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'Bushcraft' and 'Indigenous Knowledge': Transformations of a Concept

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'Bushcraft' and 'Indigenous Knowledge': Transformations of a Concept ‘Bushcraft’ and ‘Indigenous Knowledge’: transformations of a concept in the modern world Lisa Fenton Thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy School of Anthropology and Conservation University of Kent 100,607 words 2016 1 To my son Finn 2 3 Abstract The relationship between ‘bushcraft’ and ‘indigenous knowledge’ is investigated through a historical review, an examination of ethnographic literature, fieldwork amongst bushcraft practitioners, and through original case studies. Fieldwork was carried out in Sweden, the USA, and the UK. Case studies of the Saami ‘kuksa’, the ‘figure 4’ deadfall trap, and making fire by friction are used to explore a number of themes in the contemporary bushcraft world: the role of skilled-practice, ethical values, notions of an individually experienced connection with nature, practice as a personal transformative experience, and as an intersubjective relationship between practitioner and craft engagement with the material affordances in the landscape. It is argued that motivations for practice foreground a relationship with an environmental experience that counters ‘alienation’ through the development of techniques required to spend un-insulated time in nature which counter modern Western technocratic lifestyles. Bushcraft destabilises apparently similar categories of activity, particularly tourism, outdoor adventure recreation and education, historical re- enactment and survivalism. 4 Acknowledgements I wish to extend my gratitude to the bushcraft community members, many of who contributed their time, experiences and thoughts in various ways, particularly by responding to a lengthy questionnaire survey. I am indebted to many of my professional colleagues who generously contributed their time in support of this research. In the UK I particularly wish to thank Ben McNutt, John Rhyder, Paul Kirtley, Joe O’ Leary, Dave Watson, Paul Moseley and Stuart Goring. In the USA am truly grateful to Josh Bernstein of Boulder Outdoor Survival School (BOSS) for permitting me to conduct ethnographic research during commercial field-courses, and especially to the incredible and hardy souls of the BOSS field-staff for accommodating both my enquiries and the presence of my eight month old son, who accompanied me in the field. Accordingly, thanks go to Bryan Pushkar, Steve Dessingar, Laurel Holding, Kirsten Rechnitz and Heath Miller. Also in the USA, I extremely grateful to Larry Dean Olsen, David Wescott, David Holladay, and the late Steven Watts for their patience with my queries and interviews, and for providing thought provoking discussion and in sharing their life histories and experiences. In northern Maine, I owe my sincere thanks to Alexandra Conover Bennett and Garret Conover of North Woods Ways for not only hosting my little family and patiently responding to my endless questions, but also for the precious memories of our times spent together journeying through the north woods winter landscape, and for introducing me to the delights of the winter trail. More thanks go to Tim Smith for generously hosting us during his courses at Jack Mountain Bushcraft in Maine, and for lively discussions that helped formulate my thinking. Similarly, I extend my gratitude to Juha Rankinen for accommodating and accompanying my travels and enquiry in Sweden, and for providing critical insights and discussion. Also in Sweden I owe thanks to Lars Fält and Bosse Westlien for their generosity in hosting me and for sharing their thoughts, life histories and experiences. 5 I am grateful to Ray Mears for his guidance and teaching in my early career and also to the memory and influence of Rachel Mears. Thanks are also due to the staff and apprentices of Woodsmoke, who have continually shaped, challenged and inspired my own practice and teaching. I am particularly grateful to my supervisor Professor Roy Ellen, for his patience, guidance, suggestions and support throughout this challenging endeavor. I must also thank Dr. Simon Platten and Dr. Rachel Platten for their assistance and encouragement in gaining the opportunity to write this thesis, and Dr. Rajindra Puri for assisting my application. I am deeply indebted to Professor Zoe Playdon, without whose unwavering support, friendship and ongoing guidance and scholarly discussion, this thesis would simply not have been produced. I am also very grateful to Kate McNutt for her assistance in the final stages of the document. A huge debt of gratitude is owed to my loving family, who have provided the emotional and practical support required with the arrival of my lovely son, early in the doctoral process. It is commonly said that it takes a village to raise a child, and it certainly took a village to raise a child and undertake doctoral studies. My deepest appreciation, therefore, goes to my friends and family who held me together when sleep deprivation and motherhood threatened to overwhelm me, and who supported me in all the ways that matter most to a person. Especial thanks go to my mother, Eleanor Fenton, without whose continuous emotional and practical support this thesis simply could not have been produced. Similarly, to my father, Peter Fenton, and my sister, Katie Law, whose belief in me kept me going during the most challenging times. Finally, I am deeply grateful to my partner Ben McNutt for his love and support in enabling this work. This work was supported by the Economic and Social Research Council [Studenship grant number ES/H010386/1]. 6 Table of Contents Abstract ....................................................................................................................... 4 Acknowledgements ................................................................................................. 5 Table of Contents ...................................................................................................... 7 Table of Figures ...................................................................................................... 10 Chapter 1 : Introduction ...................................................................................... 11 1.1 Summary .................................................................................................................... 11 1.2 Research rationale and enquiry ........................................................................ 12 1.3 Fieldwork locations and research methods .................................................. 13 1.4 Bushcraft as a ‘third space’ .................................................................................. 18 1.4.1 Concepts, contexts and structure ............................................................................. 21 1.4.2 Colonialism, Indigenous Knowledge and travelling knowledge ................ 22 1.4.3 Alienation and the connection with nature ......................................................... 24 1.4.4 Phenomenological perspectives ............................................................................... 26 1.5 ‘Indigenous knowledge’ and its interpretations .......................................... 27 1.5.1 Definitions of ‘indigenous knowledge’ .................................................................. 27 1.5.2 Land-based knowledge ................................................................................................ 32 1.5.3 On skill ................................................................................................................................. 33 1.5.4 Gibson’s ecological perception ................................................................................. 35 1.5.5 The bushcraft perspective of ‘indigenous knowledge’ ................................... 36 1.6 The etymology of the term ‘bushcraft’ ............................................................. 37 1.7 Outline of thesis ....................................................................................................... 38 Chapter 2 : The Deep History of the Concept of Bushcraft ....................... 41 2.1 Introduction .............................................................................................................. 41 2.1.1 Writing bushcraft’s deep history ............................................................................. 41 2.1.2 Mechanised nature and the primitive ‘Other’ ..................................................... 44 2.2 Explorer narratives and the colonial gaze ..................................................... 47 2.2.1 Early ‘survival’ literature ............................................................................................. 47 2.2.2 The heroic explorer ....................................................................................................... 48 2.3 The development of Australian bushmanship .............................................. 49 2.3.1 Learning bush-skills from the Aborigines ............................................................ 51 2.4 The origins of Woodcraft on the American frontier .................................... 56 2.5 North American trader-explorers ..................................................................... 62 2.6 The self-reliant mountain men & backwoods pioneers ............................. 65 2.7 Fieldcraft, guerrilla warfare and the martial frontier ................................ 67 Chapter 3 : The Emergence of Modern Bushcraft ........................................ 71 3.1 Introduction .............................................................................................................
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