58 FEDERAL PROBATION Volume 80 Number 1 ArticleTrends Titlein the Criminality and Victimization of the Elderly

Peter C. Kratcoski Emeritus/Adjunct Professor, Kent State University Maximilian Edelbacher Austrian Federal Police, Retired, Academic Senior Advisory Council to the United Nations (ACUNS)

THOSE DEVOTED TO THE study of crime category from another. Age is a continuous of crime statistics. The changes in the victim- and criminal behavior have learned through variable having a definite starting and ending ization of the elderly were also analyzed, using their research that several variables are fairly time period, while the categorizations of age the same methodology. Since statistics on the reliable in predicting the amount of crime and are discrete variables. The development of age crimes or victimization of the elderly were types of crimes that will be committed by spe- categories is heavily influenced by the specific not available for all European countries, an cific categories of offenders. These variables socio-economic characteristics of a society exhaustive comparable analysis between the are age, gender, and socio-economic status. during a specific time period. For example, United States and European countries could The large proportion of violent crimes will a young person ten or twelve years old may not be completed. The proportion of the pop- be committed by younger (18-45) age males be expected to take on the role of an adult in ulation in the older age groups is increasing in in the lower socio-economic categories. The some societies and work 10 hours or more most of the countries throughout the world, proportion of violent crimes will decline as each day in a factory. In other societies, a particularly in the economically developed the ages of the criminal offenders increase. person age 15 or 16 may still be considered a countries, but there is no agreement among As the ages of the offenders approach what child and prohibited by law from engaging in researchers on the specific age that should is referred to as elderly, the proportion of certain types of work. In regard to the elderly, be used to categorize the “elderly.” Fattah and violent crimes committed by those in this innovations in health care, diet, communi- Sacco (1989) note that some of the research category constitutes a very small part of the cations, and types of work performed have on older offenders and victims of crime cat- entire violent crime total. This finding holds resulted in a longer life span and generally a egorizes the older person as age 50 and above; true regardless of the gender and socio-eco- more active lifestyle. While the behavior of other researchers use 60 years and above as nomic characteristics of the elderly offenders. persons in specific age groups may differ from the cut-off point, and still other researchers However, when the analysis focuses on the that of other age groups, the behavior of those have used 65 and above as the age to define victims of crime, the elderly who are victim- in the same age group may also differ during the elderly. In some of the research, the older ized are over-represented in several types of different periods of time or stages in the eco- criminal offender and older victim are cat- criminal victimizations. These include theft, nomic development of a society. egorized as early old age at 64 to 74, advanced financial fraud, and physical abuse. old age as 75 and older, and old-old age as Methodology 85 and above. The FBI (Crime in the United The Elderly This paper focuses on changes in the amount States, 2014), in recording arrests made in the The concept of “age” is generally understood and types of crime committed by the elderly United States during a given year, provides a and can be easily measured. It is a continu- and the various methods used to victimize breakdown of arrests by age, but does not use ous variable, but in order to develop a better the elderly. The criminal activity and the vic- labels to categorize the age groups. The FBI understanding of how age is related to one’s timization of the elderly were analyzed by use report does not refer to young age, middle age, development, emotions, and behavior during of statistics and reports from sources in the or elderly. The ages of the arrests made dur- different periods of life, age has been concep- United States and Europe and comparisons ing a given year are categorized into five-year tualized to include different categories such as with prior research. groups, such as 50-54, 55-60, 61-64, 65-70, infant, young child, adolescence, middle age, The criminal behavior of those in the age and 71 and above. In the research presented and old age or elderly. These categories are category referred to as the elderly has changed in this paper, the elderly are defined as being often arbitrarily defined, and there is no agree- in terms of the proportion of the total amount 65 years of age or older. However, the ages 60 ment on the specific age that separates one of crime and specific types of crime. This was and above are used in portions of the analysis. demonstrated through a longitudinal analysis June 2016 CRIMINALITY AND VICTIMIZATION OF THE ELDERLY 59

Theoretical Perspective In (CIA World Factbook and Comparison of Crimes Statistik Austria, 2015: 1), the estimated per- As a result of improvements in healthcare, Committed by the Elderly in the cent of the total population 65 years and older communications, and education, changes in U.S.A. (2000-2013) for the year 2014 was 19.2 percent, with the lifestyles, including the types of employment, Based on FBI statistics (Crime in the United female elderly population exceeding the male and changes in social relationships, the life States, 2000: Table 38:226-227) for the most elderly population by 15 percent. In a report span for the populations of most countries of serious crimes in 2000, the proportion of on the aging of Europe (Carone & Costello, the world has increased. People are living lon- arrests for Serious Crimes (Index Crimes) for 2006), the increase in the proportion of the ger, working longer, and in general have more those in the age category of 65 and older was population of the European nations that is formal and informal contact with many peo- less than 1 percent. For the violent crimes in older is attributed to a decrease in fertility, a ple outside their primary social relationships. the Crime Index (murder, non-negligent man- decrease in the mortality rate, and a higher life These changes result in more opportunity for slaughter, rape, robbery, aggravated assault) expectancy. In a report by the Economic Policy members of the older population to commit for the category age 65 and over, the propor- Committee and the European Commission, crimes, and a higher probability that the older tion of arrests was also less than 1 percent of it was predicted that the total population population will be victimized. For example, the total number of arrests made for violent of the European Union will decrease by 16 in the past, a large proportion of the criminal crimes in 2000. The percent of arrests for percent between 2010 and 2050, while the victimization of the elderly was by family Index property crimes (arson, larceny-theft) elderly population will increase by 77 percent members, relatives, and close acquaintances. for the 65 and over age category was 5 percent. (: 2012). While this may still be the case, the propor- Conclusions based on the number of tion is not as large as in the past, because the Crimes Committed by arrests made for various crimes can be erro- amount of non-primary-group contacts by the the Elderly neous, since a large proportion of reported elderly has increased through communica- crimes are never solved, and it is difficult to Several researchers have used the statistics from tions, the Internet, and other factors. In terms determine the characteristics of the persons the FBI’s Uniform Crime Report to determine of criminal activity, these same changes are who committed these crimes. In addition, the number and types of offenses committed affording the elderly more opportunities to victims of crime often do not report their by the elderly in the United States (Moberg, commit certain types of crime than in the past, victimization for a variety of reasons, includ- 1953; Keller & Vedder, 1968; Schichor, 1984; including fraud, theft, tax evasion, and even ing the fact that the offender is a relative, fear Wilbanks, 1984). There were some differences violent crimes. of retaliation, or belief that reporting will not in the findings of the researchers in regard to In regard to victimization, the lives of stop the victimization. the amount of crime committed by the elderly a larger proportion of the elderly are now One might ask what factors can explain as well as the predominate types of crime under the direction or care of some person why the arrests for all types of crimes were committed by the elderly. These differences or agency other than members of their fam- very small for those persons age 65 and above. can partially be attributed to the fact that dif- ily or relatives. The elderly who voluntarily Several factors must be considered in analyz- ferent age brackets were used to identify the or by circumstances remain in their homes ing crime, including motivation, opportunity, elderly. Such offenses as drunkenness, larceny- may not have the interaction with or emo- and the ability to complete the act. For those in theft, fraud, disorderly conduct, gambling, tional support of close family members. For the elderly age group, the motivation to com- disturbing the peace, and some types of sexual those physically or mentally disabled, the mit a crime may be there, but the opportunity offenses were prevalent for the older offenders need to rely on “outsiders” is more apparent. is not available or the person may not have in the majority of the studies. The amount of When family members are involved in elder- the ability to complete the act. For example, violent crime, including murder, was higher care, these relatives may abuse or steal from an elderly person may think twice about try- than expected for the older offenders. In the the elderly. ing to commit a crime such as robbery, when United States, the researchers projected that there is a good chance that their own personal the actual number of crimes committed by Trends in Size of the Older safety may be threatened. A person might the elderly (65 and older) and the proportion Population (U.S.A. and Europe) have a desire to commit fraud, embezzlement, of the total amount of crime committed by The older population of the United States or forgery, but for a retired person not actively the elderly will continue to increase during (defined as 65 years of age or older) numbered involved in a company or organization the the first part of the 21st Century. This does 39.6 million in 2009. This represented 12.9 per- opportunity does not exist. The proportion of not necessarily mean that there will be an cent of the entire population. Aging Statistics arrests of the elderly for some property crimes evenly distributed increase in crimes com- (Administration on Aging, Administration for such as shoplifting or minor theft, although 5 mitted by the elderly. Some types of crime Community Living: 1) estimate that in 2030 percent of the total, is somewhat larger than will show a decrease in the proportion of the there will be 72.1 million older persons in the the proportion for other crimes, and this can total committed by the elderly, even though U.S., about 19 percent of the population. The be explained by the elderly having the oppor- the proportion of the total population that is same source reports that, since 2000, the pro- tunity and ability to complete the act. Strain older will increase. This can be explained by portion of the U.S. population that is defined theory, as it is applied to older persons on fixed the fact that for some crimes the elderly do not as older has grown at a faster pace than lower incomes who are faced with constantly have the motivation, opportunity, or ability to other age groups in the U.S., and this drastic rising cost of living expenses, can provide an commit the act. increase in the older population is expected to explanation for some forms of crimes com- continue to the year 2030 and perhaps longer. mitted by the elderly, such as theft, larceny, shoplifting, and fraud. Salzmann (1963, p. 54) 60 FEDERAL PROBATION Volume 80 Number 1 suggests that the high incidence of sex crimes rates for such crimes as theft and burglary may because they had no other way to improve among older men may be explained by the be less than 10 percent. Thus, the characteris- their living conditions. needs of some older men to compensate for tics of the offenders for the unsolved crimes Edelbacher observed that those who have feelings of being unattractive, rejection, and are not known. Other crimes such as robbery had a life-long criminal career will generally impotence. In a study of homicides among the and murder have a much higher clearance change their mode of operations and the kind elderly (Kratcoski & Walker, 1988, pp. 74-75), rate (60-80 percent), but the specific age of the of criminal offenses they engage in once they it was found that the “routine activities” persons arrested is not reported. For example, become older. For example, the elderly will theory provides a framework for understand- a police statistical report for the Federal not engage in robbery and burglary, but will ing elderly homicides. The research revealed Republic of (Bundeskriminalamt, still be involved in drug trafficking and all that the majority of the homicides committed Police Statistics 2014, Federal Republic of types of fraud, including financial and credit- by elderly persons occurred in the home and Germany) categorizes suspects by age as chil- card fraud, cybercrime, and identity theft involved family relationships, with the spouses dren (less than 14), juveniles (14-18), young (Edelbacher, 2015 Personal Observation). of the offenders most often being the victims, adults (18-21) and adults (22-and older). and with the incident leading up to the act The report indicates that almost 28 percent Elderly Victims of Crime being an argument over a family-related mat- of the suspects for 2014 were in the adult (United States) ter, such as money, drinking, or the quality of category, a 3.2 percent increase over 2013. In the National Elder Abuse Incident the meals served. However, the report does not reveal what Study—1996, completed by the United States proportion of these adult suspects were in Administration on Aging, the federal agency Analysis of Trends in the “elderly” age category. Several of the Elderly Crime responsible for policy matter in elder abuse, it crimes that showed significant increases in was concluded that, “The types of elder abuse When the 2013 FBI arrest statistics are com- 2014, such as fraudulent obtaining of services from the most common to the least common pared with the 2000 arrest statistics, with age (15 percent increase), fraud using unlawfully were neglect, emotional/psychological abuse, being the variable used in the comparisons obtained credit cards (10.2 percent increase), financial/material exploitation, and physical (Crime in the United States, 2013: Table shoplifting (2.6 percent), account opening abuse” (Fryling, 2009: 84). In addition, it was 38:46), we find that the proportion of all Index and transfer fraud (33.9 percent), and drug concluded that probably only 20 percent of Crimes arrests for the 60-64 age category and offenses (9.2 percent), are all crimes that the actual number of elder abuse cases are the 65 and over age category increased from the elderly might be motivated to commit or reported and substantiated. less than 1 percent to 2.2 percent. While the would likely have the opportunity to commit. Mason and Morgan (Crimes Against the percentage of arrests for Index Crimes for the Many of the countries of Europe have Elderly, 2003-2013) developed estimates of elderly is still small, it is important to note that experienced increases in street crimes such the property crime and nonfatal violent crime the proportion increased significantly over as robbery and gang fighting, in which some victimization of the elderly (age 65 and older) the more than 10 years between the two time of the participants are “elderly.” Some of the for the years 2003 to 2013. In their report, it periods. Arrests for specific violent crimes violence may be the result of fights between was found that: (murder and non-negligent manslaughter) for elderly couples and friends originating from VV Elderly homicides rates declined 44 per- those in the age category of 65 and older were arguments over small matters that become cent, from 3.7 homicides per 100,000 significantly higher in 2013, as were arrests for physical and others may be the result of clashes persons in 1993 to 2.1 per 100,000 in 2011; property crimes such as larceny-theft, com- between ethnic and racial groups. These vio- VV More than half (56 percent) of the elderly pared with the arrests for these crimes in 2000. lent encounters, often between the native violent crime victims reported the victim- When a comparison of property crime arrests population and a recent immigrant group, will ization to the police, compared to more for the two time periods (2000-2013) was generally include participants from several than 1/3 (38 percent) for persons age 12 made, the same trend of an increase in arrests age groups, the young as well as the old. The to 24; and for those in the older age categories was mani- increase in the life span and the accompanying VV Among the elderly violent crime victims, fested. The proportion of the total arrests for physical and mental disabilities many elderly about 59 percent reported being victimized fraud, forgery/counterfeiting, embezzlement, persons experience have resulted in some acts at or near their home. receiving stolen property, and commercial of violence between intimates such as mercy The matter of elder abuse is becoming more vice, and arrests for family-related offenses killing and homicide-suicide pacts. important as people are now living longer and was not significantly different when the 65 The number of cases of robbery, bur- thus the elderly make up a larger percentage and older age groups were compared for 2000 glary, and fraud (Edelbacher, 2015: Personal of the entire population of most nations. It is and 2013. For the 60 and above offenders, Observations) has increased as a result of predicted (National Institute of Justice, Elder there was a slight increase in the proportion older persons losing their employment, losing Abuse, 2015: 1) that by 2025 more than 62 of arrests made in 2013 for driving under the their homes, being neglected by their families, million Americans will be 65 years old or influence, liquor law violations, and vagrancy, and not having any secure source of income. older and 7.4 million will be 85 years old or compared to 2000. For example, Edelbacher recalls: older. The expected 62 million elderly (65 and Crimes by the Elderly in Europe A group of elderly men who had engaged older) in 2025 will be a 78 percent increase in burglary when they were young decided over the number of elderly in the U.S. in 2001. It is difficult to obtain reliable statistical data to start the “Gang of the Elderly” and In a study of the extent of elder abuse victim- on elderly offenders in Europe for several resume the type of criminal activities they ization (National Institute of Justice, Extent reasons. As in the United States, the clearance had engaged in when they were young of Elder Abuse Victimization, 2015: 1), it was June 2016 CRIMINALITY AND VICTIMIZATION OF THE ELDERLY 61 found that 11 percent of the elderly reported VV Health Care/Medicare/Health Insurance safety. She was living alone, having been a at least one form of maltreatment—emotional, Fraud; widow for many years. At the beginning physical, sexual, or potential neglect—during VV Counterfeiting Prescription Drugs; of each month, she would go out with her the past year. Financial exploitation by a fam- VV Funeral and Cemetery Scams; dog, her shopping bags, and the keys to ily member in the past year was reported by VV Fraudulent Anti-Aging Products; her flat in one hand through an alleyway 5.2 percent of the elderly. The risk for elderly VV Telemarketing Scams such as the “The that went directly to the bank to cash her maltreatment is higher for: Pigeon Drop,” “The Fake Accident Play,” pension check. Although I explained to her VV Individuals living in low income and “Charity Scams”; several times that she was an easy target households; VV Internet Fraud and Email Phishing Scams; for robbers, she did not want to change her VV Individuals who are unemployed or retired; VV Investment Schemes; pattern of behavior” (Edelbacher-Personal VV Individuals who report being in VV Homeowner/Reverse Mortgage Scams; Observations). poor health; Sweepstakes and Lottery Scams; and The This example illustrates why the elderly are VV Individuals who had experienced prior Grandparent Scam. vulnerable to crime. They are trusting, set in traumatic experiences; and A study by the Princess Clark-Wendel their behavior patterns, and often not aware VV Individuals who have low levels of Companies (Financial Fraud: The Top 4 of the changes that have occurred in their social support. Scams Against the Elderly, 2015: 1) lists the communities that might make them more top four scams against the elderly as: vulnerable to becoming victimized. There is Case Study: Serial Murder in a VV The Home Repair Scam; also speculation that the amount of violence Hospital VV The Magazine Subscription Swindle; and neglect of the elderly who are housed in VV During the years 1988 and 1989, in a hospital The Uncollected Derby Winnings Scam; hospitals and nursing homes or under the in , four nurses killed more than thirty and care of their children has increased. These VV elderly patients who were very ill and weak, The Phony Bank Inspector Scam. crimes are often not reported, since the elderly rather than providing these patients with the victims are afraid of accusing their children, support and treatment they needed. When Crimes Against the Elderly in Europe relatives, or other persons caring to them. investigating these murders, the Major Crime Even in cases in which the elderly are the Bureau in Vienna investigated 385 reports of The crime rates in many countries of Europe victims of various types of fraud and scams, suspicious death cases. After the news media increased dramatically after the break-up of the elderly do not report the victimization for revealed the circumstances of the murders, a the Soviet Union. With the uniting of East various reasons, including admitting to others general fear of being mistreated in the hospi- Germany and West Germany and the opening that they were tricked. tals arose among the public and the public felt of the borders of Western Europe with Eastern that there probably were many more cases of European countries, there was an influx of Response to Elderly Crime by maltreatment of the elderly that were never immigrants from many of the Eastern coun- Criminal Justice Agencies detected. During a two-year investigation tries. Most of these immigrants were law With the exception of children and juveniles, period, the Vienna Faculty of Medicine, the abiding and were motivated by employment the criminal codes do not make allowance Department of Forensics, and the Prosecutor’s and opportunities to improve their living for decreasing culpability for crimes commit- Service collected all of the relevant literature conditions. However, conflicts with the native ted based on age. An elderly person who is and evidence about killing of the elderly in population were inevitable, since the new physically and mentally handicapped is still which the modi operandi that characterized groups generally had a different culture and subject to the same punishment as any other killings by the nurses were used, and in the adhered to a set of traditional values and person who is found guilty of a comparable trial twenty cases of murder by the nurses were legal standards. crime. For example, there are a number of substantiated. By receiving worldwide media As the gap between the rich and poor cases of “elderly” persons being given long- th coverage, this case created an awareness of the increased during the latter part of the 20 term prison sentences for mercy killings. In a st vulnerability of the elderly and a call for the century and the early part of the 21 century, study of elderly homicide victims (Kratcoski passage of laws to protect the elderly, not only some groups, particularly the very young and & Walker: 1988), homicide-suicide pacts in Austria, but for other countries. It became the elderly, became more vulnerable. The between elderly couples were made when very clear that, as the populations of the nations elderly in particular became the targets for all one or both of the elderly partners suffered in most of the developed countries of the world types of crime, including robbery, theft, bur- from terminal illness or was in extreme pain. are becoming older, providing humane medi- glaries, and fraud. As many of the elderly are In regard to financial scams and frauds, the cal treatment, economic care, and protection physically handicapped and not able to defend criminal offenders are often older persons for the elderly will become an increasingly dif- themselves if attacked, gangs of youngsters who have been swindling and scamming ficult challenge (Edelbacher, 2015). and single offenders seek out elderly persons people most of their adult lives and thus, when to rob, steal from them, or to burglarize their finally brought to justice, should not be given Victimization of the Elderly by homes. Elderly persons who are coming from Fraud and Scams any special consideration, regardless of their a financial institution or grocery store are older age. In another study of older inmates The National Council on Aging (2015: 1-3) often selected as victims. Reflecting on experi- (Kratcoski, 1992) it was found that several cat- has compiled a list of the top 10 scams target- ences with his mother, Edelbacher recalls, egories of male offenders, such as pedophiles, ing the elderly. These include: I remember very well as a son and police had been sexually molesting children, includ- officer the talks with my mother about her ing their own children and grandchildren, 62 FEDERAL PROBATION Volume 80 Number 1 most of their adult lives. Other cases of older The major legislation pertaining to vic- revealed that crime victims typically obtained offenders arrested for such offenses as public tims of crime that was passed by the federal support from both public and private sources. intoxication, disturbing the peace, and theft government and the state legislations did The majority of the victims (the respondents have probably been in and out of the courts not pertain specifically to elder victims of were predominately younger women) tended and jails most of their adult lives. crime, but took in all victims of crime. The to rely on their family and friends for the The courts and law enforcement officials Victims of Crime Act was passed by the U.S. emotional support needed in dealing with the recognize that the crimes of many elderly, such Congress in 1984. This Act established the trauma that is often experienced when one is as shoplifting of food, receiving unqualified Crime Victim Fund. The funds are used to victimized, particularly in those cases when services, and even violent acts against another support victim assistance and compensation the action involves violence, loss of life of a person, are the result of recent circumstances, programs throughout the country. All victims, family member, or bodily harm. They sug- and these persons are more in need of assis- regardless of their age, can apply for assistance gested that the victim service agency can be tance than punishment. The diversion of older and compensation if having received physical an important intermediary between the victim offenders from the criminal justice system is or material harm from a criminal act. The and the criminal justice system by providing becoming an accepted norm. Police transport Office of Victims of Crime was established a communication link to the system and by offenders suspected of being mentally ill to a in 1988. This federal agency provides grants educating the victim on how the system oper- mental health center rather than to jail. The to victim assistance programs and training ates and what to expect from the system at older offender who is a substance abuser is for service providers. Other legislation, such various stages of the process. (Tontodonato & eligible for “drug court” processing rather as the Violence Against Women Act (1994), Kratcoski, 1995:35.) than the normal court processing, and the does not specifically pertain to older women, In many police jurisdictions, the security older financial crime offender is often allowed but older women who qualify are eligible for needs of the elderly have been recognized, to make restitution rather than being given a the mandatory restitution required by the Act. resulting in the development of programs criminal sanction. The United Nations has begun to recognize to assure the safety of older citizens. These the extent of criminal victimization through- programs include the assignment of police Crime Prevention Strategies for out the world and the need to support victims officers to housing complexes for older resi- the Elderly of war and crimes committed by corrupt lead- dents, providing crime prevention education The methods being employed to prevent the ers of nations. In 1985, The United Nations for the elderly, and establishing commu- victimization of the elderly and to assist those adopted the Declaration of Basic Principles nity policing programs in neighborhoods who have been victimized consist of both of Justice for Victims of Crime and Abuse of where the large majority of the residents are information giving and operational program- Power (Wilson, 2009: ix-xii). senior citizens. ming. In the United States, the National Crime Prevention Council (2015:1) states that the Crime Victim Assistance Conclusion key components of a viable crime prevention Agencies The proportion of the population that is plan for the elderly should include: Victim Service Programs were established considered elderly has increased rather sig- VV A communications network to keep the throughout the United States during the 1980s. nificantly in most of the countries of the elderly alert to potential crime; Most of the agencies providing these programs world during recent years. This increase in VV Information and training on how to report were initially funded by grants from the Office the elderly population is expected to continue crime; of Victims of Crime. These agencies are either well into the 21st century. This change in the VV Services to support elderly victims in independently administered or are attached to elderly portion of the population has led to dealing with the physical, emotional and a government agency, most often the state or increases in the amount of crime commit- financial impacts of crime; and county prosecutor’s office. Victim assistance ted by the elderly, as well as increases in the VV Access to products, training, and other ser- agencies provide a variety of services to those number of elderly persons who have become vices to help prevent victimization. victims of crime who ask for assistance. These victims of crime. It is recommended that the information services include assisting the victim through The amount and types of crimes commit- provided on the victimization of the elderly be the court system, providing assistance in ted by older offenders is related to several factual and truthful. It is important to avoid crisis intervention situations, assisting the factors, including the older offenders’ moti- creating such a fear of crime that the elderly victim with the completion of the forms for vation, opportunities, and ability to commit are afraid to leave their homes to shop, go to requests for compensation, assistance with the crimes. The majority of property crimes church, or engage in social activities. It was the completion of impact statements, engag- committed by the elderly may be motivated suggested that the elderly engage in social ing in crime prevention programs, providing by a desire to fulfill their basic needs, such as interaction with family, friends, and others in training in personal safety, visiting victims at food and shelter. The mental state of the older the community to the extent possible. their homes, making referrals of victims to offender may explain the causes of sex-related counseling agencies, and even locating hous- crimes, violent crimes, public order crimes, Strategies Involving Action ing and funds for victims who need to satisfy and crimes relating to drug and alcohol abuse. Programs immediate needs relating to food and shelter. In regard to providing assistance to elderly The action strategies for preventing (Tontodonato & Kratcoski, 1995:16) victims of crime, although crime victim assis- victimization of the elderly consist of leg- The findings of the research on crime tance programs have been in operation for islation, providing services, and law victims’ utilization of services completed several decades, the elderly victims of crime enforcement programs. by Tontodonato and Kratcoski (1995: iii) have not received special attention until June 2016 CRIMINALITY AND VICTIMIZATION OF THE ELDERLY 63 recently. It is now recognized that some older Fattah, E. A., & Sacco, V.F. (1989). Crime and National Crime Prevention Council. (2015). victims have needs for assistance that are quite victimization of the elderly. New York: Strategy: Crime prevention services for the different from the needs of younger victims. Springer-Verlang. elderly, 1-3. Retrieved 6/1/2015 from www. These include assistance with transportation, Federal Bureau of Investigation. (2001). Crime nij.gov/topics/crime/elder-abuse/pages/ special housing, financial security, personal in the United States, 2000. Washington, welcome.aspx D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office. National Institute of Justice. (2015). Extent physical care, and psychological counseling. Federal Bureau of Investigation. (2014). Crime of elder abuse victimization, 1. Retrieved Having a sense of security and being able to in the United States, 2013. Washington, 5/11/2015 from www.nij.gov/topics/crime/ live without fear for one’s personal safety are D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office. elder-abuse/pages/extent.aspx also major concerns. Fryling, T. (2009). Elder abuse, in The Praeger Princess Clark-Wendel Companies. (Sungard handbook of victimology, J. K. Wilson (Ed.), ASVoice, 2015: 1-5). Financial fraud: The References Santa Barbara, CA: Praeger, pp. 83-85. top 4 scams against the elderly. 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