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National and Space Administration

America’s

America’s Spaceport John F.

“This generation does not intend to founder in the backwash of the coming age of space. We mean to be a part of it — we mean to lead it.” President John Fitzgerald Kennedy September 12, 1962

1 2 Origins Origins w out thissw andtheGulf During thecenturiesthatfollo Cana P Among theseadv ev T t dise st t h W from Asiab w L beginnings T pioneers forg Y ne S t W T ion w he h p o edro MenendezdeA et, ourleapto o he earlyEuropeanexplorerscameinsearc he sandsof aters rev a rife e en aF he hile w a m s n w s c ase spac e g otten leg i e n Columbuslande e v n , c or p a t b eral andafterwhom h of spac h t it b s –some o o e he onflic e a ld ande h nobuilt ountain of o . f r b t t e o J t r se spe h erberated tothesoundsof i o , he front i . r t e ashbuc g e e e h h . F y i d solarsy u n acy re n fi w America’ p t w m a e rom it b e F w l a r o nric y c . unw a ie it c y t ard thestarsisalsoane p t n K enturers w r e d kling era,America’ of - ac h t r isbe i l i up imm plete withIndianlore b u Eter e t e a he y ular ac s e n n he i s unique t st ’ it k of s n s n d viles d t he y t s Space e h e l Europe ingly d at m - o o m, reac nal Y d c a s froze he li n f oming are k d o y t g , J unit i hiev e d SanSalv S n v America w - n ere suc e brought c ean RibaultandAmerig p n i outh –firsttheSpanish,thenF r r v fac h a c e por n t w e ie e n Be c a e u d hing out ans mo s of r ed, ,whic e n me t , w a s i i h ilit . l n s m t beartheimprintof C l u h y i h notablesasJ as bitterlycontestedb nt b e ring Se e n ie e millions s Space alit d ador ( n s a m d t b s ha s i l e t as named. s e , humansandmac i e d ving int r s y a y usk r s r t t t , stalw r . e p pilogue toaric i e o t — v c – c he p a Bahamas) t e fi a appro ets andcannonsaspirates pri e A m e t por h of re he a h d , t A i r e s re o e s ar m ,the he o t c t remainedavir a d f P t d t e e ter n t adv e . h straddledthemainsearoute betw a nt y re e e uan P he r d l T s l ximat e i he c ar t h o ritor T a are a a o V int n prese e imaginat b ’ i enturers p s ri m y d NewW l e once deLeon,Her i v S ,t h andcolorfulpast.analmost a and,w s h espucci, disco u o y c e als andspre p he h , w hine a y theEuropeanpo c o ly p a i d nt u n n l 12,000t c 15t e a ealth, religiousfreedom,and c g e b only s n r p s ha , sunk e p e – ion of orld histor o c I tual wilder h c t e n o e r w he orst renc r t d m m v abe s h e i — e plane e a e o nt a en treasureandhardy n be scaf made fr service structur blockhouse; thepad shack servedasa facilities: atarpaper Note theprimitive altitude of10miles. r modified GermanV July 24,1950.The – The firstlaunchfr o 20,000y n of n ad t ocket attainedan h andtheEnglish. t pe t c ur s v i h e i . s r ginning n erer of n gun t e o all,ne B y e t folding. ople t o anIndianpopula , t s h v t l y y fromitsearliest s ness s s andbe o nando deSoto i e , e he c t u om painters’ d t h t d w he t h t i v Cape e p o m ers t . Butitscoastal ateers preyed e Cape . At hroughout w h o e o e m s S ars ag e s r anddeadly . T xplorat w t p o i d c s Ame y a f a o d are e was ond. o hrough c y n i l e een n n e om t t p o t o i 1 t -2 a w n . e o ric h ion 8 r e r , e n 0 t n a’ as a 0 t l s s , upon Spanish treasure ships laden with riches from the mines of Mexico and Peru. Shoals, reefs and storms also exacted their toll on the treasure fleets, leaving behind a sunken bonanza now being reaped by modern-day treasure hunters.

By the early 18th century, America’s Spaceport echoed with the footsteps of other intruders: English settlers and their Indian allies (the latter to become known as the Seminoles) from colonies in Georgia and South Carolina. Thus began a new era of conflict and expansion that ouldw continue until the end of the Second U.S. – Seminole Indian War in 1842.

Against this backdrop, permanent settlement of the Spaceport area began. And in the years following the American Civil War, small rural towns and com munities sprang up along a 70-mile-long stretch of mainland, rivers and beaches later to become known as Brevard County. The principal industries were agriculture, fishing and tourism.

Entering the

After World War II, however, another kind of indus Perched atop a , America’s first try, destined to bring explosive growth and interna , Explorer I, awaits launch Jan. 31, 1958. tional stature, took root in the area. Brevard County, The Army-civilian launch team would form the nucleus by virtue of its most prominent geographical feature of the Kennedy Space Center. – Cape Canaveral – became the focal point of a new era of exploration: the Space Age. Jan. 31, 1958, America’s (and the free-world’s) first satellite, Explorer I, was launched from Complex 26 The first step in the transformation began in Octo at Cape Canaveral by a military-civilian team of the ber 1949, when President Harry S. Truman estab Army’s Firing Laboratory. This group, under lished the Joint Long-Range (cur the direction of Dr. Kurt H. Debus, a key member rently known as the ), a vast over-wa of the famed Wernher von Braun rocket team, later ter military rocket test range that now extends 5,000 formed the nucleus of the Kennedy Space Center. miles along the Atlantic coast from Cape Canaveral to . With the creation of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) in October 1958, the The Cape was ideal for testing . Virtually nation turned its attention to the peaceful explora uninhabited, it enabled personnel to inspect, fuel and tion of space. Cape Canaveral thundered with the launch missiles without danger to nearby communi sound of carrying sophisticated instruments ties. The area’s climate also permitted year-round and to explore mankind’s newest frontier. operations, and rockets could be launched over water And soon, a new breed of pioneers - American instead of populated areas. - were soaring skyward from the Cape to take their first halting steps beyond the Earth. The first launch from the Cape was conducted by a military-civilian team July 24, 1950. The rocket, a But even as the first Americans enturedv into space, modified German V-2 with an attached upper stage, more ambitious undertakings were planned. In May attained an altitude of 10 miles. By the late 1950s, 1961, President John F. Kennedy announced that the military services had elevated their sights from the U.S. would send men to the moon and back by missile testing to launching artificial . On the end of the decade. The program, called ,

3 would require the largest rocket ever built – the 363-foot-tall V. The Cape, which had served so well up to now, was inadequate as a launch site for the monstrous vehicle, and another location was needed.

Debus, representing NASA, and Lt. Gen. Leighton I. Davis, representing the Department of Defense, organized a joint study to find a new launch site. They considered Hawaii, Texas, the coast, an island off the coast of Georgia, islands in the Caribbean and Merritt Island (adjacent to the Cape) as possible sites.

The study concluded that Merritt Island offered compelling advantages. Several small communi ties were within easy driving range, and larger cities like Daytona Beach, Vero Beach and Orlando were only slightly farther. Locating on Merritt Island also would allow NASA to share facilities of the Atlantic Missile Range, avoiding costly duplication. Only at this location could the same NASA launch organi Rocket pioneers Wernher von Braun and Kurt zation continue operations on the Cape Canaveral Debus at rollout of the first Apollo/ complex while building the Spaceport. Debus and from the Vehicle Assembly Building. Von Braun, Davis recommended the acquisition of the northern then director of the Marshall Space part of Merritt Island. The choice was endorsed Center, was responsible for design and by NASA and the Defense Department. Congress development of the Saturn V. Debus, the first authorized NASA to acquire the property. director of the Kennedy Space Center, created the mobile concept of launch operations used The space agency began acquisition in 1962, taking at the Spaceport. title to 83,894 acres by outright purchase. NASA ne gotiated with the state of Florida for use of an addi tional 55,805 acres (of state-owned submerged land, most of which lies within the Mosquito Lagoon). The investment in property reached approximately $71,872,000.

In July 1962, the Launch Operations Directorate at the Cape was separated from the Marshall Space Flight Center by executive order. It became the Launch Operations Center, an independent NASA installation, with Debus as its first director. It was re named the John F. Kennedy Space Center in Decem ber 1963, in honor of America’s slain president.

NASA started construction of the massive Apollo- Saturn facilities in 1963. In December 1964, launch The steel framework of the Vehicle Assembly elements of Houston’s Manned Center Building rises on Merritt Island during (now the ) were transferred to construction of America’s Spaceport. The low the Kennedy Space Center. The following October, structure at right is the . Goddard Space Flight Center’s Field Projects Branch on the Cape was incorporated into the Kennedy Space Center. On July 16, 1969, humans departed from the Space

4 Construction of Pad A at Spaceport’s Launch Complex 39. The pad hardstand contains 68,000 cubic yards of concrete.

port’s Launch Complex 39 to walk on the moon for explorer to survey and Saturn, a commu the first time in history. Following completion of the nications satellite, or an Earth-observing satellite Apollo- Test Project in 1975, the facilities of – are assembled and tested in specially designed and the Spaceport were modified to support the nation’s equipped laboratories. newest : the reusable . From the first launch April 18, 1981, through 2005, From to Saturn to the space shuttle, from KSC launched 114 space shuttle missions. Between the time of the earliest scientific and applications 1998 and 2002, there were 16 missions supporting satellites to the threshold of the International Space the International . Less than a dozen Station era, the Kennedy Space Center has been more are planned to complete construction of this the primary launch base for the nation’s manned research facility in space. and unmanned civilian space programs. It is here, at America’s Spaceport, that the dreams and aspira Beginning in 1958, the Spaceport team has launched tions of space planners reach fruition – where the more than 300 unmanned space vehicles. These were individual parts of a space mission come together primarily Deltas, -Centaurs, Atlas-Agenas, and for the first time, to be melded into a single, cohesive -Centaurs. All of these lifted off from NASA- element and boosted into space. operated facilities on Cape Canaveral Air Force Station and Vandenberg Air Force Base in California. At Launch Complex 39, where rockets were once Elements of the Spaceport team have also conduct readied for flight to the moon, engineers and techni ed launch operations for unmanned polar-orbiting cians prepare the reusable space shuttle for manned missions from NASA facilities at Vandenberg Air Earth-orbital missions. Unmanned military and Force Base at the Western Range in California. commercial rockets are processed and launched at complexes on nearby Cape Canaveral, under the At the cusp of the 21st century, IV and Atlas oversight of the U.S. Air Force. V launch vehicles were introduced.

Cargoes destined for space – whether a planetary The history of the Kennedy Space Center is a

5 chronicle of the Space Age, written in the blinding glare and thunder of rockets and space vehicles. Its distinguished record of achievement in the develop ment and conduct of checkout and launch operations is unmatched.

And so it is today. Kennedy Space Center — Amer ica’s Spaceport — has become the “gateway to the universe,” home port for voyages of exploration undreamed of centuries ago and staffed by men and women who, like their forebears, still dream of discovering and settling new worlds.

Payloads, such as the SHI Research Double Module (SHI/RDM), also known as SPACEHAB, to be carried into by the space shuttle, are assembled and checked out in specially designed and equipped facilities at the Spaceport.

The elements of a space shuttle are integrated in one of the cavernous high bays of the Vehicle Assembly Building at Launch Complex 39. The platforms slide A Delta rocket lifts off from Complex 17, Cape in and out, allowing workers to reach all levels of the Canaveral. The workhorse of the nation’s vehicle. The orbiter is in the foreground. At the rear space program, Delta has put into orbit more is the huge external tank, bracketed by solid rocket scientific, weather and communications boosters. satellites than all other vehicles of its class combined.

6 People and Facilities People and Facilities series ofadvancedgeostationary weathersatellitesinservice,July23,2001. NASA-industry launchteam make finalchecksbefor In theblockhouseonLaunch Complex36-A,CapeCanaveralAirFor A P F Building, one Some tions l i e m T roc A t T p are about s T in A fl w spe T a n i e l r o ads 39Aand39B a i he se he larg he me h u e h t l v v a g r o l c n c n e v i i olv o h K k c g i w c n t s l i c l et ial re t r c h r i . c , t v S h h t i a of e e e t c y a e e boost C . o m a o c n n , be t s t a s d w d e r n andw ond-larg Sev in a t fi l e e t w s d m t w , e n w sourc h 12,000cont he st ne l ue t a r m he l a o f e c i p e it i t o c eral otherfir s n t h l e r e future fit d l e l h launc h k u e more d o . a i ont c f of a n o be rs atse n w y s of o h t a s r e c e h d t e r a a i ome of l e a t e e rac u s n t t h t o s s allhumanit g st p h h d i amajorforc he , c t , fromw n o c un unra o r e c t c e e o p t h ope a l o v o n of or org n s y larg he m l l S a t ont b e n u , m s usual fac e rac p r a u a i s p p v Unit n b t o r a p u i ms pro v l a e l m rac m c i i A t l d t e i tor e l e c r i rat e n i c st e i he e ls o y a t t e m anization handle p n t r i a hic furbishing t t t t n r , t e i a o g e h ions t or at ed St n e e K s t e i d s r y i r nc n g he mplo n d h shut t . t w i a vide v ilitie , a i h c e enne p g s n a n o lose e r a people inournat . Most a s r r g KSCsuppor i q ’ f d r ate n o i s g e g r k u c a g o y s inw S n g 3 m i e n d st dy i f e s andthe m p p r t e 5 n arious operational,suppor s o d es le o e m d a s g r Spac m r u of c r s lift he c m . T e o t andre e r a e e n e o s b uc n f n p hic p i d i space s e t ( d he t d a t o s p s i ion r t h s spac e n i he off;NASA- , u i r ure s e r r h pe o o n se e t a s i e Ce r o , n w t n e t n hands- p ’ o c t h s e n sourc h f g d s t s int d N e a u o e shut orld. T a nt r n ople umbe t s r t n p v o ffor A i e h he o h t n d e e s e launchoftheGOES-Msatellite, oneina shut e p e e u S g h r r’ p r e fac b he n e t A a . t o t s NASA/indust w r r t t t e s of on w t e u le l a e h t p i rs c a e e w p o m t he p ork are e maine s o explore m t n ilit i e n ope . o le n a b orld; t s r ir r T s , Ame r u g an fl proc p s e y e ork ispe b e skillsandc t o a h r it a t i i v rat s s t h l n t c e i h e ) e se e z e t n n t r u h uc t o c e e ngine t andhousek h e ric he e s lf t r e d spac d t he f l i i u ssing andlaunc t a i f t , pro r andut l l f J Orbit uat p f a’ f a e d e ce Station,membersofthe r o giant t o t p s p s Spac o rfor h o h m r a p o s fort m t e e r r n n o e r r viding upk , de b a i y e s d o r v t apabilit j te i o o me shut r o x e t e V j c ilize e o t e n o r r i r P o h c pe m am are e r t y b e d b c o m h he s S e por s hic o a ee A v r e p nding ont roc f space t p t n r e a ir ne o le a c m e y c ping func u r r ie t t c r le e p l suppor i e r w y t e e e n n a a s e fl h ope Asse av ssing r e ont n , many t y g 1 c r C i i ill c x e e s l g c t o , fort o 8 t r p and t o e a h t h a fl s a 0 e n rac r n . t n d e d r on 0 ; t mbly ight i ra T d y e i s s s he s t r c t p r h of o e he ors f . i a c e v o l i c . 7 t r i r d l l e e . y and spacecraft checkout facilities on both KSC and Cape Canaveral; and a host of other processing and support facilities. Some of the buildings on both the Cape and KSC are specially designed for spacecraft assembly and checkout, and others for hazardous work such as installing explosive ordnance and load ing .

The heart of the Kennedy Space Center is its en gineering work force, both contractor and NASA. People with electrical, mechanical, electronic and computer engineering degrees have the necessary background to begin work here. After that, it may take years to learn some of the more unusual func This Spaceport worker is dwarfed by the tions of their jobs. massive track of a crawler-transporter, which is used to carry a mobile launcher platform The engineering departments do their work along and space shuttle from the Vehicle Assembly with other groups that might be found at any in Building to the . Space shuttle launch dustrial facility. Logistics personnel order supplies operations require experience and skills found and keep them available in warehouses. Another nowhere else in the world. organization operates a facilitywide bus system and supplies vehicles for local use. Writing and graph ics departments produce a variety of publications, which are printed on- and offsite. A janitorial force keeps the facilities clean. A guard force provides security.

The diversity of occupations and the pioneering thrust of America’s Spaceport make it a special place to work. Watching a rocket or space shuttle blaze a fiery trail into the sky, hearing and feeling the thunder of its passage, is a fringe benefit not available to many elsewhere.

Readying a space shuttle orbiter for flight is an exacting job. Here , with the Exploration Agency, JAXA, takes a close look at the some of the tiles underneath Atlantis.

In a Space Station Processing Facility clean room, two workers perform prelaunch processing activities on the ’s space station remote manipulator system before it is installed in the cargo bay of an orbiter. The mechanism, built in , helps crews handle payloads in space.

8 HumanHuman Space Space Flight—The Flight First Era Jr Schirra Jr fr The sevenMer O miles outintotheAtlantic Mercur launc On Ma stalled, andK all hadtobereexamined.Astronautescapeandrescuesystemsdesignedin mak “man-rating” –upg T systems ful atthetime Considering thatonlyfourAmericansatellitelaunc ontier ofspace,poseforagr he R .; V e it.T irgil I.“Gus”Grissom;andL. Gor h attempts edstone y 5,1961,afterextensi y-R , roc Mercur National Advisor n Oct.7,1958,justsixda .; DonaldK.Slayton;JohnH. GlennJr his meantthepad,c edstone v k ets andspacecraftsafeenoughtoriskahumanlifew ennedy personneltrainedintheiruse , thisw , oneof cury astr y , AlanShe , thefirstAmericanhumanspaceflightprog rading inreliabilitytobeassafehumantalentanding ehicle reac as anunder themostreliablelaunc onauts, thefirstAmericans chosen toventur y CommitteeforAeronautics pard becamethefirstAmericantomak . v oup photograph.Theyar e pre hed analtitudeof taking of ys afterNASAw hec parations andsev don Cooper k out andlaunc highambition.T h v .; andScottCarpenter;(back): AlanB.Shepar . ehicles thena 116milesandsplasheddo . as for h attemptsoutof h procedures eral fr e fr , theinfantag mally org om lefttoright(fr ustrating andner he taskof ram. v ailable , andthetrac e asuborbitalflight.His anized outof e intothedanger as adauntingc ency initiatedProject 13hadbeensuccess , w makingthelaunc as c ont): W wn about304 en hosen firstfor v e-wrac uity could king systems theold alter M. halleng ous new king h e . d 9 and Gus Grissom completed two suborbital before an Atlas vehicle roared off Complex 14 Feb. 20, 1962, carrying John Glenn. After three trips around the world, the Mercury spacecraft he had named Friendship 7 re-entered the atmosphere and parachuted to a safe landing in the Atlantic Ocean. Glenn became the first American to orbit the Earth.

The first manned Gemini ehiclev was launched March 23, 1965, and the 10th and final one Nov. 11, 1966. During the brief span of 20 months, 20 astro nauts were sent into orbit. Seven unmanned target vehicles were launched in the same time period for rendezvous practice and other associated functions. When the program was completed, enough had been learned about launching and operating manned ve hicles in space to make fulfilling President ennedy’K s commitment to a a real possibility.

For the Apollo lunar landing program, an entirely new family of launch vehicles was required: the mas sive and powerful Saturns. Eleven launches Gus Grissom followed on an almost identical flight were followed by several of the more powerful July 21. The Kennedy team had adapted to the Saturn I-Bs. Both vehicles were initially used to tough new requirements of human space flight and test unmanned elements of the three-man Apollo America had entered a new era. spacecraft. They were launched from new complexes constructed by NASA on Cape Canaveral. For Mercury orbital flights, NASA selected the larger and more powerful Atlas, until then only used as an intercontinental ballistic missile by the U.S. Air Force. After two successful missions, the second of which carried the chimpanzee Enos into space for two or bits, John Glenn was launched Feb. 20, 1962, aboard a Mercury-Atlas. He became the first American to complete three circles of the Earth. Glenn was fol lowed by Scott Carpenter, and Gordon Cooper, the latter staying in orbit a full day after his launch on May 15, 1963.

The next step in the nation’s human space pro gram was , which served as a bridge between the Mercury flights and the more difficult Apollo missions to come. For the larger two-man Gemini spacecraft, the Air Force Titan missile was chosen and man-rated.

A Titan II vehicle carrying the spacecraft heads for space from Launch Complex 19, where all 10 manned Gemini flights began. Charles Conrad Jr. and Richard F. Gordon Jr. made four practice rendezvous with a target vehicle, reached an altitude of 851 miles, and flew with the hatch open for more than two hours.

10 Lunar Module in microgravity. This new vehicle was a lightly built, insect-shaped craft designed to actually descend to the lunar surface.

On May 18, a second Apollo/Saturn V was sent toward the moon. This was Apollo 10, flight-test ing another Lunar Module, this one while actually in lunar orbit. And on July 16, 1969, all the parts, planning, care and labor came together for the launch of . and Edwin Aldrin Jr. subsequently became the first human beings to set foot on the surface of another planetary body, while their crewmate Michael Collins kept a lonely vigil in the orbiting Command Module.

Through December 1972, the Kennedy team pro cessed and launched six more of the giant Apollo/ Saturn V vehicles, maintaining a hectic pace that nev er evolved into a repetitive and routine job. A wealth of scientific data and physical artifacts was brought back from the moon; these are still under study today. Apollo entered history books as the greatest and most far-reaching feat of scientific exploration of humankind. Apollo 17 heads for Pad A atop its giant Saturn V rocket for the last manned flight to the moon. Riding The was over. But the Kennedy a mobile launcher that towered well over 400 feet into team still had to process and launch one more of the air, with a total weight on the crawler-transporter the huge Saturn V vehicles. On May 14, 1973, KSC treads of more than 18 million pounds, an Apollo/ hurled the world’s first orbital orkshopw , 1, Saturn V vehicle in motion on the was an into space. Skylab was actually an inert Saturn V third awesome and unforgettable sight. stage which had been internally modified to function as a manned scientific laboratory, with three other On Nov. 9, 1967, the first Saturn V – 363 feet tall, scientific and operational modules added. and still the largest vehicle ever flown – was launched on a test flight from Complex 39 at the Spaceport. Skylab was launched without an astronaut crew. The This powerful three-stage vehicle produced more Kennedy team later sent up three separate crews of than 7.5 million pounds of thrust, equal to about 180 astronauts to occupy it. They were transported by million horsepower – enough to place almost a quar Apollo/Saturn I-B vehicles launched from modified ter of a million pounds of into Earth orbit. facilities at the Spaceport’s Launch Complex 39. Sky- lab produced a bonanza of scientific information and Apollo 7, the first manned Apollo mission, lifted proved that humans could work in space for extend off into Earth orbit Oct. 11, 1968, on a Saturn I-B ed periods of time. The final crew, launched Nov. vehicle. And Dec. 21 – just two months later – on 16, 1973, stayed in space for 84 days. This length of , the third flightof the Saturn V and the sec time in microgravity remained the record for Ameri ond manned launch of an Apollo spacecraft, Frank can astronauts until 1995, when Norman Thagard Borman, James Lovell and flew to exceeded it while working onboard the Russian Space the moon and into orbit around it. Considering the Station . short test history of both the launch vehicle and the spacecraft, this was a feat of incredible courage and One last mission remained to be flown before Amer daring. ica entered a long hiatus from human space flight. On July 15, 1975, the last Apollo/Saturn I-B lifted The next Apollo/Saturn V (Apollo 9), launched by off from Complex 39. It carried three American the Kennedy Space Center team March 3, 1969, sent astronauts into space to rendezvous with a Russian three astronauts into Earth orbit to flight-test the Soyuz spacecraft and its crew of two cosmonauts.

11 The Apollo-Soyuz Project remained the only such international meeting for 20 years, until the Space Shuttle Atlantis rendezvoused and docked with Mir in June 1995.

The Apollo-Soyuz flight also asw the last Ameri can manned space vehicle that could fly only once. NASA needed a more economical way to get into orbit and safely back to Earth. The era of the reus space shuttle was at hand.

The ascent stage of the Apollo 11 Lunar Module floats over the eerie, crater-scarred landscape of the moon after Neil Armstrong and Edwin Aldrin Jr. successfully lifted off using the de- scent stage as a stable launch platform. This photo was taken through the orbiting Apollo spacecraft window by Michael Collins. After the rendezvous in orbit, the astronauts headed for Earth, seen here, half shadowed in darkness, above the bleak lunar horizon.

Skylab, the orbital workshop that was a precursor to the International Space Station, floats above a heav­ ily clouded Earth. The array on the left side of the workshop is missing and an improvised sunshade Astronaut Thomas Stafford (center left) and protects the main body from excessive heat accumu­ cosmonaut Aleksey Leonov meet in the mod - lation. Skylab was repaired in orbit after suffering dam­ ule temporarily connecting their spacecrafts in age during ascent, and went on to complete a highly orbit. The Apollo-Soyuz mission was the first successful mission. It was one of the largest habitable international meeting in space. The two vehicles structures ever placed in orbit at that time. remained docked together for several days, and astronauts and cosmonauts visited each other’s spacecraft.

12 TheThe SpaceSpace Shuttle—The Shuttle Second Era flight. process becamethemainacti other modificationsw facilities w ment facilityw near theV highly specializedtw g str Some newfacilitiesw w ers usedfortheSatur components building allnewones help k ticated andtec T processed andlaunc the future new philosoph the reusableorbiterresembledanair had alreadystar w boosters forlaunch. V Orbiter Atlantisbeginsbacking outoftheOrbiterPr F ained ontheextra-long,dr ehicle AssemblyBuilding, wher he spaceshuttlew ere gi as urg ucted. T ee or nearlytw and utilizationof able v v ently needed.T en newabo p costsdo , thesamev ehicle AssemblyBuilding ere modifiedtoprocessandinteg he orbiterw ehicles andspacecraft,butthecosthadbeenhigh.T , andrenamedtheV hnically complex.Itw as upg y of ted onanewtypeof o decades wn, K operations v as v hed oncemore o-ba e-g . T raded tobecomethefacility’ ns w ere mandator ehicle w ere requiredthroughoutthecenter ould landatK his w spaceonaper er he hug round configurations ennedy engineersadaptedtheApollolaunc y buildingcalledtheOrbiterProcessingF y differentfromtheApollosandSatur ere modifiedtostac , NASAhadblazednewtrailsacrossthehea y lak as apparentw vity atK ould retur . Nolong e V e bedsatEdw ehicle AssemblyBuilding(V e itwillbematedwiththe exter er y . . Afewyearslater . A3-mile-longlandingstripw tical AssemblyBuildingw as designed,testedandbuiltwithlimitedfunds plane andcouldflyag spacev ennedy afterenoughlandingexperiencehadbeen ennedy duringtheyearsfollo manent basis er w n manytimestotheK ell beforetheendof rate alarg ould av ehicle . k andcar ards AirF s Ba . T , amoreeconomicalw ehicle bepre his becamethespaceshuttle , asimilarbuildingusedasrefurbish y 3.Spacecraftc ocessing Facilityforr e n r y thenewv . T orce BaseinCalifor umber of ain. T his rebuildingandcon AB). T as con ennedy SpaceCenter theApolloera,andw ns o contin he spaceshuttlerequireda pared forasingleflight.In nal tankandsolidr as oneof , andfarmoresophis pa acility w wing theApollo-So ehicle he threemobilelaunc h facilities v er yloads eac hec ted tohandleshuttle v ue theexploration ens withexpend , andP k a out andassembly as constr y toreac thefirstcon ollover tothe nia. Alarg , ratherthan h year ads AandB , where v ersion , tobe . T ucted h orbit ork . Many o ocket yuz e , h 13 Space Shuttle Atlantis inches its way to the launch pad, in the background. The crawlerway leading to it (on the right) extends toward the horizon.

The first orbiter intended for space flight, Columbia, arrived at the Spaceport in March 1979. A great deal of work remained to be done. Both Kennedy and Johnson Space Center (the lead design agency) were very busy for the next 610 days in the Orbiter Pro cessing Facility. They had to perform the remaining assembly work and a series of major modifications. The orbiter then spent another 35 days in the Vehicle Assembly Building and 105 days on Pad A, before finally lifting off on April 12, 1981. and became the first two astronauts to enter orbit in a and to land it like an airplane at the end of the mission.

The launch of the first space shuttle asw a true milestone for KSC. The launch team had learned new checkout and launch procedures. Two entirely new sets of computers, called the Launch Processing System, had been installed in two of the old Apollo/ Saturn V firing rooms in the Launch Control Center, and crews had been trained in their use.

Once the first space shuttle mission asw over and the orbiter Columbia returned to Kennedy, the senter again went into high gear. One more space shuttle was launched in 1981, three in 1982, four in 1983, five in 1984, and nine in 1985 – the latter a total that had seemed unobtainable back in 1981.

With a roll of thunder and riding a pillar of flame, As 1986 began, NASA was close to having the ability Space Shuttle Discovery launches into the blue sky to launch a space shuttle every month, or 12 per year. over America’s Spaceport on mission STS-95. The There were four orbiters in the fleet:(in order of first flight was the second for Mercury astronaut John flight) Columbia, Challenger, Discovery and Atlantis. Glenn Jr. and his first on the space shuttle. Then, on Jan. 28, tragedy struck. The orbiter

14 On a Hubble Servicing Mission (STS-103) in 1999, astronaut Claude Nicollier, mission specialist from the , works at a storage enclo­ sure, using one of the Hubble power tools, during the second of three extravehicular activities.

The Hubble , a joint program of NASA and the European Space Agency, has made many contributions. The large telescope was launched in April 1990 aboard Discovery on the STS-31 mission. Hubble made the deepest look into the universe revealing thousands of galaxies, sup porting the fact that the universe made most of its stars long ago (when the universe was one-tenth its present age), and that the vast majority of stars are only one-fifth the mass of our sun. Hubble also made the first surface map of the Pluto and discovered that massive black holes are common throughout the universe. Challenger and its crew were lost during the launch of STS-51L, the 25th space shuttle mission.

The longest and most intensive investigation ever conducted by NASA up to that time indicated the primary culprit in the Challenger accident was an in adequate design of the field joints between the solid rocket segments. These were redesigned and retested. Many other critical flight systems erew also re-examined and recertified at the same time.

The unique checkout and launch facilities at the Spaceport, and the detailed procedures and software that determined their operation, were all thoroughly reviewed and improved where necessary. It took 32 months before everyone was satisfied that the ehiclev and its crew were now made as safe as humanly pos sible for space flight.

The space shuttle had just started fulfilling its prom ise of frequent and economical access to orbit before the Challenger accident. A large variety of scientific and commercial spacecraft had been launched. One expensive scientific spacecraft had been repaired in orbit, and two large commercial satellites were recovered from improper and returned to the ground. Both were later re-launched and entered active service, saving their owners many millions of This wide-angle view shows the Unity connecting dollars compared to buying new spacecraft. module being moved toward the payload bay of the orbiter Endeavour at Launch Pad 39A. Part of the The space shuttle was becoming a true national International Space Station, Unity is a connecting and international asset, carrying into space student passageway to the living and working areas of ISS. experiments, small business payloads and foreign While on orbit, the flight crew deployed Unity from the payload specialists who accompanied their scientific payload bay and attached it to the Russian-built experiments to perform them in orbit. control module that was in orbit at that time.

15 The next major task for the space shuttle fleet, the Since the October 2000 launch, there has been per assembly of a permanent manned space station, had manent human presence on the space station. already been authorized by President Ronald Reagan and the Congress in January 1984. But the problems On Feb. 1, 2003, another tragedy struck: The flag that caused the loss of Challenger and its crew had ship of the fleet, Columbia, asw lost along with its to be found and corrected before space shuttles crew of seven on its return to Kennedy Space Center could fly again. from mission STS-107. A yearlong formal investiga tion followed. The Columbia Accident Investigation Space Transportation System (STS) 26 lifted off Board (CAIB) report in 2004 concluded: Sept. 27, 1988, with Discovery as the orbiter. The flight asw completely successful. By 2003, space The physical cause of the loss of Columbia and its crew was shuttles had flown 112 missions, more than four a breach in the Thermal Protection System on the leading edge times the 24 safe flights that preceded Challenger’s of the left wing, caused by a piece of insulating foam which last flight, and had settled into a steady launch rate of separated from the left bipod ramp section of the External about six times a year. Tank at 81.7 seconds after launch, and struck the wing in the vicinity of the lower half of Reinforced Carbon-Carbon On Nov. 20, 1998, the Zarya Control Module, the panel number 8. During re-entry, this breach in the Thermal first component in constructing the International Protection System allowed superheated air to penetrate through space station, was launched. In the following four the leading edge insulation and progressively melt the alumi- years, the space station grew to include the Russian- num structure of the left wing, resulting in a weakening of built , Zvezda; the U.S.-built Unity the structure until increasing aerodynamic forces caused loss of Node 1; the U.S. Laboratory Destiny; a Canadian- control, failure of the wing, and break-up of the orbiter. built robotic arm to aid in construction; and several trusses. In addition, Italian-built multi-purpose logis KSC adopted the recommendations of the CAIB for tics modules began regular service as cargo modules, improving safety, and worked for an expected return especially for experiments. The date Nov. 2, 2000, to flight in 2005. On ulyJ 26, 2005, Space Shuttle marked the first human presence on the space sta Discovery was launched with a crew of seven to the tion with the three-person crew of Commander Bill International Space Station. After a successful 13-day Shepherd, Soyuz Commander Yuri Gidzenko and mission that included testing camera views around Flight Engineer . the outside of the orbiter, Discovery returned to Earth. It landed at in Cali Thus, NASA’s goal of steady toward living fornia August 9, 2005. and working on the of space began.

Space Shuttle Discovery, atop a modified 747 Shuttle Carrier , is towed to the mate/demate device at NASA Kennedy Space Center’s following touchdown on runway 15 on Aug. 21, 2005. The cross-country ferry flight became necessary when two days of unfavorable weather conditions at KSC forced Discovery to land at Edwards Air Force Base, California, on Aug. 9 following mission STS-114.

16 UnmannedUnmanned Missions Space Missions In 1965,thisteamalsowas phasedover intoKennedy. theDelta vehicle. andconfigurationcontrolof responsible fortheengineeringmanagement theKennedy SpaceCenter. Anotherearlylaunch team,fromGoddard,was directorate of the“UnmannedLaunch Operations” thenucleusSpace FlightCenter, of andlaterformed theGoddard becametheLaunch OperationsBranch NASA,thisgroup of establishment of ing theearlyVanguard vehicles thatplacedAmerica’s second satelliteintoorbit.Withthe employees from theNaval Research hadbeenattheCapeforsometime, launch Laboratory become theThor-Able-Delta launch vehicle of –laterknown simplyastheDelta.Agroup theThor-Able missile, developedDouglas toupgrade underAirForce to management, operation,forinstance, NASA awarded acontracttoMcDonnell During itsfirstyearof heavily onrocket systemsunderdevelopmentservices. by thearmed it lacked outitsmandatetoexplorespace, anddrew thelaunch vehicles andfacilitiestocarry thisfleet were primarilymilitary.When NASA was createdinOctober1958, originsof The unmannedrockets. avaried fleetof onthedevelopmenttalent, depended andevolution of projects, which have thenation’s morethanrepaid investment intime, moneyandtechnical improved weather resourcesstudies. forecasting,globalcommunications andEarth These F 300 launches rangingfromsolarsystemexplorationto were conductedforprograms achievement inspacescienceandapplications. Duringthisspan,morethan record of or morethan30years, NASA’s compiledanenviable unmannedspaceprograms still beinganalyzed. views anddatathatis provided spectacular planned for. They three monthsoriginally much longerthanthe in 2004andlasted landed safelyonMars the terrain.Therovers human-like, 3-Dviewof that allowittohavea four pairsofcameras spectrometers, and drilling tool,three with arobotic arm,a , itisequipped twin rovers sentto below. Thesecondof Boeing Deltarocket (MER-B) above,tothe Exploration Rover1 mating oftheMars Station, complete Canaveral AirForce Pad 17-B,Cape Workers onLaunch 17 The upgraded -Able vehicle soon acquired the reputation of being “Dependable Delta.” By the end of 1989, more than 180 had been launched by NASA, from facilities on Cape Canaveral and at Van denberg Air Force Base in California. This was more than all other vehicles of an equivalent size com bined. The Delta has been continuously upgraded over the years.

Delta II rockets can be configured as two- or three- stage launch vehicles with three, four or nine strap- on solid rocket boosters and two sizes of payload fairings, depending on mission requirements. Delta II rockets can carry payloads ranging from 1,965 to 4,723 pounds to geosynchronous transfer orbit (GTO), and 5,934 to 13,281 pounds to low-Earth or bit. Two-stage Delta II rockets typically fly low-Earth orbit missions, while three-stage Delta II vehicles generally deliver payloads to GTO or are used for deep space and planetary exploration missions.

The Delta IV is the most advanced family of launch vehicles developed by The Boeing Company in part nership with the U.S. Air Force Evolved Expendable Launch Vehicle program. Delta IV rockets can ac commodate single or multiple payloads on the same mission and can carry satellites weighing between 9,285 pounds and 28,950 pounds to GTO. Delta IV rockets can also launch satellites to polar orbits, sun- synchronous orbits and the International Space Sta tion orbit with the capability to lift more than 50,000 At Launch Pad 36-A, Cape Canaveral Air Force pounds to low-Earth orbit. Station, a Centaur upper stage is mated to the lower stage Atlas IIA rocket. NASA also adopted another Air Force-developed The rocket is scheduled to launch a NASA stage, the Agena, and combined it with a Thor first GOES satellite. stage. This was the first NASA ehiclev launched from Vandenberg AFB, and the first to have solid motors strapped to the outside of the first stage for extra power. NASA launched a total of 12 Thor-Agenas from the West Coast. The Agena was also adapted to fly on top of an Atlas booster, creating a larger and more powerful combination than either of the other two. This vehicle performed well for many missions, but was eventually phased out in favor of a still more powerful combination, the Atlas booster and a new stage called Centaur.

Developed under NASA contract by General Dynamics, builder of the Atlas, Centaur was the first stage to use liquid hydrogen for its fuel. Liquid oxygen remained the choice for the oxidizer. Centaur uses very high-performing engines, and its pressure- stabilized, thin-wall, stainless-steel design is the most weight efficient in the orld.w

18 After the last Atlas-Agena was launched in March 1968, the Delta and the Atlas-Centaur became the standard unmanned launch vehicles for NASA. One test flight and six operational launches were con ducted of a new, more powerful vehicle, a combina tion of Titan and Centaur. The latter was needed to launch two Helios spacecraft to the sun, two unusu ally heavy Vikings to Mars, and two Voyagers to the outer giant gas .

Unmanned Launch Operations continued to place the large majority of spacecraft in orbit until the space shuttle became operational. As the new system matured, many payloads were shifted from unmanned launch vehicles to the space shuttle. But after the loss of Challenger and its crew, the decision was made to reserve the space shuttle primarily for scientific spacecraft. esponsibilityR for the launch of the Delta, Titan and Atlas-Centaur vehicles was assumed extensively by their manufacturers and the U.S. Air Force. All three vehicles have been used to launch payloads for the Air Force, NASA and com mercial customers on a contract basis.

Automated spacecraft have performed some of the Protected by its gantry, a Delta rocket awaits most spectacular feats of the American space pro launch under leaden skies at Complex 17. It gram. Surveyors landed softly on the moon, helping later hurled a GOES into a to pave the way for later Apollo missions. Mariners . Three of the Delta’s five provided detailed photographs of the cloud-tops of strap-on solid rocket boosters are visible in and the surfaces of Mars and Mercury. Two this photo. Landers descended to the surface of Mars and searched for evidence of life, while two orbiters mapped almost the entire planet from overhead. Two Pioneers went to Jupiter, and one flew onward to Saturn. Two much larger Voyager spacecraft followed them to both planets, and one of these has now visited Uranus and Neptune as well.

NASA’s ambitious plan to send spacecraft to Mars was realized with the November 1996 Mars Global Surveyor project, which studied the planet’s surface, atmosphere, and gravitational and magnetic fields. One month later, the Mars Pathfinder delivered the rover, named Sojourner, to Mars’ surface to study and record data about ancient rocks. The Cassini The salmon sky and red, boulder-strewn satellite arrived at Saturn in July 2004. expanse of Mars’ Utopian Plain, as seen by the camera of NASA’s shortly after In June and July of 2003, two Mars Exploration Rov setting down on the planet’s surface Sept. 3, ers, named Spirit and Opportunity, were launched 1976. Portions of the lander are in the from Cape Canaveral Air Force Station aboard Delta foreground. Unmanned exploration of the II rockets. Both reached Mars in January 2004. The solar system is one of the most exciting and mission of the two identical rovers was to develop scientifically ewarr ding aspects of the nation’s the history of climate and water at two sites on Mars, space program. where conditions may once have been favorable to

19 The unmistakable swirl of a monster hurricane strad­ dles the Gulf of Mexico, bound for the and coastlines. Photographs taken from space help meteorologists track dangerous storms and add a new dimension to accurate weather forecasting. life. They navigated around obstacles while driving across the Martian surface, traveling up to about 130 feet each Martian day.

By far, however, the largest number of unmanned spacecraft have remained in orbit around the Earth. So many communications, weather and other types of satellites have crowded into – that region above the equator at about 22,240 miles altitude, where a velocity of 6,878 miles an hour to ward the east will keep a satellite apparently motion less in the sky – that international agreements have had to be worked out on assigning spaces. Weather and other Earth-observation satellites patrol our planet steadily in north-south polar orbits. Scientific explorers in many types of orbits have returned a wealth of information that could not have been ob tained in any other way.

The two gantries of Launch Complex 36 (foreground), where Atlas rockets are launched, still stand on the easternmost point of Cape Canaveral. But the gantries in a line extending north from the right-hand pad in this 1964 photograph have mostly been dismantled. Corrosion from the salt air weakened the steel structures until they were no longer safe.

20 The following table lists some of the more notable spacecraft launched by the Kennedy teams, with brief descriptions of the results.

Launch Launch Spacecraft Date Mission Description/Results Spacecraft Date Mission Description/Results

TIROS 1 4/1/60 Relayed thousands of cloud pictures, HEAO 2 11/13/78 Examined selected x-ray astronomcal demonstrating thefeasibility of satellite sources in detail with the largest Xray observations in weather forecasting. telescope ever made. 8/27/62 First U.S. interplanetary probe to reach Infrared 1/25/83 Made first detailed infrared examination the planet Venus. Astronomical of the universe; discovered new stars Satellite (IRAS) being born and possible evolution of new Syncom 2 7/26/63 First in geosyn­ planetary systems. chronous orbit; proved out the concept widely used today. COBE 11/18/89 Measured the diffuse infrared and micro­ wave radiation from the early universe to Ranger 7 7/28/64 First U.S. spacecraft to impact on the the limits set by our astrophysical Moon; returned a series of photos and environment. other data. SOHO 12/3/95 Gathered data on the internal structure 1 (Early Bird) 4/6/65 First international communications and outer atmosphere of the sun, and on satellite. Intelsat grew to become largest the origin of the solar wind. international carrier in history. NEAR 2/17/96 Conducted the first long-term, close-up Surveyor 1 5/30/66 Performed first U.S. soft landing on the look of an asteroid’s surface. For a year, Moon, sending back thousands of NEAR studied Eros’ physical properties. excellent surface photographs. Mars Global Surveyor 11/7/96 Conducted a global mapping of Mars by Mariner Mars 6 2/24/69 Passed within 3,220 km (2,000 miles) of studying the planet’s surface, atmo­ Mars’ equatorial region, returning the sphere, and gravitational and magnetic first good photographs for the U.S. fields. Pioneer 10 3/2/72 Performed flyby of Jupiter, returning first Mars Pathfinder 12/4/96 Delivered a lander and small robotic close-up photographs and measuring rover, Sojourner, to Mars’ surface to radiation emissions. study and record data about ancient LANDSAT 1 7/23/72 First satellite to perform major assess­ rocks. ment of Earth resources from outer Cassini 10/15/97 Cassini used gravity-assist flybys of space. the planets Venus and Jupiter, then Pioneer 11 4/5/73 Performed flyby of Jupiter and first flyby arrived at Saturn in July 2004. of Saturn. Lunar Prospector 1/6/98 Provided the first global maps of the Mariner Venus/ 11/3/73 Performed a flyby of enus,thenV Moon’s surface elements and its Mercury continued on to Mercury and completed gravitational and magnetic fields. the first three flybys of that planet. 2/7/99 Brought material back to earth Helios 1 12/10/74 Approached the Sun to within outer solar and collected interstellar dust. corona and took density, temperature, velocity, and magnetic field measure EOS/TERRA 12/18/99 Consisted of a science component and a ments. data system supporting a coordinated series of polar-orbiting and low- 8/20/75 Placed an orbiter in orbit around Mars inclination satellites for long-term global and a lander on the surface; obtained observations of the land surface, voluminous data in a search for life. biosphere, solid Earth, atmosphere, GOES 1 10/16/75 First weather satellite to photograph and oceans. complete disk of the Earth every 30 GOES I-M 1994-2001 NASA-developed payload for the minutes from geosynchronous orbit. National Oceanic and Atmospheric 1 7/8/76 First geosynchronous orbit domestic Administration (NOAA); launch vehicle communications satellite in Southeast services contract. Launched into Asia. now also serve Thailand, geosynchronous Earth orbit. Singapore, and Malaysia. Mars Exploration The two identical spacecraft reached 9/5/77 Performed flybys of Jupiter, Saturn, Rover Mars in January 2004, landing at two Uranus and Neptune,and some of their Spirit 6/10/03 sites to explore farther and examine . Opportunity 7/6/03 rocks better than anything that has ever landed on Mars. Pioneer Venus 5/20/78 Placed in orbit around Venus to study the Orbiter atmosphere and surface; compiled radar SCISAT-1 8/12/03 The SCISAT-1 spacecraft investigated maps of surface features. chemical processes that control the distribution of ozone in the Earth’s Pioneer Venus 8/8/78 Sent four probes into the Venusian atmosphere, particularly at high altitudes. Multiprobe atmosphere five days after the Orbiter arrived; returned much useful data. Space Infrared 8/25/03 Fourth and last of the Great Telescope Facility Observatories, the telescope is obtaining International 8/12/78 Third International Sun-Earth Explorer; (SIRTF) images and spectra by detecting the Sun-Earth examined solar wind and its interaction infrared energy, or heat, radiated by Explorer (ISEE) with Earth’s magnetosphere. Renamed objects in space. International Cometary Explorer (ICE) and redirected in 1983 to make the first flyby ofa comet —Giacobini-Zinner-on Sept.11,1985.

21 22 A Place toA Place Visit to Visit Apollo capsuler including aMer The RocketGar E visit w from U T IMAX® theaters tors arealsoencourag Scouts complementlong-timefa exhibits suc where c aims atinspiringc adv films In additiontoitstours in adv ing andlaunc Special interesttoursarealsoa moon; thendri Satur ter 39 obser T ing guestsahigh-quality 1995, ev future of Eac he KSCVisitorComplexislocated45min he KSCT are Nor , wheretheyreli enture totheR h year www . T n Vroc ance x tinations, KennedySpaceCenteroffersvisitorsawidevarietyofthingstoseeanddo. only mannedvehicleSpaceport,andoneofCentralFlorida’smostpopulartouristdes .S citing, educationalexhibits.Peacefulnaturetrails.Pristineseashores.Thenation’s he li hildren andfamiliesma er v . Highw America’ th P , morethan2.2millionguestsfromaroundthew ation g .k y aspectof . our tak h asExplorationintheNewMillennium,EarlySpaceandR v ennedyspacecenter k e-action stag h facilities arks Ser et, touc v cury-Atlas r den attheKSCV eplicas, seatingpodsandinformative graphicelements. e b antr a . y 1,S hildren topursueacademicex v ed Planet.T es guestsonanar s spaceprog y theV e thelaunc y this70-acrefacilityhasbeenentirelyredev h amoonroc vices of , wheretheyviewspaceshuttlelaunc ed tow , theKSCVisitorComplexoffersav .R. 3andI-95).T . Wildlifetoursarea , full-da e sho ehicle AssemblyBuildingandOrbitorProcessingF ocket. Thegar atc Space h of v he VisitorComplex’ w ram attheK y comefacetoev y spaceexperience ailable isitor Complexfeatur h fiv , MadMissiontoMars2025,tak v .com orites suc k andenjo Apollo8frommissioncontrol,w por rated tourwithself-pacedstopsattheLaunc e-stor . “NASAUpClose”highlightsspaceshuttleprocess . t, Inc den alsofeatur he VisitorComplexisoperatedforNASAb y-tall spacefilmsatthew h astheR v ennedy SpaceCenterVisitorComplex.Since utes eastof ailable tog . F y “frontro or moreinfor cellence . s dailyAstronautEncounterprog es eightauthenticr oc er es aclimb-inMer y da k roups of . Itistheonlyplaceinw OrlandoonS w seats”asahumanlandsonthe et GardenandShuttlePlaza.Visi h pads;theApollo/Satur orld explorethepast,presentand y witharealastronaut.New ariety of mation, call(321)449-4444or 10ormorewhenar eloped andenhanced,offer es guestsonanaction-filled orld’ prog alk beneathamassi .R. 405(accessible ockets fr cury s onlybac rams , Geminoand acility , exhibitsand om thepast, h Complex k-to-bac . n VCen orld ram obot y Dela rang v ed e k to make reservations, call (321) 867-4090.

To find out more about NASA KSC education programs, visit http://www-pao.ksc.nasa.gov/ kscpao/educate/edu.htm.

The “other side” of America’s Spaceport is less known, perhaps, but an equally treasured national asset. Under agreements between NASA and the Department of Interior, all but the operational areas of the Kennedy Space Center are designated as the Merritt Island National Wildlife Refuge, including 25 miles of undeveloped ocean beach that forms the The KSC Visitor Complex is accessible to the public Canaveral National Seashore. and open for business every day of the year except Christmas and certain launch days. This gentle but untamed land swarms with wildlife. More than 500 species of birds, mammals, rep The Educator Resource Center, located in the Center tiles and amphibians are found here. Some, like the for Space Education at KSC Visitor Complex, pro American bald eagle, wood stork, alligator and the vides extensive facilities to aid teachers in the prepa ponderous manatee, or sea cow, are on the endan ration of aerospace-related teaching materials. These gered or threatened species list. include a large number of aerospace publications, videotapes, 35mm slides, text data and computer Recreational activities abound: freshwater and surf programs that can be copied on site. fishing, aterfow wl hunting in season, bird-watching, swimming at the ocean beaches, canoeing, and hiking The Exploration Station, also in the Center for nature trails. Space Education, provides educational programs and hands-on, stimulating activities that illustrate and Most of the refuge and all of the seashore are open explain the principles of rocketry and space science. to visitors during daylight hours, except when space Students often work with actual hardware used for operations require closure. Seashore headquarters are space missions. For more information about the Ed located in nearby Titusville. A wildlife refuge visitors ucator Resource Center or the Exploration Center, or center is located east of Titusville, on S.R. 402.

This snowy egret is spotted near The Canaveral National Seashore is an unspoiled mecca for swimming, the Kennedy Space Center. sunbathing and surf-fishing.

23 24 Then andThen Now and Now exchange. Oneoftheastr separated fr Backdr M tries (on asatelliteoftenpro v en On thecommercialside cal telescopes gi element inNASA named Spitzer ag T objects tounderstandthenatureof mak T eral of sent aprobeplungingintoJ spacecraft todirectlyexaminethesouthandnor rang April 1991andalsoinEar most po T to mapthesurfaceof ehicles butthespaceshuttledidplacesev he SpaceInfraredT he Ear he HubbleSpaceT v es andspectrab ue eac e auniqueviewof e astroph e is . UlyssesloopedaroundJ itslarg opped againstwaterandclouds onMar , andunderstandthehistor unique w th-orbiting ChandraX-Ra h year ers shuttles sincethefirstflightin1981,includingan any impor erful telescopeinhistor om SpaceShuttleDiscovery afterseveraldaysofactivitiesandanimportantcr . Amongthemorenotablescientificspacecraftw . ysical obser est moonsfromspace , thelarg t , andcontin o the ’ s familyof y detectingtheinfraredenerg tant scientificandcommercialspacecraftha elescope w space elescope F theuni V est infraredtelescopeev viding 30ormore)tobringtelevisionintoev , satellitecomm en v onauts aboar ations of th orbit,isthelarg us ue tosteadilyg pro upiter , pro orbiting“GreatObser v erse andpeerintoregionsof g upiter andoutof as launc ram. Satellite acility viding ex y , whileanorbiteranalyzedboththisgiantplanetandsev y andev y Obser . T celestialobjectsfromnor . he ComptonGammaRa , launc ph d Discoverytookthisphotograph fr hed intoEar unications no ysical processesthattak ro cellent profilesof v olution of eral inorbit.T ator w hed inA est telescopetooperateinthisv . T obser ch 18,2001,theInter er launc y launc y hese spacecraftflyprimarilyonunmanned theplanetar th polesof , orheat,radiatedb v v th orbitinApril1990andbecamethe ations ugust 2003,w theuni atories w pro hed inJ hed intospaceisthefour he abilityof and vide sev umber of spacethatarehiddenfromopti thesun.T . thiscloud-shroudedplanet. ” Itshighlysensiti v y plane as Mag erse mal starstoquasars y Obser uly 1999w the v e beenlaunc e placewithinastronomical . as designedtoobtainim national SpaceStationis data eral billiondollarsinrev , becomingthefirst y objectsinspace ellan, whic er inter asingletransponder v he Galileomission y homeinmostcoun ator they om theaftflightdeck. as designedto planetar y , launc produce hed onspace er v h usedradar y highenerg e instr th andfinal , allo y explor hed in , . No uments wing suc ew h w as y from the Geostationary Operational Environmental periments to the U.S. Lab plus needed supplies and Satellites, greatly improve the ability of meteorolo equipment. The first crews set up residence for three gists to make more accurate and longer-range weath to six months in duration. By 2004, a total of 18 er forecasts. And Earth resources spacecraft provide space shuttle flights had supported the space station powerful tools to help in locating new mineral and and nine Expedition crews had called it home. water resources, as well as measuring the effects of human activities on land and sea. Two probes, the Mars Global Surveyor and Mars Pathfinder, were launched in late 1996. Two addition A major program, “Mission to Planet Earth,” oper al orbiters were launched in late 1998 and early 1999 ated economical new satellites with greatly improved but were lost after arrival at Mars. The Mars Odyssey capabilities to observe, monitor and analyze Earth’s spacecraft was successfully launched in 2001 and was very complex environment. This includes gaining a designed to map the Martian surface. Cassini was better understanding of the relationships between launched in 1997 on a four-year mission to explore solar radiation and Earth’s atmosphere, and tracking Saturn, its rings and moons. The Mars Exploration the ozone layer and the “ozone hole” over Antarc Rovers were launched in 2003 to determine the his tica. The Earth Observing System and National Oce tory of the climate and water on Mars. anic and Atmospheric Administration satellites have been instrumental in expanding the available data on Unmanned interplanetary exploration will continue, Earth’s environment. with highly sophisticated spacecraft launched on expendable vehicles. Many other commercial and scientific spacecraft were launched into Earth orbit by space shuttles and Following completion of space station assembly, the unmanned vehicles. Hundreds of human-tended space shuttle fleet will retire. experiments have been conducted in the micrograv ity of orbit, including international crews performing Then begins a new era: to the moon, Mars and be several Spacelab and shuttle missions. yond.

In 1995 NASA astronauts began rotating assign ments on the Russian space station Mir, with space shuttles docking with Mir on a regular basis. This continued until the International Space Station welcomed its first permanent crew Nov. 2, 2000. The space station is the largest construction project ever attempted. The and its partners in Eu rope, Japan, and Canada are assembling this facility in orbit. There has been continuous occupa tion of the space station since 2000, with rotating crew assignments.

The station greatly improves our ability to utilize the for the benefit of humanity. Shuttle-transported elements brought to KSC for future payloads are first hecc ked out in the 457,000- square-foot Space Station Processing Facility in the KSC Industrial Area. By late 2002, more than nine elements had been processed, launched and assem bled in space, including the Unity Node 1, U.S. Lab Discovery’s robot arm lifts the Hubble Space Tele­ Destiny, Russian modules Zarya and Zvezda, various scope out of the payload bay after a successful truss segments and pressurized mating adapters, plus servicing mission, STS-103, in December 1999. the Canadian remote manipulator system needed to continue construction.

Multi-purpose logistics modules, built by the , have enabled transporting of ex

25 A New Era: the Moon,A New Mars and EraBeyond O • • tion prog T humans willv Finally needed toconductlong T habitable en and otherbodies R dev T tion toMarsandotherdestinations moon, andusingthedistincti tion acti NASA planstoinitiateaseriesof gies fortheag the identification,dev T • • par the UnitedStatesinspace dev Since thecreationof ag Maintaining thestrongpar o adv o conductthisw o studythesolarsystem’ obotic explorationswillfocusprimarilyonMars he sameda ency willpursueoppor Extend humanpresenceacrossthesolarsystem, system andbey Implement asustainedandaffordablehumanroboticprog scientific Promote inter to suppor Dev destinations; moon b t ontheuniqueexperienceandresourcesof eloping thelaunc elopment. , withtheacquiredkno ance U elop theinno vities exploration: n J ram. Insuppor y theyear2020,inpre an. 14,2004,PresidentGeorg , securityandeconomicinterests vironments aroundotherstars y t decisionsaboutthedestinationsforhumanexploration;and . Someof , theOfficeof .S enture toMars ency . scientific . NASAwilluseadv national andcommercialpar ork, NASAwilldev ond; . v h procedures NASAinOctober1958,theK elopment andv ati theseprospectsincludesendingthefirsthumanexpeditionto er v t of tunities forinter e tec , securityandeconomicintereststhrougharobustspaceexplora -duration humanandroboticmissions s histor . W tnership histor ExplorationSystemsw thisg . v hatev wledg hnologies e lunarsurfacetopre paration forhumanexplorationof y andsearc , facilities roboticmissionsinpre oal, theU er thefutureholds . e fromrobotic anced telescopestosearc alidation of elop anddemonstratethepo , kno e W y thatsuppor national andcommercialpar . , equipmentandskillsneededtoplacek .S h forevidenceof . . Bushannouncedthevisionforspace wledg ticipation inexplorationtofur . will: thepeopleof explorationsystemsandrelatedtec , themoonsof , humanexplorationandmoonmissions e andinfrastr pare forsustainedhumanspaceexplora as establishedtosetprioritiesanddirect ennedy SpaceCenterhaspioneeredin , thespaceprog ts U ting withahumanretur paration forfuturehumanexplora .S . spaceexplorationg life KSC h forEar uctures bothtoexploreand . Ear , specificprojectsarein ram toexplorethesolar w . Marsandother er andlifesuppor th andJ ram willde ticipation asw th-lik ther U e planetsand upiter n tothe pend inlarg oals .S , asteroids . ell. hnolo , the t ee p , e Directors of the Kennedy Space Center National Aeronautics and Space Administration John F. Kennedy Space Center

Robert D. Cabana William W. Parsons James W. Kennedy 2008 - Present 2007 - 2008 2003 - 2007

Roy D. Bridges Jr. Jay F. Honeycutt Robert L. Crippen 1997 - 2003 1995 - 1997 1992 - 1995

Lt. Gen. Forrest S. McCartney Richard G. Smith Lee R. Scherer Dr. Kurt H. Debus 1986 – 1991 1979 - 1986 1974 - 1979 1961 - 1974

27 National Aeronautics and Space Administration John F. Kennedy Space Center Kennedy Space Center, FL 32899 www..gov

NP-2005-10-032-KSC