DOCSLIB.ORG

Jan Van Eyck's Arnolfini Portrait and Copies After His Woman And

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Jan Van Eyck's Arnolfini Portrait and Copies After His Woman And CHAPTER 1 Jan van Eyck’s Arnolfini Portrait and Copies after His Woman and Her Toilette: Recollections of the Alhambra’s Constellation Halls, the Hamman, and Alchemy Barbara von Barghahn In October 1428 Jan van Eyck (ca. 1390–1441) was sent to Lisbon as a member of a delegation charged with the mission of negotiating a marriage between Philip the Good, Duke of Burgundy, and King João I of Portugal’s only daugh- ter, Isabella.1 The account of his diplomatic visit (Brussels, Archives Générales du Royaume, CC 132, folios 157–166) relates Van Eyck dispatched two realistic portraits of the Portuguese princess to Bruges in February 1429. The Flemish embassy then made a pilgrimage to Santiago de Compostela and visited Juan II of Castile before traveling south to Granada. At the magnificent Nasrid castle and citadel of the Alhambra they had an audience with Sultan Muhammad VIII (r. 1417–19; 1427–30) and journeyed to some “distant lands” before returning to Portugal by July of 1429.2 In October Van Eyck and the Flemish delegation sailed for Flanders with Isabella’s fleet. In 1433, a few years after the ducal wedding festivities in Bruges, Van Eyck purchased a house on Goudenstraat, near the dock where foreign merchants maintained their grand residences and conducted business. One merchant the artist knew well was Giovanni Arnolfini, originally from Lucca. No visitor to the Alhambra remains unaffected by allure of the Nasrid “red castle”.3 This essay addresses the ways in which Van Eyck’s diplomatic visit 1 Monique Sommé, Isabelle de Portugal, duchesse de Bourgogne. Une femme au pouvoir au xve siècle. Presses Universitaires du Septentrion, 1998; Aline S. Taylor, Isabel of Burgundy. The Duchess Who Played Politics in the Age of Joan of Arc, 1397–1471. Madison Books, 2001. 2 Jean-Gabriel Lemoyne, “Autour du voyage de Jean van Eyck au Portugal in 1428.” Cahiers de Bordeaux / Journées Internationales d’Etudes d’Art, 1954, pp. 17–26; Charles Sterling, “Jan van Eyck avant 1432.” Revue de l’Art, 33, 1976, pp. 7–82, 33–7; Barbara von Barghahn, Jan van Eyck and Portugal’s “Illustrious Generation,” Pindar Press, 2013–14, 2 vols. 3 Robert Irwin, The Alhambra. Harvard University Press, 2004; María Jesús Viguera Molíns, et al., editors, El reino nazarí de Granada (1232–1492) política, instituciones. Espacio y economía. Historia de España Menéndez Pidal. Espasa-Calpe, 2000. © koninklijke brill nv, leiden, 2018 | doi:10.1163/9789004379596_003 22 von Barghahn to Granada affected his art—especially the influence of Islamic allegory, as- tronomy, and alchemy. The Arnolfini Portrait (1434, London, National Gallery) remains one of the most engaging works by the Northern Renaissance master, yet it continues to perplex scholars. This essay does not discard previous or current scholarly opinions. Rather, the author presents a new interpretation that considers Van Eyck’s visit to the Alhambra and the relationship of The Arnolfini Portrait to another ubiquitous Van Eyck painting. Upon his return to Flanders, Van Eyck is believed to have painted a few “harem” subjects. Although these works have not survived, two copies exist of Woman at Her Toilette. One is an image within Willem van Haecht’s larger painting of 1628 showing the Van Eyck original painting in the collection of Cornelis van der Geest (d. 1638), and the other is a workshop replica. This essay revisits the notion Julius Held first proposed—that Van Eyck conceived Woman at Her Toilette as a pendant, or iconographical compliment, to The Arnolfini Portrait. Pivotal to this new interpretation is the persistence of Van Eyck’s memory of Islamic imagery— specifically, the parietal epigraphy and the starry ceiling decoration in the chambers forming the Alhambra’s Courtyard of the Lions, particularly the Two Sisters Hall. Philip the Good’s commercial interests would have prompted the Burgun- dian delegation’s excursion to Granada—probably to parley with the Sultan about trading arrangements in such luxury commodities as carpets, silks, ivory caskets, inlaid wooden objects, tooled leather, and spices. The Nasrid strong- hold of the Alhambra crowns Granada’s lofty Sabīkah plateau. Passing through the southwest outer Gate of Justice, an archway situated on the preferred route taken by foreign embassies,4 the Flemish ambassadors would have progressed to the administrative sector (qadi) to wait in the Golden Hall Courtyard (Fig. 1.1). The stuccoed south wall of the patio refers to “a gate where [roads] bifurcate and through [which] the West envies the East.”5 Oriented on a north-south axis, the Sultan’s Palace (Qaşr al-Sultan; Comares Palace) was planned by Ismail I (r. 1309–33), initiated by his son Yusuf I (r. 1333– 54), and completed in about 1370 under Muhammad V (r. 1354–55; 1362–91) (Fig. 1.2). In 1429 the massive Comares Tower functioned as a diwān, a spacious gallery reserved for state occasions, such as the reception of envoys. Passing through a double-arched entrance to this hall, Van Eyck would have beheld Muhammad VIII seated on a short-legged, elevated throne that was draped with a silk canopy and located in the central niche of the tower’s north wall.6 4 Oleg Grabar, The Alhambra. Allen Lane, 1978, 43. 5 Ivi, 54–7. 6 Todd Willmert, “Alhambra Palace Architecture: An Environmental Consideration of its Inhabitation.” Muqarnas, 27, 2010, pp. 157–88, 160–7; James Dickie, and Yaqub Zaki, “The .
Load more

Recommended publications
  • William Holman Hunt's Portrait of Henry Wentworth Monk
    Virginia Commonwealth University VCU Scholars Compass Theses and Dissertations Graduate School 2017 William Holman Hunt’s Portrait of Henry Wentworth Monk Jennie Mae Runnels Virginia Commonwealth University Follow this and additional works at: https://scholarscompass.vcu.edu/etd © The Author Downloaded from https://scholarscompass.vcu.edu/etd/4920 This Thesis is brought to you for free and open access by the Graduate School at VCU Scholars Compass. It has been accepted for inclusion in Theses and Dissertations by an authorized administrator of VCU Scholars Compass. For more information, please contact [email protected]. William Holman Hunt’s Portrait of Henry Wentworth Monk A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in Art History at Virginia Commonwealth University. Jennie Runnels Virginia Commonwealth University Department of Art History MA Thesis Spring 2017 Director: Catherine Roach Assistant Professor Department of Art History Virginia Commonwealth University Richmond, Virginia April 2017 Contents Acknowledgments Introduction Chapter 1 Holman Hunt and Henry Monk: A Chance Meeting Chapter 2 Jan van Eyck: Rediscovery and Celebrity Chapter 3 Signs, Symbols and Text Conclusion List of Images Selected Bibliography Acknowledgements In writing this thesis I have benefitted from numerous individuals who have been generous with their time and encouragement. I owe a particular debt to Dr. Catherine Roach who was the thesis director for this project and truly a guiding force. In addition, I am grateful to Dr. Eric Garberson and Dr. Kathleen Chapman who served on the panel as readers and provided valuable criticism, and Dr. Carolyn Phinizy for her insight and patience.
    [Show full text]
  • The Subject, Sitters, and Significance of the Arnolfini Marriage Portrait
    Venezia Arti [online] ISSN 2385-2720 Vol. 26 – Dicembre 2017 [print] ISSN 0394-4298 Why Was Jan van Eyck here? The Subject, Sitters, and Significance of The Arnolfini Marriage Portrait Benjamin Binstock (Cooper Union for the Advancement of Science and Art, New York City, USA) Abstract Jan van Eyck’s Arnolfini Marriage Portrait of 1434 still poses fundamental questions. An overlooked account explained the groom’s left hand holding his bride’s right hand as a secular, legal morganatic marriage with a bride of lower social rank and wealth. That would explain Van Eyck’s presence as witness in the mirror and through his inscription, and corresponds to the recent identification of the bride and groom as Giovanni di Arrigo Arnolfini and his previously unknown first wife Helene of unknown last name. Van Eyck’s scene can be called the first modern painting, as the earliest autonomous, illusionistic representation of secular reality, provided with the earliest artist’s signature of the modern type, framing his scene as perceived and represented by a particular individual. That is why Jan van Eyck was here. Summary 1 What is being disguised: religious symbolism or secular art? – 2 A morganatic, left-handed marriage. – 3 The sitters: Giovanni di Arrigo Arnolfini and his first wife Helene? – 4 Van Eyck’s Arnolfini Portrait as the first modern painting. – 5 Van Eyck’s Arnolfini Portrait within his oeuvre and tradition. – 6 Van Eyck’s Arnolfini Portrait and art historical method. Keywords Jan van Eyck. Signature. Arnolfini. Morganatic Marriage. Modern painting. For Marek Wieczorek What is the hardest of all? What you think is the easiest.
    [Show full text]
  • EARLY NETHERLANDISH PAINTING Part One
    EARLY NETHERLANDISH PAINTING part one Early Netherlandish painting is the work of artists, sometimes known as the Flemish Primitives, active in the Burgundian and Habsburg Netherlands during the 15th- and 16th-century Northern Renaissance, especially in the flourishing cities of Bruges, Ghent, Mechelen, Leuven, Tounai and Brussels, all in present-day Belgium. The period begins approximately with Robert Campin and Jan van Eyck in the 1420s and lasts at least until the death of Gerard David in 1523, although many scholars extend it to the start of the Dutch Revolt in 1566 or 1568. Early Netherlandish painting coincides with the Early and High Italian Renaissance but the early period (until about 1500) is seen as an independent artistic evolution, separate from the Renaissance humanism that characterised developments in Italy; although beginning in the 1490s as increasing numbers of Netherlandish and other Northern painters traveled to Italy, Renaissance ideals and painting styles were incorporated into northern painting. As a result, Early Netherlandish painters are often categorised as belonging to both the Northern Renaissance and the Late or International Gothic. Robert Campin (c. 1375 – 1444), now usually identified with the Master of Flémalle (earlier the Master of the Merode Triptych), was the first great master of Flemish and Early Netherlandish painting. Campin's identity and the attribution of the paintings in both the "Campin" and "Master of Flémalle" groupings have been a matter of controversy for decades. Campin was highly successful during his lifetime, and thus his activities are relatively well documented, but he did not sign or date his works, and none can be confidently connected with him.
    [Show full text]
  • Why Was Jan Van Eyck Here? the Subject, Sitters, and Significance of the Arnolfini Marriage Portrait
    Venezia Arti [online] ISSN 2385-2720 Vol. 26 – Dicembre 2017 [print] ISSN 0394-4298 Why Was Jan van Eyck here? The Subject, Sitters, and Significance of The Arnolfini Marriage Portrait Benjamin Binstock (Cooper Union for the Advancement of Science and Art, New York City, USA) Abstract Jan van Eyck’s Arnolfini Marriage Portrait of 1434 still poses fundamental questions. An overlooked account explained the groom’s left hand holding his bride’s right hand as a secular, legal morganatic marriage with a bride of lower social rank and wealth. That would explain Van Eyck’s presence as witness in the mirror and through his inscription, and corresponds to the recent identification of the bride and groom as Giovanni di Arrigo Arnolfini and his previously unknown first wife Helene of unknown last name. Van Eyck’s scene can be called the first modern painting, as the earliest autonomous, illusionistic representation of secular reality, provided with the earliest artist’s signature of the modern type, framing his scene as perceived and represented by a particular individual. That is why Jan van Eyck was here. Summary 1 What is being disguised: religious symbolism or secular art? – 2 A morganatic, left-handed marriage. – 3 The sitters: Giovanni di Arrigo Arnolfini and his first wife Helene? – 4 Van Eyck’s Arnolfini Portrait as the first modern painting. – 5 Van Eyck’s Arnolfini Portrait within his oeuvre and tradition. – 6 Van Eyck’s Arnolfini Portrait and art historical method. Keywords Jan van Eyck. Signature. Arnolfini. Morganatic Marriage. Modern painting. For Marek Wieczorek What is the hardest of all? What you think is the easiest.
    [Show full text]
  • Jan Van Eyck's Arnolfini Portrait Author(S): Erwin Panofsky Reviewed Work(S): Source: the Burlington Magazine for Connoisseurs, Vol
    Jan van Eyck's Arnolfini Portrait Author(s): Erwin Panofsky Reviewed work(s): Source: The Burlington Magazine for Connoisseurs, Vol. 64, No. 372 (Mar., 1934), pp. 117- 119+122-127 Published by: The Burlington Magazine Publications Ltd. Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/865802 . Accessed: 12/09/2012 10:56 Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at . http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp . JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact [email protected]. The Burlington Magazine Publications Ltd. is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to The Burlington Magazine for Connoisseurs. http://www.jstor.org JAN VAN EYCK'S ARNOLFINI PORTRAIT BY ERWIN PANOFSKY OR about three quarters of a cen- in the inventories (a man and a woman stand- tury Jan van Eyck's full-length ing in a room and joining hands) is absolutely portrait of a newly married couple unique in northern fifteenth-century panel- (or, to speak more exactly, a man painting, jits identity with the London portrait and a woman represented in the seems to be fairly well established; moreover, act of contracting matrimony)1 has been almost considering that the picture formerly belong- unanimously acknowledged to be the portrait ing to the Hapsburg princesses disappeared of Giovanni Arnolfini, a native of Lucca, who after 1789, and the London portrait appeared in settled at Bruges before 1421 and later attained 1815, lit seems safe to assume that the latter is the rank of a " Conseiller du Duc de identical with the former and was carried off Bourgogne " and " G6n6ral des Finances en during the Napoleonic wars.
    [Show full text]
  • APAH Article Review: Netherlandish Art
    APAH Article Review: Netherlandish Art The work of Jan van Eyck has provoked some of the most extensive scholarship in art history. His extraordinary detail and use of symbolism have enthralled viewers since his work first emerged in the 15 th century. In the early 20 th century, the art historian Erwin Panofsky detailed the use of disguised symbolism in van Eyck’s work and offered a comprehensive method for the consideration of his paintings. Panofsky’s seminal work, Early Netherlandish Painting , specifically interpreted the double portrait of Giovanni Arnolfini and his wife, offering the most influential interpretation of the work. Since then, every art historical investigation of the piece has had to account for Panofsky; no interpretation exists outside the shadow that Early Netherlandish Painting cast. Your assignment is to read and respond to at least two articles related to van Eyck’s work. This is very much like what you will be expected to do next year as you move on to your post-secondary education. Approach this as a practice experience for college. I have listed below a series of articles related to van Eyck located on JSTOR. Select TWO essays to read thoroughly . They are not short, and not all are equally engaging, but each has something unique and interesting to say about van Eyck. Take notes as you read. Find the thesis. Identify the argument and supporting evidence. Evaluate the conclusions. Your written critique of each article should be about two pages in length (assuming normal margins and font size). It should have several organized paragraphs and be well written.
    [Show full text]
  • Optics and Realism in Renaissance
    PORTRAIT OF GIOVANNI ARNOLFINI AND HIS WIFE (opposite page), projected by lenses or mirrors and then filling in the outlines painted in oil on an oak panel by Jan van Eyck in 1434, is cited with paint. The author raises technical questions about the by artist David Hockney as evidence that painters of the early theory, in part by examining in the pages that follow various Renaissance achieved startling realism by tracing images details (highlighted above) from van Eyck’s painting. 76 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN DECEMBER 2004 Optics and Realism i n renaissance a r t A much publicized assertion holds that 15th-century painters achieved a new level of realism with the help of lenses and mirrors. But recent findings cast doubt on that idea By David G. Stork s ’ ) hen we consider the grand trajectory of West- ); FROM “REFLECTIONS OF ern painting, we see something very interest- ing taking place at the dawn of the Renais- this page sance. Before roughly 1425, most images were rather styl- W perspective lines rectified reflection in van Eyck ized, even schematic, but afterward we see paintings that have an almost photographic realism. For instance, Portrait of Giovanni Arnolfini and His Wife, by the early Renais- PROC. MEASURING ART: A SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION sance master Jan van Eyck (1390?–1441), reveals a three- dimensionality, presence, individuality and psychological ); ELIZA JEWETT ( depth lacking in earlier works. For the first time, we find portraits that really look like us. What happened? In seeking to explain the emergence of this remarkable VOL. 36, NO. 3; SUMMER 2004 ( new art, or ars nova as it was called, the celebrated con- temporary artist David Hockney came up with a bold and controversial theory.
    [Show full text]
  • Reflections on Parmigianino's Self Portrait in a Convex Mirror
    Reflections on Parmigianino's Self portrait in a convex mirror: A computer graphics reconstruction of the artist's studio David G. Storka and Yasuo Furuichib aRicoh Innovations, 2882 Sand Hill Road Suite 115, Menlo Park CA 94025 USA and Department of Statistics, Stanford University, Stanford CA 94305 USA bKanagawa, Japan ABSTRACT We built a full computer graphics model of Parmigianino's studio, including convex mirror, in order to explore the artist's likely working methods during his execution of Self portrait in a convex mirror (1523-4). Our model supports Vasari's record that the radius of curvature of a convex mirror matched the radius of curvature of the wood panel support. We find that the image in the painting is consistent with a simple horizontal rectilinear room drawn from a slightly re-oriented and re-positioned mirror. Our optical analyses lead us to recommend an alteration to the current display arrangement in the Kunsthistorisches Museum. Keywords: Parmigianino, Self portrait in a convex mirror, Mannerism, tableau virtuel, computer graphics, art analysis 1. INTRODUCTION Parmigianino's interest in psychological introspection, belief in a shifting impermanent visual reality, experimen- tation in the dark sciences of alchemy, wit, and youthful desire to demonstrate his artistic prowess all find their expression in his small Self portrait in a convex mirror (1523{4), a painting that stunned 16th-century Roman audiences (Fig. 1). Vasari wrote that the artist produced this \bizarre" work as follows: Parmigianino \...began to draw himself as he appeared in a barber's convex glass [mirror]. He had a ball of wood made at a turner's and divided it in half, and on this he set himself to paint all that he saw in the glass.
    [Show full text]
  • The Arnolfini Portrait in 3D
    EUROGRAPHICS 2007 Cultural Heritage Papers The Arnolfini Portrait in 3d Creating Virtual World of a Painting with Inconsistent Perspective P.H. Jansen1, Zs. M. Ruttkay2 1Dept. of Industrial Design Engineering, 2Dept. of Computer Science, University of Twente, The Netherlands Abstract We report on creating a 3d virtual reconstruction of the scene shown in "The Arnolfini Portrait" by Jan van Eyck. This early Renaissance painting, if painted faithfully, should confirm to one-point perspective, however it has several vanishing points instead of one. Hence our 3d reconstruction had to be based on some, from an art historian’s point of view plausible assumptions on choosing a unique vanishing point and measures of certain items in the scene. We compare our approach to similar reconstructions by others. Using professional modeling and image processing computer tools, we created a 3d reconstruction of the geometry of the interior, the textures and the lighting. A perspective view of this model is compared to the original painting, showing high fidelity, but at the same time also large local mismatches due to the inconsistent handling of parallel lines in the original painting, as well as some differences in the reflected image in the mirror. A reconstruction such as ours provides new details of the original scene for scholars, is useful for art historians to find out more about the way the painting was created, and could be used as an installation for exploration in museums or other learning environments by the general public. Categories and Subject Descriptors (according to ACM CCS): 1.3.3 [Computer Graphics]: 3d modeling, cultural heritage 1.
    [Show full text]
  • The Value of Verisimilitude in the Art of Jan Van Eyck
    http://www.jstor.org/stable/2929092 . Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at . http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp . JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact [email protected]. Yale University Press is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to Yale French Studies. http://www.jstor.org This content downloaded from 146.201.208.22 on Wed, 17 Sep 2014 14:51:03 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions LINDA SEIDEL The Value of Verisimilitude in the Art of Janvan Eyck Verisimilitude, the appearanceof truth, was the quality most praised by Bartolommeo Fazio in his midfifteenth-century discussion of Jan van Eyck's painting. In a description of a triptych by Jan,the Genoese humanist noted an Angel Gabriel "with hair surpassingreality," and a donor lacking "only a voice;" Jerome, probablypainted on one of the wings, looked "like a living being in a library,"and the viewer had the impression when standing a bit away from the panel that the room "recedes inwards and that it has complete books laid open in it. ..." Fazio remarked that a viewer could measure the distance between places on a circular map of the world that Janpainted for the Duke of Burgundy;on another painting, the viewer could see both a nude wom- an's back as well as her face and breast through the judicious placement of a mirror.Indeed, Fazio noted, "almost nothing is more wonderful in this work than the mirror painted in the picture, in which you see whatever is represented as in a real mirror."' Although none of the paintings Fazio described has survived, no one doubts or discounts the substance of his praise.
    [Show full text]
  • Transcultural Perspectives in Art History: Jan Van Eyck's Arnolfini
    Transcultural Perspectives in Art History: Jan van Eyck’s Arnolfini Wedding Portrait By: Mallory Evans BA Art History Religious Studies Minor Primary Advisor: Dr. Claire Farago (Art History) Committee Members: Dr. Robert Nauman (Art History Honors) Kerry Reilly (Writing and Rhetoric) April 10, 2017 1 Abstract This thesis investigates the origins of objects and the meaning of gestures in Jan van Eyck’s Arnolfini Wedding Portrait (1434) from a transcultural perspective. Drawing upon the older scholarship, which it seeks to redirect by using reception theory and a de-colonial approach, I conclude that writing history is always strategic, never neutral, and that the historical record itself is laden with unresolvable ambiguities in the present case. For centuries, scholars have examined the painting and its details without reaching a consensus. My thesis examines the various interpretations of the painting through reception theory, taking into account who its intended primary audience and later viewers would have been. My original research emphasizes the necessity of understanding the work through this multicultural lens. Many of the objects and gestures have been identified on the basis of their appearance in multiple works of art made in the same period and region. However, the same elements can be found in different cultural contexts associated with different meanings. In the final analysis, this study intends to open the discussion of the Arnolfini Wedding Portrait to transcultural perspectives by focusing on the extra-European origins of the objects depicted and the multiple meanings assigned to its conventional gestures. 2 Table of Contents I. Introduction……………………………………………………………………………. 4 II. Origins of Objects……………..…………………………………………………….12 III.
    [Show full text]
  • Resurrection Robert David Jinkins Iowa State University
    Iowa State University Capstones, Theses and Graduate Theses and Dissertations Dissertations 2018 Resurrection Robert David Jinkins Iowa State University Follow this and additional works at: https://lib.dr.iastate.edu/etd Part of the Art and Design Commons, and the Esthetics Commons Recommended Citation Jinkins, Robert David, "Resurrection" (2018). Graduate Theses and Dissertations. 16724. https://lib.dr.iastate.edu/etd/16724 This Thesis is brought to you for free and open access by the Iowa State University Capstones, Theses and Dissertations at Iowa State University Digital Repository. It has been accepted for inclusion in Graduate Theses and Dissertations by an authorized administrator of Iowa State University Digital Repository. For more information, please contact [email protected]. Resurrection by Robert Jinkins A thesis submitted to the graduate faculty in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF FINE ART Major: Integrated Visual Art Program of Study Committee: Brent Holland, Major Professor Barbara Walton Barbara Haas The student author, whose presentation of the scholarship herein was approved by the program of study committee, is solely responsible for the content of this thesis. The Graduate College will ensure this thesis is globally accessible and will not permit alterations after a degree is conferred. Iowa State University Ames, Iowa 2018 Copyright © Robert Jinkins, 2018. All rights reserved. ii DEDICATION I would like to dedicate this thesis to Andrew Wyeth, Albrecht Dürer, and Rembrandt. All three of these guys are better than I am and never wrote a thesis. iii TABLE OF CONTENTS Page LIST OF FIGURES ........................................................................................................... iv ACKNOWLEDGMENTS .................................................................................................. v ABSTRACT ....................................................................................................................... vi CHAPTER 1.
    [Show full text]