relative pronoun
2 Relative adverb
1. Relative pronoun
Is adjective that use conjunction of relative pronoun.
e.g. a. The boy is called Amin.
b. He gave me a present.
- The boy who gave me a present is called Amin. or
- The boy who is called Amin gave me a present.
2. Relative adverb
- Why that became adverb conjunction, some time can be changed by that or
can be omitted.
e.g. 1. The reason (that) I came should be obvious to you.
2. The reason (why) I came should be obvious to you.
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3. The reason I came should be obvious to you.
- When or where and a preposition of place can be changed each other added
by which.
e.g. 1. The small town in which (= where) I was born has grown to a large
metropolis.
2. The day on which (= when) they were to leave finally arrived.
Sometimes that can substitute where or when.
e.g. 1. The day that (or when, on which) the trial was to take place was a
stormy one.
2. Piz suggests a good place that (or where) we can meet.
¾ Some important things about Relative clause :
1. Adjective clause often used in pattern: noun + of which. This form especially
use in formal written English. In this pattern adjective clause usually modifies
‘something’.
e.g. We have an antique table.
The top of it has jade inlay.
- We have an antique table. The top of which has jade inlay.
2. Adjective clause often used to state quantity with of. This idiom of quantity
after pronoun, and only whom, which, and whose that used in this form.
Idiom of quantity with of:
- some of - on of
- none of - many of
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- both of - each of, etc
e.g. In my class there are 20 students.
Most of them are from the outside java.
- In my class there are 20 students, most of who are from the outside
java.
Punctuation of adjective clause
1. Don’t use comma (,) if adjective clause needed to identify that explain by it.
2. Use comma (,) if adjective clause has function just for giving apposition and doesn’t mean to identify noun that explain by it. e.g. 1. The professor who teaches chemistry 101 is an excellent lecturer.
2. Professor Wilsson, who teaches chemistry 101, is an excellent lecturer.
C. Adverbial clause is clause that has function as adverb namely modifies verb.
e.g. He came here when the bell ring.
Adverbial clause usually classificate based on ‘meaning/purpose’ from the
conjunction. Kinds of adverbial clause:
1. Clause of time
Clause shows time. It usually made by using following conjunction
After before no sooner ….than….. While as by the time etc.
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e.g. Shut the door before you go out.
2. Clause of place
Clause shows place. It usually made by using following conjunctions.
Where nowhere anywhere
e.g. They sat down wherever they could find empty seats.
3. Clause of contrast
Clause shows a contradiction between two accidents.
It usually made by using following conjunction:
although though even though whereas even if in spite of as the time etc.
e.g. As the time you were sleeping, we were working hard.
4. Clause of manner
Clause of manner show the way how an action done or happened it usually made
as how like in that etc.
by following conjunction:
e.g. He did as I told him.
5. Clause of purpose and result
Clause shows relation purpose and result. It usually made by following
conjunctions.
(in order ) that so that in the hope that to the end that less in case etc.
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so that Subject ……..+ In the hope that + subject In order e.g. She bought a book so (that) she could learn English.
6. Clause of cause and effect
Clause shows relation caution and effect. It usually made with form:
(1) Subject + verb + so + adjective + that + verb
adverb
e.g. Rina ran so fast that she broke the previous speed record.
(2) Subject + verb + so + many + plural count noun + that + subject + verb
few
e.g. The Smith had so many children that they formed their own baseball
team.
Subject + verb + + so + much + no count + that + s + verb
little
e.g. He has invested so much money in the project that he can’t abandon it
now.
(3) Subject + verb + such+ a + adjective + singular count noun + that ….
OR
Subject + verb + so + adjective + a + singular count noun + that + …
e.g. It was such as a hot day that we decided to stay indoors.
OR
It was so that a day that we decided to stay indoors.
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Subject + verb + such + adjective + plural count noun + that + subject + verb
non count noun
e.g. She has such exceptional abilities that everyone is sea love of her.
Beside that, to show relation of clause and effect, we can use the other forms
1. By using preposition :
- because of
- due to
- due to the fact that
Subject + verb (be) …. + Because of + noun phrase due to
Because of + noun phrase + S + verb (be) ….. Due to
e.g. Because of the cold weather, we stayed home.
2. By using conjunction
- because - since - now that
- as - as / long as - in as much as
e.g. Because he was sleepy, he went to bed.
3. By using transition words: Therefore and consequently
e.g. Ai didn’t study. Therefore/consequently he failed the test.
7. Clause of condition
Clause shows existence of precondition between two related actions. It usually
made by using conjunction:
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- If, even if
- Unless, if . . . not
- In the even that, or in even that
- In case
- If only, etc
E.g. If I see him, I will invite him to the party tomorrow.
H. S E N T E N C E
Sentence is a group of words that has least one subject and one predicate and has complete meaning. e.g. Budi is writing a letter now.
There are some elements of sentence as follows:
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A. Subject
Subject is something becomes topic of speaking. To know subject of a sentences we
can offer a question: Who? or What?
Subject in active sentences is person or something that doing work.
e.g. Ali is reading a newspaper. Who?. Kinds of subject are:
1. A Simple subject:
- a noun
e.g. Birds fly in the sky.
- a pronoun
e.g. She sings beautifully.
- Adjective used as noun.
e.g. The quite are thoughtful.
- an infinitive used as a noun
e.g. To say is easy.
- a participle used as noun
e.g. Flying is fun.
2. Compound Subject
Subject consists of two words or more as a unity.
e.g. The book is on the table.
In a sentences that has no subject, it and there can be a subject.
e.g. It is a nice day today
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B. Predicate
Predicate is a word that modifies subject. To know predicate of a sentences we can
ask question: How? Why?
e.g. - Verbal sentences:
I write a letter
- Nominal sentences
I am a student
C. Object
Object is noun or pronoun that becomes the target of predicate object of transitive
verb can be divided two kinds, namely object that needs one object and object that
needs two objects. In English, there are two kids of object :
1. Direct object (Od)
2. Indirect object (Oi)
e.g. She gives me a book. (me = Oi, book = Od)
D. Complements
Complement is a word that make complete meaning of verb in a sentence. There are
two kinds of complement:
1. Subjective complement that complete a subject (Cs)
2. Objective complement that complete an object (Co)
Complement can be made in many forms, but most generally are :
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1. Adjective 3. Preposition with object
2. Noun 4. Adverb
Complement needed by:
1. Transitive verb to complete the object. Kind’s transitive verbs are appointed,
choose, find, elect, etc.
e.g. The news made him sad. (sad = Co)
2. Intransitive verb to complete the subject. Kinds intransitive verb are appear,
come, fall, remain, etc.
e.g. He grew happier gradually. (Happier = Cs)
3. Helping verb/linking verb is word that connects subject and its complement.
Kinds of linking verb are to be (am, is, are, was, were, will, be, etc.)
e.g. He is a teacher. (Teacher = Cs)
E. Adjunct
Adjunct is words that modify object or subject in a sentence.
e.g. 1. We often speak English
2. Budi goes to school by bus every day.
Based on the using, there are four kinds of sentences:
1. Declarative sentence is a statement: positive or negative, true or false.
e.g. John is happy
2. Interrogative sentences
a. Yes/no question
auxiliary (to be) + subject + verb
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modal (predicate)
e.g. (+) You are going to school every day.
(?) Are you going to school every day?
Do, does, did + subject + verb + ……
e.g. (+) He come here last night.
(?) Did he came here last night?
b. Question word : When, where, how, etc.
Qw + auxiliary/modals + subject + verb + (complement) ….
e.g. (+) Bakri lives in Kendari.
(?) Where does Bakri live?
3. Imperative sentence includes wish, pray, etc.
Subject of imperative sentence the second person, and usually added by please. In
written form, imperative sentence always marked by exclamation mark and the
verb always verb one.
e.g. Please open the door !
Negative imperative sentence formed by adding word Don’t.
e.g. don’t close the door!
It in imperative sentences there is no verb, so we must add ‘be’. The negative
sentence is also by adding word Don’t.
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e.g. (+) Be quiet!
(?) Don’t be angry!
4. Exclamatory sentence is a sentence that states exclamatory or spontaneous speak
because of surprise, sad, etc. in written sentence it usually marked by exclamation
mark. An exclamatory sentence can be a complete form with subject and verb or
incomplete form namely a sentence without subject or verb.
a. One of form that used general in exclamatory sentence is:
- What + noun (phrase) + subject + verb
e.g. What beautiful hair (she has) !
What + ….. Used together with noun or plural noun phrase or uncountable
noun.
- What a + noun (phrase)
e.g. What a beautiful it is !
What a + … only used singular countable noun or noun phrase
b. What in the form above can be changed with how. The difference is if what is
should be related with noun or noun phrase, so how must be related with
adjective or adjective phrase or adverb (phrase).
How + adjective / adverb (phrase) (phrase) e.g. How wonderful (you are) !
c. Exclamatory sentence can be certain idioms, such as: That’s splenoid! God
heaven! Etc.
F. Based on structure, there are 4 kinds of sentence:
1. Simple sentence
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Simple sentence is a sentence that has only one main clause that expresses an
idea.
e.g. Birds fly in the sky.
2. Compound sentence
Compound sentence is a sentence that contains main clause or more that express
two ideas or more. The clauses are conjunct by conjunction.
Kinds of conjunction:
- But - as soon as
- and - so
- because - unless
- before - therefore
- after - so that, etc.
e.g. Udin happy but Budi is sad.
3. Complex sentence
Complex sentence is a sentence that contains a main clause and one or more
dependent clause, and between the two sentences conjunct by relative pronoun.
The relative pronoun are who, whom, which, that and whose.
- Who : connect subordinate clause with person (subject)
- Whom : connect subordinate clause with person (object)
- Which : connect subordinate clause with things (subject/object)
- That : connect subordinate clause with person / things (subject / object)
- Whose : connect subordinate clause with possessive things (subject / object)
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e.g. Ridwan who speaks English well is the best student in the class.
4. Compound – complex sentence
Compound – complex sentences is collaboration between compound sentence and
complex sentence. It has one or more main clause and one or more dependent
clause.
e.g. I just visited Mr. Nurdin who was taken to the hospital three days ago and
brought him a bunch of flower which my son bought. From a flower – shop
near my office.
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BIBLIOGRHAPHY
1. Mastering English Grammar. Prayitno, am. cv. Armythas Kurnia Surabaya
2. Mastering English Grammar. Ladd, M.J. Titik Terang Jakarta.
3. www. Eslbase.com/grammar/structure/a/causative
4. web 2.uvcs.uvic.ca/elc/study zone/410/grammar/causitive.
5. Jack, Saharuddin Hasan. 2000. The Easiest Way of Comprehending. Jakarta :
Batavia Press
6. Swan, Michael.1980. Practical English Usage. New York : Oxford University Press
7. Azar, Betty S., Understanding and Using English Grammar, Prentice- Hall, New
Jersey, 1989.
8. Frank, Marcella. Modern English; a practical reference guide, Prentice –Hall,
Inc., Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, 1972.
9. ______., Oxford Learned Pocket Dictionary.O.U.P., London.
10. Ridwansyah. Mastering English Grammar, all you want to know about grammar.
Puspa Swara. Jakarata. 2006.
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HAND OUT GRAMMAR II
Drs. ROHMANA, M. Hum., La Ode NGGAWU, S. Pd., M. Si.
ENGLISH DEPARTMENT TEACHER TRAINING AND EDUCATIONAL FACULTY HALUOLEO UNIVERSITY KENDARI 2008
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