PREHISTORIC FORAGING PATTERNS at CA-SAC-47 SACRAMENTO COUNTY, CALIFORNIA a Thesis Presented to the Faculty of the Department Of

PREHISTORIC FORAGING PATTERNS AT CA-SAC-47

SACRAMENTO COUNTY, CALIFORNIA

A Thesis

Presented to the Faculty of the Department of Anthropology

California State University, Sacramento

Submitted in partial satisfaction of the requirements for the degree of

MASTER OF ARTS

Anthropology

Justin Blake Cairns

SUMMER 2016

Justin Blake Cairns

PREHISTORIC FORAGING PATTERNS AT CA-SAC-47

SACRAMENTO COUNTY, CALIFORNIA

A Thesis

Justin Blake Cairns

Approved by:

______, Committee Chair Mark E. Basgall, Ph.D.

______, Second Reader Jacob L. Fisher, Ph.D.

______Date

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Student: Justin Blake Cairns

I certify that this student has met the requirements for format contained in the University format manual, and that this thesis is suitable for shelving in the Library and credit is to be awarded for the thesis.

______, Graduate Coordinator ______Jacob Fisher, Ph.D. Date

Department of Anthropology

Abstract

PREHISTORIC FORAGING PATTERNS AT CA-SAC-47

SACRAMENTO COUNTY, CALIFORNIA

Justin Blake Cairns

Subsistence studies conducted on regional archaeological deposits indicate that in the

Sacramento Delta, as in the rest of the Central Valley, there is a decrease in foraging efficiency during the Late Period. A recently excavated site, CA-SAC-47, provides direct evidence of subsistence strategies in the form of faunal and plant remains.

This faunal assemblage is compared to direct evidence of subsistence from Delta sites

SAC-42, SAC-43, SAC-65, SAC-145, and SAC-329. The results and implications of this direct evidence are used to address site variability and resource selectivity.

______, Committee Chair Mark E. Basgall, Ph.D.

______Date

DEDICATION

This thesis is dedicated to

Robert Cairns

And

Kathy Cairns

for their support throughout this investigation

August 2016

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This project would not have been possible without help from several faculty members, my friends, and family. This investigation was first conceived in 2013, when the landowner of the Locke Ranch, Clarence Chu, asked for my help in determining where archaeological sites were located on his property. He gave me an opportunity that not many archaeologists get, and I thank him for his confidence in my abilities.

I thank Dr. Mark Basgall for giving me the skills necessary for field excavation and instilling an element of scientific integrity. Through many discussions with Dr. Basgall, Dr.

Michael Delacorte, and Dr. Jacob Fisher, I was able to create a research design from which to interpret the results. I would like to also thank Dr. Fisher for identifying all my large mammal and avian specimens with comparison skeletons. I would like to thank Bridget Wall for editing and formatting my thesis.

I want to thank Julie Minor for volunteering for months during the field excavation. I want to thank Micah St. Hillaire, my nephew, who volunteered to help whenever I needed assistance. I also want to thank the people at the Archaeological Research Center who taught me many of the skills that would prove useful when on my own. Those people include Randy

Bethard, Dave Glover, Brian James II, Michelle Noble, Anthony Pohl, and Bill Larson. I also thank my father, Robert Cairns, for visiting the Locke Ranch to set transect lines from which all excavation units were based. I thank my mother, Kathy Cairns, for allowing me to print whatever was necessary at her place of work, Wilcox Bros. I would also like to thank Wilcox Bros. for allowing me to use their office supplies, and Jose Campos for providing the graphic images seen in this report.

I want to give special thanks to Tom Herzog. Tom is a descendant of the Herzog family, for which the Herzog mound, SAC-72, was named. His father’s experience as a dig bum for

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Robert Heizer at SAC-72 in the early 1930s led to his fascination with our local history. His advice, support, and hoard of books proved useful for reference throughout this project. He has seen many of the transformations that have occurred within the study area, and his familiarity with the landscape from his years of farming gives a perspective that can’t be found in books.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

Dedication ...... vi

Acknowledgements ...... vii

List of Tables ...... xv

List of Figures ...... xvi

Chapter

1. INTRODUCTION ...... 1

Statement of Purpose ...... 3

2. NATURAL SETTING ...... 5

Paleoenvironmental Context ...... 5

The Pleistocene/Holocene Transition ...... 5

Early Holocene ...... 6

Middle Holocene...... 6

Late Holocene ...... 7

Study Area ...... 8

Climate and Hydrology in the Delta ...... 9

The Delta Habitats ...... 10

Riparian Woodland ...... 11

Freshwater Marsh ...... 16

Grasslands ...... 18

Historic Alterations to the Delta Landscape ...... 19

3. CULTURAL SETTING ...... 21

History of Archaeological Research ...... 21

Cultural History ...... 25

Early Period (4500 to 2800 B.P.) ...... 25

The Middle Period (2800 to 1200 B.P.) ...... 27

Late Period-Phase I (1200-450 B.P.) ...... 28

Late Period-Phase II (450-200 B.P.) ...... 29

Ethnohistory ...... 30

Historical Accounts...... 30

Ethnographic Evidence ...... 33

Territorial Boundaries ...... 34

Plant Use and Gathering ...... 35

Fishing ...... 37

Hunting ...... 37

Cooking and Food Preparation ...... 38

Material Culture ...... 39

End of an Era ...... 40

4. HISTORIC LAND USE ON THE LOCKE RANCH AND THE RECORDED

ARCHAEOLOGICAL RESOURCES ...... 41

CA-SAC-75 ...... 43

5. FIELD AND ANALYTICAL PROCEDURES ...... 46

Survey Procedures ...... 46

Auger Testing ...... 48

Field and Excavation Procedures ...... 50

Phase I Excavation Methodology ...... 50

Phase II Excavation Methodology ...... 51

Field Procedures and Sorting ...... 52

Laboratory Procedures ...... 52

Artifact Analysis ...... 53

Faunal Analysis ...... 54

Mammal and Avian Bone Analysis ...... 54

Fish Bone Analysis ...... 55

6. THE ARCHAEOLOGY OF CA-SAC-47 ...... 58

Site Chronology ...... 58

Beads ...... 58

Projectile Points ...... 59

Obsidian Sourcing and Hydration ...... 60

Summary of Chronology ...... 62

Site Structure and Content ...... 62

Test Unit #1 ...... 65

Test Unit #5 ...... 66

Test Unit #6 ...... 67

Artifact Classes ...... 68

Flaked Stone ...... 68

Modified Bone Artifacts ...... 69

Baked Clay ...... 72

Ground Stone ...... 76

Summary of Artifact Classes ...... 78

Faunal Remains ...... 78

Artiodactyls ...... 81

Small Mammals ...... 82

Avian Remains ...... 83

Fish Remains ...... 84

Shellfish Remains ...... 88

Plant Remains ...... 89

Summary of Results ...... 91

7. RESULTS AND IMPLICATIONS ...... 92

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Site Comparison ...... 92

CA-SAC-42 ...... 93

CA-SAC-43 ...... 94

CA-SAC-65 ...... 94

CA-SAC-145 ...... 95

CA-SAC-329 ...... 95

Site Variability ...... 96

Habitat Mosaics ...... 96

Site Richness ...... 97

Mammal Remains ...... 98

Avian Remains ...... 99

Fish Remains ...... 99

Plant Remains ...... 101

Summary of Comparisons ...... 101

Resource Selectivity ...... 102

Summary ...... 103

8. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS ...... 105

Appendix A. Obsidian Hydration ...... 107

Appendix B. CA-SAC-47 Test Unit ...... 115

Appendix C. CA-SAC-47 Analysis (Digital; CD Enclosed) ...... CD

xiii

Bibliography ...... 115

xiv

LIST OF TABLES

Tables Page

1. Table 5.1. Mammal Size Categories ...... 54

2. Table 5.2. Features of Minnow Pharyngeal Teeth ...... 55

3. Table 6.1. Obsidian Hydration from CA-SAC-47 ...... 61

4. Table 6.2. Distribution of Cultural Matierals at CA-SAC-47 ...... 63

5. Table 6.3. Modified Bone from CA-SAC-47 ...... 71

6. Table 6.4. Distribution of Faunal Remains from CA-SAC-47 ...... 78

7. Table 6.5. Burned Bone Distributions for Major Faunal Categories ...... 81

8. Table 6.6. Mammal Remains (MNI and NISP counts) from CA-SAC-47 ...... 82

9. Table 6.7. Avian Remains (MNI and NISP counts) from CA-SAC-47 ...... 83

10. Table 6.8. Fish Remains (MNI and NISP counts) from CA-SAC-47 ...... 84

11. Table 6.9. Plant Remains from CA-SAC-47 ...... 89

12. Table 7.1. Distribution of Taxonomic Richness at Delta Sites ...... 97

13. Table 7.2. NISP and MNI Counts for Mammal Remains from Delta Sites ...... 98

14. Table 7.3. NISP and MNI Counts for Avian Remains from Delta Sites...... 99

15. Table 7.4. NISP and MNI Counts for Fish Remains from Delta Sites ...... 100

LIST OF FIGURES

Figures Page

1. Figure 2.1. Map Depicting Southern Portion of Study Area ...... 8

2. Figure 3.1. Map Showing Natural Boundaries of Prehistoric Island ...... 31

3. Figure 4.1. Historic Locke Ranch Property ...... 42

4. Figure 4.2. Property of Lock Ranch as of 2014 ...... 43

5. Figure 4.3. CA-SAC-75 Site Overview, Facing South ...... 44

6. Figure 5.1. CA-SAC-47 Site Overview, Facing South ...... 46

7. Figure 5.2. CA-SAC-74 Site Overview, Facing East...... 47

8. Figure 5.3. Aerial View of Locke Ranch ...... 49

9. Figure 5.4. Aerial View of Locke Ranch with Barns Depicted North of CA-SAC-75 ...... 51

10. Figure 6.1. Shell Beads ...... 59

11. Figure 6.2. Stockton Serrated Projectile Point ...... 60

12. Figure 6.3. Temporal Distribution of Hydration Band Measurements ...... 62

13. Figure 6.4. Test Unit #1 ...... 65

14. Figure 6.5. Test Unit #5 ...... 66

15. Figure 6.6. Test Unit #6 ...... 67

16. Figure 6.7. Stockton Serrated Biface ...... 69

17. Figure 6.8. Bone Awl Tip, Bird Bone Pipe Fragments ...... 70

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18. Figure 6.9. Baked Clay Net Weights ...... 73

19. Figure 6.10. Baked Clay Net Weights ...... 74

20. Figure 6.11. Baked Clay Cooking Balls ...... 75

21. Figure 6.12. Baked Clay Fragment with Basketry Impressions ...... 75

22. Figure 6.13. Baked Clay Objects with Punctate Impressions ...... 76

23. Figure 6.14. Handstone Fragment ...... 77

24. Figure 6.15. Interior Baked Clay Fragment with Acorn Impressions ...... 90

25. Figure 7.1. Historic Vegetation Map Depicting All Sites Under Investigation ...... 93

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Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION

Site CA-SAC-47 is located within the Sacramento Delta on the Locke Ranch, a 71 acre parcel situated north of the town of Locke. Excavation of SAC-47 commenced in October 2013 as part of a conservation effort which was aimed towards preserving the archaeological deposits located on the Locke Ranch. The landowner wanted to utilize parts of his ranch for agriculture and rebuild two barns, of which one is gone, the other dilapidated. The focus of excavation was geared toward determining, first, if significant archaeological deposits exist in the vicinity of the barns, and second, to delineate the site boundaries of SAC-47. The most important aspect of this project was determining the greatest extent of archaeological deposits associated with SAC-47, so that these areas may be protected during future ground breaking activities on the Locke Ranch.

Beyond the goals set forth by the excavation methodology, the faunal and plant remains obtained during excavation provide direct evidence regarding diet composition, resource selectivity, site variability, and resource availability. The artifact assemblage present at SAC-47 also speaks to the technoenvironmental constraints that affected how food was acquired and processed.

SAC-47 is situated in a catchment area which consists of freshwater marsh, riparian woodland, and adjacent grasslands within a 10 km catchment. The native people that lived on this site were called the Junizumne, a tribelet of around 400 people (Bennyhoff 1978). The food required to sustain a large sedentary population in a small tribal territory would impact the abundance and availability of local plant and animal resources. One line of discussion relating to the subsistence activities employed by Delta inhabitants revolves around balanophagy and resource intensification of specific resources. Traditional wisdom proposes that in the Late

Holocene populations grew in the Central Valley, and highly-ranked resources became depleted, forcing foragers to intensively exploit the more abundantly available lower-ranked resources such

as smaller animal and plants (Basgall 1987; Broughton 1994a, 1997; Goshen 2013; Pierce 1988;

Wohlgemuth 1996, 2004). This pattern has been demonstrated repeatedly with faunal evidence in the Central Valley, but evidence supporting resource intensification in the Delta is based mostly on the increased prevalence of ground stone at Late versus Early Period sites. Some historic accounts suggest that highly-ranked fauna were remarkably abundant in the Central Valley, but it has been argued that the historic abundances were the result of decreased predation on the part of native people, who were decimated by disease (Anderson et al. 1998; Preston 2002:113). It is unclear from the artifact assemblages and historic accounts if highly-ranked fauna became increasingly scarce throughout the Late Period. Direct evidence in the form of faunal remains was evaluated at several Delta sites by Emilie Zelazo (2013), finding that resource intensification affects prey selection, but the Delta’s inhabitants actually still enjoyed a diverse diet of terrestrial fauna, freshwater marsh resources, and plant foods (Craw 2002; Zelazo 2013:72-77).

Another line of discussion revolves around the prehistoric exploitation of anadromous fish in the Sacramento Delta. The debate further examines the procurement of anadromous versus resident fish (Simons 1995:248). Broughton found that even though anadromous fish have been emphasized as a large part of the native diet in ethnographic research, there is very little archaeological evidence of intense salmon procurement in Late Period faunal assemblages

(Broughton 1988:2). Schulz (1995) uses paleoenvironmental data to conclude that anadromous fish were utilized in the Early Period, due to shallow waterways, but by the Middle Period, environmental changes and increased hydrological outflows precluded the procurement of anadromous fish by Delta inhabitants with their given technologies (Broughton 1998:1-6; Schulz

1995). Salmon was an insignificant part of the prehistoric diet, comprising only a small part of fish species exploited intensively by prehistoric people in the Delta region (Broughton 1988:3).

Statement of Purpose

The primary research objective of this investigation is to determine whether archaeological deposits found at SAC-47 show evidence of a diet geared toward a broad diet breadth, or a narrow diet emphasizing an intensive procurement of specific resources. The faunal and plant remains will be used to provide direct evidence related to the diet breadth. The faunal and artifact assemblage of SAC-47 is compared to other sites in the Sacramento Delta to help determine if a similar pattern of site use, technology use, and subsistence strategies emerge. The sites used for comparison are all located in the Sacramento Delta, SAC-42, SAC-43, SAC-65,

SAC-145, and SAC-329. This comparison will help evaluate the implications of the faunal and botanical evidence of diet composition from SAC-47, as it relates to habitat differences contributing to site variability and resource selectivity affecting the subsistence strategies

employed at SAC-47.

Optimal foraging theory, originally used to explain prey selection from a biological

standpoint, will be used in this investigation to outline the choices made when the biological

needs for sustenance are of paramount concern (Broughton 1988:7; Kelly 1995:73). According to

optimal foraging models, people will always target higher-ranked resources, such as large

animals, with higher caloric returns instead of lower-ranked resources, such as small animals and

plants, given equal abundances, to increase the overall net rate of return or foraging efficiency

(Broughton 1988). If the effects of resource intensification were evident at SAC-47, the faunal

assemblage should be dominated by low-ranked terrestrial and aquatic resources, but if resource

availability was unaffected by the purported number of people living in this part of the Delta, then

high-ranked resources such as large anadromous fish and artiodactyls would be sought after over

lower-ranked resources such as small resident fish, small mammals, and plants.

Evidence regarding subsistence strategies is not evident from early archaeological investigations which focused primarily on cultural chronology and material culture, where particular tools were thought to indicate specific subsistence activities (Bouey 1995:31). The four sites are used for comparison have all undergone faunal analysis. These sites thankfully offer data which corresponds to the chronology of SAC-47, but due to the lack of data regarding sites which date to earlier periods, no such discussion of resource intensification over time is possible, only the expected results of such a strategy.

Chapter 2

NATURAL SETTING

Paleoenvironmental Context

A large amount of research indicates that paleoenvironmental shifts bring about culture change (Baumhoff 1978; Jones et al. 1999; Moratto 1984; Pierce 1988; Rosenthal and Fitzgerald

2012; Schwitalla 2010). As discussed by Zelazo (2013), the paleoenvironmental shifts in the

Delta effect the aquatic environments more than terrestrial environments. In the Central Valley, precipitation is main driving force of environmental change. The Delta is at a low elevation and ground water is near the surface, so hydrologic flows from the Sierra snowmelt are the main driving force affecting environmental change in this region (Thompson 1957).

The Pleistocene/Holocene Transition

Paleoenvironmental data for the Sacramento Delta is largely unavailable for the

Pleistocene. The transition from the Pleistocene to the Early Holocene (11,500-14,000 B.P.) occurred during a period of cool/wet climatic conditions (West et al. 2007). The freshwater marshes were scarce, and grassland habitats dominated the river basin of what is now the

Sacramento Delta. Before the formation of the Delta, this region was characterized by incised channels, sand and gravel alluvial fans, aeolian dunes, and alluvial floodplains (Ritter 1972:3).

The depth of dated peat deposits indicate that the sea level was 60 feet (18 m) lower than today

(Ritter 1972:3; West et al. 2007:24).

An array of large herbaceous megafauna grazed on the open grasslands. Fossil remains of large grazing animals include such species as horse (Equus major), camel (Camelops hesternus), ground sloth (Paramylodon harlani), bison (Bison antiquus), and Columbian

mammoth (Mammuthus columbi), while large carnivores include the dire wolf (Canis dirus) and

the saber-toothed cat (Smilodon floridanus) (Meltzer 2009).

Early Holocene

By the Early Holocene (8000 – 11,000 B.P.), waterways began depositing large amounts of sediment, creating a clear stratigraphic boundary distinct from that found in the Pleistocene

(Rosenthal et al. 2007:151). Post-glacial sea levels rose 0.7 feet (0.21 m) every 100 years (Ritter

1972:3). At the same time, elevation in this region was increasing by 2 cm a year throughout the

Early Holocene (Atwater and Hedel 1976). During this time wetlands had not evolved in the

Sacramento Delta, instead this region was comprised of open woodland, grasslands, and shallow waterways which may have flowed only seasonally (Pierce 1988).

Middle Holocene

By the Middle Holocene (4000-8000 B.P.), climatic conditions changed drastically with increased precipitation and warmer temperatures. This amelioration led to glacial melting and rapidly rising sea levels (Pierce 1988; West et al. 2007:24). The rise in sea levels slowed down by 8000 B.P. to 0.2 cm per year, allowing for the accumulation of sediment during tidal influxes and the development of marshland plant communities (Atwater and Hedel 1976).

Plants and animal waste were transformed into a rich muddy peat substrate. The

increased precipitation and post-glacial runoff carried large amounts of sediment to the lower

elevations of the region (Pierce 1988). The muddy peat which developed within the wetlands was

simultaneously overlain by the post-glacial alluvial fan deposits (Pierce 1988). Even though the increased precipitation and glacial melting increased the flow of waterways in the Sacramento

Delta, the rise in sea levels forced water upstream, increasing the overall salinity in the Delta.

Diatom studies provide evidence of an increased salinity during this time, accompanied by plant

communities resembling those found in a saltwater marshland (Rosenthal et al. 2007:153). The expansion of marshlands would have increased the availability of food resources, perhaps becoming a more attractive environment in which to reside.

Late Holocene

By the end of the Altithermal (7000-4500 B.P.), following a hot/dry period of the

Medithermal, the first widespread Deltaic occupation begins (Ritter 1972:5). The low-lying alluvial fan and peat deposits of the Delta were susceptible to water inundation, but archaeological sites are typically found on elevated natural levees and sand dune deposits which provided refuge for terrestrial life (Pierce 1988:16).

By 4500 B.P. to present, the climate began to resemble modern climatic conditions. The

Delta began to look much as it had historically, with four native vegetation associations, riparian

forest, oak woodland, freshwater marsh, and the adjacent grassland (Simons 1995:252). At 4000

B.P., sea levels were 24 feet lower than today, not reaching modern levels until 3000 B.P. (Ritter

1972:4-5). Tree-ring evidence from the White Mountains suggests that a warm/dry period began

in California between 4600-2900 B.P., followed by a wet period that lasted until 1500 B.P.

(LaMarche 1978; Rosenthal et al. 2007). By around 1500 B.P., a climatic event referred to as the

Medieval Climatic Anomaly (MCA) began, lasting until ca. 600 B.P. (Jones et al. 1999). During this period of aridity in the Central Valley, there was a decreased freshwater flow, and the low water levels led to an increase in salinity during tidal influxes (Jones et al. 1999). Other than the increased salinity of waterways, the MCA drought would have had a minimal impact in the low elevation of the Delta region, where water either inundates the ground, or resided only a few feet underground. Areas of higher elevation in the Delta likely gave rise to small patches of

grasslands, increasing the productivity of plant and animal resources in the environment. Pollen

studies suggest that throughout the Late Holocene the environment was relatively stable with a

warm/dry climate (West 1977).

Study Area

The study area encompasses sites along a stretch of the Sacramento River, extending

from the Pocket area of Sacramento to the brackish waters south of Rio Vista. This segment of

the Sacramento River also closely conforms to the northern and southern extents of Plains Miwok

territory along the Sacramento River. The study area captures a 10 km radius from the

Sacramento River. The focal site of the study, SAC-47, and three other sites considered in this archaeological investigation are located in close proximity to the Sacramento River (Figure 2.1).

Figure 2.1. Map Depicting Southern Portion of Study Area Oriented E-W (SAC-42 and SAC-43 not depicted).

Sites SAC-47 and SAC-329 are located in the southern portion of the study area 2 km from each other, while SAC-65 and SAC-145 are located 5 km north. SAC-42 and SAC-43 are located 20 km north (see Figure 7.1).

Climate and Hydrology in the Delta

The Sacramento Delta is the focus of this investigation. The Sacramento-San Joaquin

Delta is the largest freshwater estuary on the west coast of both North and South America. This estuary is formed by the confluence of two large rivers, the Sacramento and the San Joaquin

(Nuttonson 1963:3). The Delta islands are surrounded by rivers and sloughs which create a labyrinth of waterways.

The Delta region has a climate which approximates that of Mediterranean environments, with hot, dry summers and a rainy season which extends from November until March (Nuttonson

1963:3). The Delta receives between 10 and 18 inches of rain annually, but vegetation is sustained primarily from snow melt runoff which flows into the Delta, creating a high water table and a high incidence of floods (Nuttonson 1963:4; Thompson 1957:61). Normal river flows average approximately 5000 cubic feet per second, but during large winter storms flow rates can increase up to 600,000 cubic feet per second (Kelley 1989). Before modern flood control, waters crested over natural levees, creating a vast inland sea (Kelley 1989; Schenck and Dawson 1929).

These waterways are primarily fresh water from snowmelt, but when outflow discharges decrease, tidal influxes allows for the penetration of salt water and an overall increase of salinity

(Thompson 1957:23). In the southern part of the Delta, levels of salinity occasionally

contaminate ground water.

Prehistorically, the Delta was inundated by water during the spring and summer months

which would have created an unbearable humidity (Schenck and Dawson 1929:302). Marine

influences provide cool flows of air which travel through the Carquinez Strait into the Delta,

traveling over 20 miles inland. This air flow differs from other air flows which travel overland

into the Central Valley in that the Delta breeze is affected by very little admixture with heated air

(Thompson 1957:60). Conversely, ground or tule fog forms under static, high pressure-induced

temperature inversion in the winter months. The fog can be dense during the winter, blocking the

sun, and encasing the Delta for weeks at a time (Thompson 1957).

The Delta Habitats

Within this area the indigenous populations of the Delta had food resources from both

aquatic and terrestrial biomes. All animals and edible plants were potential sources of

subsistence, so the most commonly encountered resources are listed for the habitat from which

they are found. Prehistorically, the Delta contained islands surrounded by water, comprising three distinct habitats (Thompson 1957). The riparian corridor, created by fast moving rivers which form natural levees providing land for riparian woodlands (West et al. 2007). A sub- habitat of this riparian corridor is the sand dune mounds which form where waterways diverge, creating elevated land for terrestrial habitation. The second habitat present in this area is the freshwater marsh, a habitat which dominates the landscape, creating refuge for an array of aquatic and avian species. A third habitat, the grasslands, located more than 10 km from the SAC-47 study area, is close enough to consider as a habitat from which food resources were procured. All habitats present prehistorically have undergone transformations since contact, and only remnants of such habitats exist today (West et al. 2007:24). These habitats will be described in their pristine condition, noting the now extant or extinct species. This will be followed by a description of the historical alterations of the Delta landscape.

Riparian Woodland

Natural levees were created from the strong hydrological forces that were generated from

these waterways. Light alluvial deposits were pushed atop partially cemented fine sandy clays.

Over the course of many flood episodes, deposition built up into increasingly prominent levees

(Nuttonson 1963:3). On natural levees, a deciduous multi-storied canopy is formed, a riparian

forest which can be described as three separate habitats: (1) oak forest, (2) mixed transitional

forest, and (3) cottonwood forest (USFWS 1992).

The oak forest is found at the highest elevations of the riparian forest, and is dominated

by valley (Quercus lobata) and interior live oak (Q. wislizeni), with smaller numbers of black walnut (Juglans hindsii), California sycamore (Platanus racemosa), and Oregon ash (Fraxinus

latifolia) (Hickman 1993; Little 1980). Below this deciduous canopy is an undergrowth

consisting of blackberry (Rubus spp.), California wild rose (Rosa californica), poison oak (Rhus diversiloba), and wild rye grass (Elymus triticoides) (USFWS 1992:4E5-4E7).

A highly diverse mixed transitional forest can be found between the oak forest and the lower ground near the flood plain. In addition to all the trees and plants found in the oak forest, the mixed forest is comprised of trees such as cottonwood (Populus fremontii), and poplar (P. tremula). The lower canopy is dominated by poison oak, along with buckeye (Aesculus californica), California wild plum (Prunus subcordata), and California grape (Vitis californica)

(Hickman 1993; Little 1980; USFWS 1992:4E5-4E7).

The cottonwood forest occurs in the lowest elevation of the riparian forest where the

ground is inundated periodically with water. In this habitat, the cottonwood and willow (Salix

sp.) dominate the forest with an understory of elderberry (Sambucus mexicana), and blackberry

(USFWS 1992:4E5-4E7). Large amounts of edible fungi species are found in abundance within the cottonwood forest. This abundant food supply occurs during wetter months of the year, but

they may be found all year within the periphery of riparian forest. Oyster (Pleurotus ostreatus)

and monkey face mushrooms (Hericium sp.), are the largest fungi species found in the riparian

forest, attaining several pounds in weight (Smith 1963:59-106). Tree mushrooms can be found

on poplar, cottonwood, and oak trees, but fallen decomposing trees provide the most productive

media for mushroom growth. Even today, Sierra Miwok children are taught how to identify and

harvest wild mushrooms (Anderson 2005:132).

Many animals occupy the riparian forest, including rodents which are the most diverse

and abundant taxon found in the forest. Rodent species include dusky-footed woodrat (Neotoma

fuscipes), San Joaquin valley woodrat (N. fuscipes riparia), Botta’s pocket gopher (Thomomys

bottae), deer mouse (Peromyscus maniculatus), ground squirrel (Spermophilus beecheyi),

Western gray squirrel (Sciurus griseus), and the meadow mouse (Microtus californicus) (Burt and

Grossenheider 1976). Other small mammals found within the forest include lagomorph species

such as black-tailed hare (Lepus californicus), cottontail (Sylvilagus audubonii), and the riparian

brush rabbit (S. bachmani riparius). These rodent and lagomorph species were a continual food

source for carnivores such as ringtail (Bassariscus astutus), raccoon (Procyon lotor), striped

skunk (Mephitis mephitis), mink (Mustela vison), long-tailed weasel (M. frenata), bobcat (Lynx

rufus), and badger (Taxidea taxus) (ARNHA 2004; Burt and Grossenheider 1976).

Large mammals that live within the riparian forest included herbivores such as black- tailed deer (Odocoileus hemionus columbianus), tule elk (Cervus canadensis nannodes) and

pronghorn antelope (Antilocapra americana). In the Central Valley, John Work lists 395 elk, 148

deer, 8 antelope, and 17 bears that were shot by his party, in one month’s time in 1832. In an

1841 account, John Bidwell witnessed 2000 tule elk in a single herd (Preston 2002:114). All

artiodactyls would have been constant evasion of carnivores such as mountain lion (Puma

concolor) and omnivores such as coyote (Canis latrans), gray fox (Urocyon cinereoargenteus) and the extirpated grizzly bear (Ursus arctos) (Burt and Grossenheider 1976).

Bird species which inhabit the riparian forest include a diverse list of raptors, carrion birds, and insectivores. Bird species include raptors such as the red-tailed hawk (Buteo jamaicensis) and endangered Swainson’s hawk (B. swainsoni), carnivores such as kingfisher

(Megaceryle alcyon) and barn owl (Tyto alba), omnivorous species such as magpie (Pica nuttalli), American crow (Corvus brachyrhynchos), and scrub jay (Aphelocoma californica), insectivores such as the Nuttall’s woodpecker (Picoides nutallii), downy woodpecker (Dryobates pubescens), and Northern flicker (Colaptes auratus), carrion birds such as the turkey vulture

(Cathartes aura), and seed-eating birds such as the American robin (Turdus migratorius) and mourning dove (Zenaida macroura) (Bull and Farrand 1977).

Reptiles found in riparian woodlands include the endangered giant garter snake

(Thamnophis gigas), western aquatic garter snake (T. couchii), western terrestrial garter snake (T. elegans), common garter snake (T. sirtalis), racer (Coluber constrictor), striped racer

(Masticophis lateralis), California kingsnake (Lampropeltis getula californiae), gopher snake

(Pituophis melanoleucus), San Joaquin western fence lizard (Sceloporus occidentalis biseriatus), northern alligator lizard (Elgaria coerulea), southern alligator lizard (E. multicarinata),

California legless lizard (Anniella pulchra), western pond turtle (Actinemys marmorata) (Behler and King 1979; EIP 1992).

Amphibians were once prevalent throughout the Delta including California slender salamander (Batrachoseps attenuatus), arboreal salamander (Aneides lugubris), California newt

(Taricha torosa), western toad (Anaxyrus boreas), western spadefoot (Spea hammondii), tree frog

(Pseudacris regilla), California red legged frog (Rana aurora draytonii), and California yellow-

legged frog (R. boylii) (Bethler and King 1979). Invasive species such as the bullfrog (Lithobates catesbeianus) have decimated many native amphibian species.

Riparian Waterways

The riparian woodland develops on the periphery of fast moving waters. Many fish visit the riparian waterways, but the only fish species that were found all year in these waters included the Sacramento sucker (Catostomus occidentalis), starry flounder (Platichthys stellatus), and river lamprey (Lampetra ayresii) (Eschmeyer et al. 1983; Gilbert and Williams 2002). These waters were inhabited by animals such as the American beaver (Castor canadensis), river otter (Lontra canadensis), along with sea lions (Zalophus californianus) which travel up the Sacramento River system even today in pursuit of anadromous fish.

Unlike resident fish, anadramous fish migrate in and out of the Delta at various stages of their life cycle. Anadromous fish such as rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) are born in the freshwater Delta, but once they migrate to the ocean, they physically transform into steelhead

(Moyle 2002). Both rainbow trout and steelhead can be found in either form throughout the year

in the Delta (Broughton 1994b:508). Anadromous fish such as Chinook salmon (O. tshawytscha)

are born in freshwater streams, using the faster moving waters to travel out to the ocean as

juvenile fry. The salmon then spends their adult life in the ocean, returning upstream to spawn

the next generation, and die shortly afterwards, completing their life cycle (Moyle 2002:251-276)

Sockeye (O. nerka), pink (O. gorbuscha), and Coho (O. kisutch) salmons have also been found in

the Delta, possibly representing small remnants of much larger populations from the past

(Broughton 1994b:506). A historic account by Edwin Bryant in 1848, describes the abundance of

trout and salmon in the Sacramento River, exclaiming that “these salmon are the fattest I have

ever seen” (Preston 2002:115).

Other anadromous fish in the Delta include the green (Acipenser medirostris) and white

(A. transmontanus) sturgeons which inhabit the riparian waterways, using the shallow waterways

to spawn (Moyle 2002). White sturgeon are known to attain weights of over 1000 pounds. Little

is known about the green sturgeon in the Sacramento Delta, but a recent study confirmed the

existence of spawning populations in the Sacramento River (NOAA 2005). Green sturgeon may

have been prevalent historically, but the construction of dams and other waterway obstructions

has decimated this species (NOAA 2005).

Sand Dune Formations

The sand dune formations reached the highest elevations in the Delta, 10-15 feet in elevation. Several devastating floods were recorded between 1850-1871, levees overflowed, and the Delta was left under several feet of water, except the Indian mounds which remained dry

(Thompson 1957:446). Sand mounds occur where waterways diverge and where waterways shift direction abruptly. Unlike the natural levees built by finer sediments, sand dunes are formed by strong hydrological forces which deposit large sediments (Cook and Elsasser 1956). On the surface, sand is loose, but deep below ground, sandy loam Dierssen soils form a cemented hardpan. Piper sands are well-drained soils that formed in stabilized dune deposits over the course of many floods (Hart 1992:18).

Sherburne Cook describes 16 archaeological sites in the Delta, and all were located on small mound-like soil bodies which consist primarily of compacted sand, created by the formation of piper sand (Cook and Elsasser 1956). Cook refers to Cosby (1941:25) who best describes these mounds, “The Piper soil occupies low mounds and ridges that have a roughly aeolian configuration and appear to represent a comparatively recent emergence of sand dunes and similar wind modified bodies of sands” (Cook and Elsasser 1956:26). The habitat of the sand

mounds is a unique habitat in the Delta, described as a thin cover of salt grass and herbaceous

annuals (Hart 1992). Many of the same animals found in the riparian woodland also inhabit the

high ground of sand mounds.

Freshwater Marsh

The Delta marshlands, also called freshwater wetlands, are transitional habitats between

open water and uplands (Hart 1992:36). Wetlands comprise low-lying land which is either underwater year-round, inundated during seasonal flooding, or inundated by tidal influxes (Hart

1992:36). The plant species found within the freshwater marsh included tule (Scirpus sp.), cattail

(Typha latifolia, T.angustifolia, T. domingensis), sedge (Carex sp.), rushes (Juncus sp.), and reeds

(Phragmites sp.). Aquatic plant species common to deeper permanent water bodies now include invasive pondweed (Potamogeton sp.), yellow pond lily (Nuphar polysepalum), knotweed

(Polygonum sp.), and wapato (Sagittaria latifolia) (ARNHA 2004). Tree species found in the transitional environments between riparian forest and inundated marsh are dominated by willow.

Avian species were an important food resource prehistorically, including both resident and migratory species, most living exclusively in the freshwater marsh (Hart 1992). Wetlands provide numerous ecological functions for waterfowl, including food, rest, and space to inhabit before returning north to breeding grounds (Hart 1992:25). Many bird species inhabit the shallow waters of the freshwater marsh, but some prefer the deeper open waters within the marsh, and others inhabit areas along shoreline (Hart 1992:41). Migratory waterfowl such as the Canada goose (Branta canadensis), greater white-fronted goose (Anser albifrons frontalis), Ross’ goose

(Chen rossii), lesser snow goose (C. caerulescens), tundra swans (Cygnus columbianus), greater and lesser sandhill crane (Grus canadensis), American white pelican (Pelecanus erythrorhynchos), and resident waterfowl species such as the great egret (Egretta thula), blue

heron (Ardea herodias), and the great egret (A. alba), all prefer shallow water within the freshwater marsh (Bull and Farrand 1977). The Northern pintail (Anas acuta) prefers shallow waters (6-10”), along the shores of open waters. Migrating waterfowl such as the American wigeon (A. americana), cinnamon teal (A. cyanoptera), along with resident birds such as the

American bittern (Botaurus lentiginosus), green-winged teal (A. carolinensis), gadwall (A. strepera), northern shoveler (A. clypeata), and wood duck (Aix sponsa) all prefer shallow waters

(4-18”), feeding primarily on green vegetation (Hart 1992:41). Birds such as the common goldeneye (Bucephala clangula), common merganser (Mergus merganser), ruddy duck (Oxyura jamaicensis), dabble duck (Anas platyrhynchos), pie-billed grebe (Podilymbus podiceps), and

American coot (Fulica americana) prefer water 2-4 feet deep for feeding on small animals and plants (Hart 1992:42).

The freshwater wetlands provided habitat for many resident fish, but even anadromous fish such as salmon spend their early life in the wetlands as they grow larger, before they swim to the ocean as adults (Moyle 2002:253). For some resident fish, such as Sacramento sucker,

Sacramento pikeminnow (Ptychocheilus grandis), splittail (Pogonichthys macrolepidotus),

California roach (Hesperoleucus symmetricus), and hardhead (Mylopharodon conocephalus), the freshwater provides a place to grow before venturing into the faster moving riparian waterways as adults (Broughton 1988:34; Gobalet 1989:234). Many resident fish, such as Sacramento perch

(Archoplites interruptus), shiner perch (Cymatogaster aggregata), tule perch (Hysterocarpus traskii), and five types of minnows including the now extinct thicktail chub (Gila crassicauda), preferred habitats with bedded roots and emergent aquatic vegetation including lakes, sloughs, and sluggish waterways (Broughton 1988:26; Gobalet 1989:234; Moyle 2002:127). Other fish species found in the marsh include the three-spined stickleback (Gasterosteus aculeatus), sculpin species such as the riffle sculpin (Cottus gulosus), prickly sculpin (C. asper), and the staghorn

sculpin (Leptocottus armatus) (Eschmeyer et al. 1983; Gilbert and Williams 2002). Smelt species

found within the freshwater marsh include topsmelt (Atherinops affinis) and endemic Delta smelt

(Hypomesus transpacificus) (Moyle 2002).

Grasslands

Grassland habitats were present within a 10 km radius of SAC-47. This habitat is characterized as a relatively flat landscape of grasses and forbs, and oak groves rising eastward towards the Sierra Nevada mountain range. Two important sub-habitats occur in the grasslands, namely the vernal pools and seasonal wetlands (Hart 1992).

Historically, grassland habitats were dominated by perennial bunch grasses such as purple needlegrass (Nassella pulchra), needlegrass (Stipa sp.), nodding needlegrass (Nassella

cernua), and blue bunchgrass (Festuca idahoensis), blue grass (Poa sp.), and several species of

forbs, clovers (Trifolium spp.), and small semi-domesticated seeds (Hart 1992). Pronghorn

antelope, now extirpated, was an important prey item that could commonly be found in the

grasslands. Rodents commonly seen in the grassland habitats included San Joaquin antelope

squirrel (Ammospermophilus nelsoni) and the San Joaquin kangaroo rat (Dipodomys nitratoides)

(Burt and Grossenheider 1976; Thelander 1994).

Grassland sub-habitats included vernal pools, seasonal ponds which are created from a

depression atop hardpan. The vernal pools supported a unique set of animal and plant species.

Plant species included woolly marble (Psilocarphus brevissimus), allocarya (Plagiobothrys

stipitatus), Fremont’s goldfields (Lasthenia fremontii), and downingia (Downingia ornatissima;

D. bicornuta; D. humilis) (Hart 1992:23). Animals found in vernal pools include fairy shrimp

(Branchinecta lynchi), tadpole shrimp (Lepidurus packardi), and California Linderella fairy

shrimp (Linderiella occidentalis) (Hart 1992:24).

Historic Alterations to the Delta Landscape

The landscape of the Delta was transformed from its prehistoric state, dominated by freshwater marsh, into the Delta that exists today by the alterations made during the reclamation of land. The reclamation of land is a process by which inundated land is transformed into dry land above the water table. Historically, frequent flooding created a vast freshwater marsh, but today the Delta is protected by a series of reinforced levees, built from 1860-1875 in an effort to reclaim land for the purpose of agriculture and settlements. Today, only 2% of the original Delta environment exists (Atwater and Hedel 1976).

The reclamation of land is maintained with deep canals which expose the ground water beneath the islands. Water from these canals is pumped out of the islands, into the river, to keep the water table approximately 5 feet below ground surface. If water was not pumped from these large canals which cross-section the islands, crops and orchards would fail to grow under constant water inundation, and the islands would approximate large seasonal lakes. For the purpose of irrigation though, water is pumped from the river back into the islands through a separate series of shallow ditches which interlace agricultural lands irrigating the upper surface of the ground.

By the end of the 19th century, the waterways which made the northern and southern prehistoric boundaries of the study area were blocked and leveled into agricultural fields. During the late

1800s, woodcutting and clearing for agriculture, and fuel for steamships traveling in the Delta, destroyed most riparian forest (Bouey 1995:42). Many of the native grasses found in the Delta were replaced or outcompeted by the introduced grasses and cultivated plants. In the last century, many non-native plants were introduced such as lotus (Lotus pedunculatus), water smartweed

(Polygonum amphibium), water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes), and pondweed, many of which now choke the slow moving waterways of Snodgrass Slough (Hart 1992).

Many native fish species disappeared from the Delta during the early 20th century, from altered river flow and overexploitation by commercial fishing, but the final blow was delivered by the introduction of invasive fish species. Invasive fish species competed for food resources, preyed on native fish, and altered the native habitat (Moyle 2002:62). Many of the invading species found in the Sacramento River today were introduced between 1870-1908, including bluegill (Lepomis macrochirus), catfish (Ameiurus catus), carp (Cyprinus carpio), smallmouth bass (Micropterus dolomieu), largemouth bass (M. salmoides), and striped bass (Morone saxatilis) (Moyle 2002:59).

Chapter 3

CULTURAL SETTING

History of Archaeological Research

Between the years 1880 and 1906, an archaeologist named J. A. Barr excavated and

recorded several thousand artifacts from burial mounds in the San Joaquin Valley (Dawson

1929:306). His interest in archaeology was passed on to a high school student named Elmer J.

Dawson, whom Barr trained in excavation techniques (Moratto 1984:177). In 1912, Dawson

began the systematic exploration of archaeological sites within the northern part of the San

Joaquin Valley, recording over 8000 specimens, detailing the significant cultural changes he

believed occurred over time, and designating three sequences he called the Early, Middle and

Late Traditions (Moratto 1984:180; Schenck and Dawson 1929:308). Dawson made his

collection available at the University of California which provided the foundation for the

systematic record of 92 sites in northern San Joaquin Valley, including SAC-66, the Morse site, which later became the type site used to describe a specific cultural tradition in the Sacramento

Delta’s cultural chronology (Schenck and Dawson 1929:308).

Alfred Kroeber was first to describe the Sacramento Delta as a major culture area from which ideas emanated outward and cultural change was non-existent (Kroeber 1931). Kroeber considered this area a cultural center for California which he based mainly on the historic reports accounting for dense populations, in conjunction with the vast number of unique artifact types

found at sites in the Delta region (Gifford 1940; Kroeber 1931). Kroeber’s work encouraged

further investigation in this region.

With the exception of Dawson’s work at SAC-66, the first major archaeological

investigations into the Sacramento Delta began in the 1930s. Jeremiah B. Lillard, an agricultural

administrator for Sacramento County, became well acquainted with many farmers throughout the

Sacramento Delta (Moratto 1984). He was particularly interested in the burial mounds he saw

throughout the region, and his interest as an amateur archaeologist came to fruition when he

entered the academic realm as the president of Sacramento Junior College (SJC). Lillard

recruited an archaeologist named R. F. Heizer to investigate the Delta mound sites (Beardsley

1948). With the contacts Lillard made while he worked as Sacramento County agricultural administrator, Heizer was able to gain access to over 100 sites within the Sacramento and San

Joaquin Delta, recording and excavating sites from 1930-1934 (Lillard et al. 1939). Heizer left the SJC in 1934 to work at the University of California, Berkeley, and by 1936, Franklin Fenenga was hired by the SJC to run field school excavations. Fenenga continued to excavate and record the cultural assemblages found at various sites in the Delta (Moratto 1984).

From these early excavations, Lillard and Purves (1936) developed a three-part cultural sequence for the archaeological assemblages collected from the Lower Sacramento Delta, detailing the developmental stages of the Early, Transitional, and Late Horizons (Lillard et al.

1939). The term “horizon” was meant to connote broad spatial and temporal dimensions, which categorized a distinctive cultural assemblage. Methodologically, Heizer was concerned with burial complexes, where he was able to recognize distinctive classes of artifacts such as shell beads, projectile points, and ornaments (Lillard et al. 1939). Many aspects of culture were largely ignored, such as faunal remains and direct evidence of plant use (Beardsley 1948). Heizer recorded distinct cultural assemblages, but inconsistencies were typically placed in the

Transitional Period of his culture sequence (Moratto 1984:178).

Beardsley refined and expanded the cultural sequences into a model he called the Central

California Taxonomic System (CCTS) (Beardsley 1948). The Transitional Horizon was originally meant to connote a transitional period with shared elements from the Early and Late

Horizons, but Beardsley refined the classificatory system, changing the term from transitional to

Middle Horizon to resolve any ambiguity. Beardsley split horizons into provinces which are areas of culture similarity, and added several facies for each province, representing a group of settlements distinguished by recurrent trait assemblages (Beardsley 1948:3). Broadly speaking,

Beardsley (1948) remarks that each period has characteristic artifacts that dominate each cultural sequence: stone materials of the Early Horizon, bone in the Middle Horizon, and baked clay in the Late Horizon.

By the 1950s, with the advent of carbon dating, new attention was placed on the cultural sequences outlined by the CCTS, with a series of articles written by Bert Gerow (1954). Gerow discussed how, with the use of radiocarbon dating techniques, it has become evident that many of the features found in cultural assemblages of the Early and Middle Horizons, considered spatially and temporally distinct by early archaeologists, were in fact contemporaneous and not discrete cultural stages of development as portrayed in the CCTS (Moratto 1984:179). From the emergence of differing archaeological sequences found at separate localities in the Central

Valley, James Bennyhoff divided the CCTS into a number of geographic districts (Bennyhoff and

Fredrickson 1994). A model was formulated by Bennyhoff, in collaboration with David

Fredrickson, a concept they referred to as cultural patterns (Moratto 1984:201). The term

“pattern” was used to refer to a general way of life shared by people within a defined geographic space which is easily seen in the archaeological record (Frederickson 1973). Fredrickson (1973) outlined three broad cultural patterns for the Central Valley, Windmiller, Berkeley, and

Augustine, all comparable to the three horizons detailed in the CCTS.

Excavations of SJO-68 and the Blossom site, SAC-168, along with radiocarbon dates allowed Ragir (1972), to rework the chronology of the Delta, assigning the earliest period of human occupation to between 4000-5000 B.P. The Windmiller Pattern (4500-2000 B.P.), named by Ragir (1972), was substituted for the term Early Horizon, to signify a pattern of subsistence

and settlement which marks the use of slate and chert materials for the manufacture of atlatl darts

and stemmed spear points (Moratto 1984:185). Two years later, Frederickson published a re-

evaluation of the cultural patterns described by Beardsley (1948) and Ragir (1972). The term

“horizon” was replaced by “period” to connote the chronology of cultural sequences depicting distinctive cultural patterns (Fredrickson 1974).

Most archaeological excavations today are the result of cultural resource management projects designed to evaluate site eligibility and mitigate issues regarding the removal and/or preservation of cultural resources. During recent archaeological investigations within the Central

Valley, a complex mosaic of cultural adaptations has been revealed, both spatially and temporally. Methods of excavation have become increasingly refined, employing standard methods for the collection of artifacts and recovery of faunal remains (Bouey 1995). Modern techniques employ the use of 1/8” and 1/16” mesh screens to sift through the excavated soil matrix, revealing many of the animal and plant remains, evidence of subsistence which was largely ignored by archaeologists in the first half of the 20th century (Rosenthal et al. 2007:149).

Modern research interests in the Central Valley have focused on subsistence strategies, primarily the effects of resource intensification over time. Resource intensification is a strategy that emphasizes the increased productivity per area unit of land, at the expense of an overall decrease in foraging efficiency, or simply put, the overall net rate of return associated with a particular strategy. Evidence of resource intensification can be seen in faunal assemblages that show the overall mean and maximum size of fish decrease over time due to overexploitation

(Broughton 1994a). Basgall (1987) suggests that with growing populations during the Late

Period, acorn-based economies became a prominent focus for subsistence. Settlements become more permanent as acorn is intensively utilized as a staple resource for year-round consumption, furnishing growing populations (Basgall 1987). Acorn becomes an increasingly important food

source that was intensively exploited in the Central Valley during the Late Period, but there is

little evidence it was a vital food source in the Delta region (Bettinger and Wohlgemuth 2011).

Since such plant materials do not survive very well in archaeological deposits, evidence of acorn

use in the Delta is based solely on artifact concentrations of milling equipment.

The development of radiometric dating has made it possible to confidently date

depositional components to specific periods within the cultural sequences outlined as the Early,

Middle and Late periods (Bouey 1995:30-31). The first archaeological signs of human

occupation in the lower Sacramento Delta appear in the Middle Holocene, around 4500 B.P.,

during a period of drought when water levels were extremely low. These sites lay deeply buried,

explaining why very little work has been done at Early Period sites since that conducted by early

archaeologists (Lillard et al. 1939).

Cultural History

The cultural history in the Delta extends from 4500 B.P. to the period of contact with

Euro-Americans. During this period, the climate changed several times, and the environment

changed accordingly. These environmental shifts are thought to have been the main driving force

for cultural change. The resulting cultural shifts define the three main archaeological periods.

Early Period (4500 to 2800 B.P.)

The first archaeological signs of human occupation in the Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta

appear at the end of the Middle Holocene, during a period of drought and low sea levels, 24 feet

lower than today (Ritter 1972:4). Sites from this time period are few and scattered, and much of

the evidence from this period is possibly buried under large amounts of peat and alluvial

sediments (Rosenthal et al. 2007:151). It is interesting to note that the earlier components

typically lie within subsurface clay knolls, within compact orange-brown soils lacking significant

organic materials. A majority of skeletal materials are at least partially mineralized (Beardsley

1948:8; Fenenga 1946a). Modern dating techniques bracket this time period between ca. 4400-

2500 B.P. (Bennyhoff and Hughes 1987).

The Windmiller Site (SAC-107) dates to 3850 B.P., and captures a Middle Archaic

expression identified as a cultural pattern, the Windmiller Pattern, which has also been identified at several San Joaquin Delta sites (SJO-56, SJO-68, SJO-107, SJO-142, and SJO-168). Burials are described as predictably extended, positioned face down, and oriented in a westerly direction, often associated with quartz crystals and sprinkles of ochre (Nietz 1939:112-113). The cranial dimensions of these people are dolichocranial, meaning the skulls were long and low, and the face is platryyhine meaning the nose was flat (Lillard et al. 1939:73). Collectively, these sites contain about 200 burials, constituting the bulk of evidence for Early Horizon occupations and their associated artifacts (Beardsley 1948:7; Ragir 1972). Early Period sites typically contain drilled charmstones, exclusive use of red abalone (Haliotis rufescens) shell for ornaments, and the use of modified human bone (Lillard et al. 1939; Rosenthal et al. 2007:154).

From the abundance of large projectile points and baked clay net weights, and lack of mortars and pestles, Lillard and Purves (1936) suggest that hunting and fishing received more emphasis than gathering plant resources such as acorns or small seeds (Beardsley 1948; Moratto

1984:201). Contrary to Beardsley’s ideas regarding subsistence, recent archaeological investigations found that plant processing is indeed evident during the Early Period, indicated by the presence of mortar fragments and other milling technologies (Bettinger and Wohlgemuth

2011; Moratto 1984:204). Excavations conducted at SJO-68 by Ragir (1972) showed a presence of mortars, indicating acorn use was present, even in the Early Period. Schulz (1971) found that paleoenvironmental reconstructions suggest that the Delta had low levels of precipitation, small

waterways, and receding vegetation during the early period. These conditions would have made acorns unavailable in the Delta while the smaller streams would have allowed for the procurement of anadramous fish (Schulz 1971). Fish remains and the clay pecan-shaped net weights indicate fish were also utilized (Moratto 1984:201).

The Middle Period (2800 to 1200 B.P.)

The Middle Period began around 2800 years ago, during a time with cool/wet climatic conditions. The evolution of the Delta included the shifting of pre-existing environments and the creation of new ones, which was an ongoing influence on settlement patterns and subsistence systems (Simons 1995:248). Delta ecosystems encouraged the diversification of subsistence strategies due to the increased variety of intersecting plant and animal communities as compared to the Early Period (Simons 1995:248). It is during this time that large mound sites make their first appearance within the Lower Sacramento Delta (Lillard et al. 1939; Ragir 1972; Rosenthal et al. 2007:156). Many of the burials in Middle Horizon deposits were found with projectile points embedded in the skeletal remains, evidence of warfare found at Delta sites such as the Von

Lobensol site, SAC-73 (Beardsley 1948:11). Evidence of a population shift is also demonstrated by the different cranial morphology of Early Period crania as compared to the shorter mesocephalic and brachicranial shaped skulls that become prevalent after 1400 B.P. (Lillard et al.

1939; Sheeders 1982:18). The new population had a skull shape described as being between intermediate and broad, with lengthened skulls. The facial structure is categorized as mesorrhine, indicating the high-bridged nose (Lillard et al. 1939:73).

The first cultural sequence of this period was described by Heizer as the Morse facies after the Morse Site (SAC-66) where burials had few or no grave goods and cremations first appear in the archaeological record (Beardsley 1948:11; Heizer 1939). Burials were randomly

placed without any particular orientation, and outside of burial contexts, large projectiles points

are found, now made of obsidian instead of chert or slate, along with fish-tailed charmstones,

perforated ground slate pendants, green abalone (Haliotis fulgens) shell, Olivella beads and

ornaments, and mammal bone whistles (Beardsley 1948:10-12; Heizer 1939).

Heizer notes that the economy was increasingly diverse during this interval, mortars and

pestles become prevalent along with baked clay artifacts, suggesting that acorn was a prominent

part of the diet. Fishing technologies such as baked clay net weights and bone fish hooks suggest

aquatic resources were also playing an important role in subsistence. The Berkeley Pattern

(2500-1500 B.P.), renamed the Cosumnes culture by Ragir (1972), was a pattern which coincided

with the Middle Horizon and the Upper Archaic Period, marked by a change in economic

emphasis and material traits. The CCTS recognizes two distinct provinces, called the Colusa and

Cosumnes provinces (Beardsley 1948:4). The Cosumnes province and the facies represented

within it, comprise cultural traits unique to the Delta region of the Central Valley (Beardsley

1948). It is proposed that the Berkeley Pattern actually represents the arrival and spread of

ancestral Plains Miwok in the Cosumnes District (Beardsley 1948:9). The atlatl dart and spear

throwing technologies are still in use, but are tipped with non-stemmed point types and are now

made primarily of obsidian. While milling equipment is still in use, there is an increased

presence of mortar and pestle technologies, indicating an increased importance placed in nut-

based resources such as acorn (Moratto 1984:210).

Late Period-Phase I (1200-450 B.P.)

The Late Period, also known as the Emergent Period, or the Augustine Pattern, begins with a wetter and cooler climate, and the appearance of mound villages (Heizer and Fenenga

1939). The cultural pattern called the Augustine Pattern is marked by intensive fishing, hunting,

and gathering of plant resources (Moratto 1984:211). Plant resources such as tubers and seed

crops are also utilized along with intensive exploitation of acorns, a prominent year-round staple in the diet (Basgall 1987).

The mounds of the Late Period differ from the Middle Period in that sites appear to be more intensively used as permanent settlements, evident by the dark midden debris (Beardsley

1948:16; Heizer and Fenenga 1939; Nietz 1939). The bow and arrow makes an appearance archaeologically with laterally notched small projectile points, a new technology that made hunting small and large game more efficient (Levy 1978). A highly developed exchange system developed around a socially stratified society with elaborate mortuary and ceremonial practices

(Moratto 1984:213-214). A noticeable artistic fluorescence of disk-shaped shell beads, thick steatite beads, and the exclusive use of red-black abalone is typical of sites from the Late Period

(Nietz 1939). Charmstones are replaced by flat circular stone discoidals, and other artifacts such as bird bone whistles, drilled pipes, acorn anvils, and a multitude of baked clay artifacts

(Beardsley 1948:16-18).

The Hollister site, SAC-21, is the type site for the Late Horizon, Phase I of the cultural sequence outlined by Beardsley (1948). Baked clay was molded into clay net weights for fishing implements, figurines, and cooking balls, typically found at sites such as SAC-21, SAC-65, and

SAC-76 (Heizer 1934a; Nietz 1939:60).

Late Period-Phase II (450-200 B.P.)

During the Late Period, Phase II, or Upper Emergent period, 450 B.P. into the historic era, there was a resurgence of long distance trade. Clam shell disk beads were used as monetary currency in a developing economy. Beardsley (1948) called this the Mosher facies, after the type site in the northern Delta, the Mosher (SAC-56) and the Hicks site (SAC-60). It is thought that as

acorn becomes more intensively exploited in the Sacramento Delta, like elsewhere in the Central

Valley, this strategy results in more permanent settlements, where low-ranked resources began to be regularly incorporated into the diet to support growing populations (Basgall 1987). In other research, Broughton (1994b) found that small residential fish dominate the record, in an otherwise plant based diet.

Ethnohistory

The Plains Miwok, or the Mew’-ko as they call themselves, are a Penutian group of people, categorized by their shared language, recognized as the people that lived in what is today the Delta (Heizer and Whipple 1965; Kroeber 1919; Merriam 1907:338; Powers 1976). Merriam

(1904) recorded the language of California’s native inhabitants categorizing groups according to linguistic similarities and the social affiliations between groups, as described by his informants.

The Plains Miwok tribelets of the lower Sacramento Delta collectively referred to themselves as the Mo-kos’-um-ne, but neighboring tribes such as the Nis’-se-nan’ or Pa’-we-nan referred to them as the west Ti’-nan people. These people living in the Delta made up the largest of the

Mew’-ko tribelets with the largest number of villages (Merriam 1907:348-349).

Historical Accounts

Bennyhoff (1977) recognized that Spanish baptismal records, along with expedition diaries, reveal several unique features of the Plains Miwok culture. The Junizumne were originally identified as the “Usumnes” in 1813 by Sergeant Soto and 100 auxiliary soldiers who attacked four unnamed villages located on a series of marshy islands between the Sacramento and

Mokelumne rivers (Schenck 1926:128). In later expeditions, Spanish missionaries described separate groups by their geographic locality in reference to waterways (Schenck 1926). The

Junizumne were identified as the people who lived west of the Mokelumne River and east of the

Sacramento River, within the marshy islands created in this part of the Delta (Bennyhoff

1977:27-28). The Stone Lakes formed the northern boundary, the Sacramento River borders this territory to the west, the Mokelumne River flowed along the eastern part of the territory, and a branch of the Mokelumne flowed west into the Sacramento River, creating the southern boundary seen in Figure 3.1.

Figure 3.1. Map Showing Natural Boundaries of Prehistoric Island.

From 1813 to 1836, 119 Junizumne people were taken, baptized, and kept captive at the

Spanish Missions (Bennyhoff 1977:71). The Ochejamne, a tribelet to the north of the Junizumne, had 428 people taken captive between the years 1829-1836 (Bennyhoff 1977:71). The

Ochejamne and the Junizumne were the two largest Plains Miwok tribelets in the Sacramento

Delta, accounting for 547 captives recorded as baptisms. Since the number of captives

represented in mission records accounts for only a portion of the population, the total population of both tribelets was likely more than 1000 people (Bennyhoff 1977:29). These tribelets were notoriously resistant to baptism and conversion, even abandoning village sites after 1813, which were vulnerably located along the Sacramento River (Cook 1962:167).

In 1825, the Mexicans had assumed control of California from Spain. Both the Spanish and Mexicans tried to convert and baptize the Plains Miwok people, but the Junizumne and

Ochejamne tribelets represented a focal point of resistance (Cook 1962:166-167). Both groups had angered the Mexicans by protecting fugitive neophytes (Bennyhoff 1977:29). The

Ochejamne, Junizumne, and many neophyte refugees from surrounding tribelets sought refuge in the densely forested swamp of the Junizumne territory. In 1830, Mexican soldiers attacked the

Junizumne and Ochejamne again, and reprisals from the natives became more frequent

(Bennyhoff 1977:70-73).

Jedediah Smith began trapping in the Delta in 1828, remarking on the universal friendliness found among the natives in the Delta region (Sheeders 1982:216). By 1832, several fur trappers were exploring the Delta on behalf of the Hudson’s Bay Company, called the Works party. It is thought that members of this party were infected with malaria, which spread rapidly creating a 1832-1833 plague that decimated a large portion of the Delta inhabitants (Sheeders

1982:216).

Mission secularization began by 1832, and many of the Indians returned to their former territories. Attention shifted from San Jose to Sonoma, with the spread of Vallejo’s domain which reached the Sacramento River (Bennyhoff 1977:31). In 1837, Vallejo signed treaties with the Ochejamne, and in turn, the Ochejamne served as spies, even attacking the Moqueleme tribelet to retrieve horses that had been stolen from Vallejo (Bennyhoff 1977:31).

By 1839, John Sutter had settled New Helvetia, in the area now called Sacramento.

Sutter forced the remaining Ochejamne members to work on fishing platforms near Freeport

(Bennyhoff 1977:44). In 1841, the Delta natives attempted an uprising but the rebellion was extinguished, several natives were killed, and according to the victors, peace was reestablished.

With the influx of Euro-Americans during 1848 gold rush, the Plains Miwok disappeared from most records (Burrows 1971; Sheeders 1982:217).

In an interview with Steve Runyon, he described how his great-grandfather had encountered a small group of Indians that inhabited the study area. The leader of this group, named Hizba, explained that the mound atop where the Runyon family settled was once a place they lived (personal communication, 2013); other details such as the chief’s name, Hizba, were recorded by Heizer during communications with Steve Runyon’s grandfather in 1934 (Heizer

1934b). The Junizumne were impacted irreversibly, first by the Spanish who displaced them through missionization, then by attacks from Mexican soldiers in 1825, again by a devastating plague in 1833 which swept through the Sacramento Delta, and finally, assimilation after 1840

(Schenck 1926:127-131).

Ethnographic Evidence

Before ethnographers could record the culture of the Plains Miwok, they had largely disappeared from the Sacramento Delta. Only fragmentary ethnographic evidence exists from informants that were reportedly from the Sacramento Delta. Bennyhoff uses a historic encounter between the Junizumne and Spanish explorers to show evidence of the territoriality expressed between tribelets. A Spanish ship reached present-day Walnut Grove in 1811, visiting a village identified as Junizumne. People were also seen on the northern tip of Andrus Island, the modern location of SAC-329, directly across from Walnut Grove, but these people would not cross the

river to the other side (Bennyhoff 1977:33). Bennyhoff suspects these people at the tip of Andrus

Island may have represented a separate tribelet, unwilling to cross the river into Junizumne territory.

Territorial Boundaries

Throughout the Delta region, Miwok populations were dense and territories distinct, with estimated population density equaling one person to every square mile (Kroeber 1919; Schenck

1926:131). Even after displacement, each tribelet member retained an identity based upon their place of origin, or Nena (Gifford 1926:327). The Nena was an area approximately ten miles long and five miles wide, following a river or stream, essentially a territory that equated to an island

(Gifford 1926:327). Before contact, the Junizumne, like other Plains Miwok tribelets, were socially organized into patriarchal familial groups composed of several patrilineal joint families arranged around a patrilineal line of descent within the tribelet (Gifford 1926:389). Each tribelet had a centralized location with smaller groups living along the periphery of the village

(Bennyhoff 1977:18). The tribelet had a chief who was given the position for his prowess in warfare, or through patrilineal descent from such a renowned person. The chief served as a spokesman, but decisions were collectively made by all the families involved (Bennyhoff 1977).

These territories were protected by a patrilineage of men who served a political purpose of protecting land and ensuring access to the local resources (Gifford 1926:327). Land ownership was similar to that of the Patwin, the acorn and hunting grounds were owned communally, but specific seed tracts and fishing locations were controlled by individuals who obtained use-rights through inheritance (Bouey 1995). According to Bennyhoff, the economic activities of obtaining resources for subsistence were confined to recognized tribelet territories (Bennyhoff 1977:17).

Territorial boundaries were indicated by a body of water, a cluster of trees, or any natural boundary that was prominent and obvious (Kroeber 1919). Permission to cross through another tribelet’s territory was typically granted, but poaching certain resources was met with swift reprisal (Bennyhoff 1977:17). While adjacent tribelets often cooperated in harvesting resources, some neighboring groups were unfriendly and hostile towards trespassing (Gifford 1926:327).

According to Gifford, traditional Miwok society was composed of two patrilineal tribelets which formed into totemic exogamous moieties, where mates were drawn from designated tribelets, representing opposing land and water spirits (Forth 2009:67-69; Gifford 1926:383).

Plant Use and Gathering

Since early ethnographers neglected to ask Plains Miwok informants questions related to subsistence, proxy ethnographic accounts may provide insights regarding subsistence in the

Delta. Ethnographic reports suggest that plant foods were the main source of food on a daily basis (Bettinger and Wohlgemuth 2011:113; Levy 1978:402). Women gathered a wide variety of plant foods including semi-domesticated seeds, nuts, roots, berries, and greens, but acorn was considered the primary staple consumed (Bennyhoff 1977:10).

Acorns were gathered in the fall, the shell was removed, and the nut inside was ground into an acorn meal (Basgall 1987). The acorn meal was then soaked in a tightly woven basket of water, effectively leaching the tannic acid from within the meal. The tannic acid is leached into the water, and the water is drained (Levy 1978:405). Fresh water was poured back into the basket, and the process was performed repeatedly until enough tannic acid could be removed to render the acorn meal palatable (Heizer and Whipple 1965:237). Oak trees produce acorns every year in the fall, but large crops only occur once every 3 years. The abundant production is referred to as the oak bumper crop. The amounts produced could be stored for more than two

years, supplying a consistent source of food. Wood mortars and pestles were used by the Plains

Miwok to process the acorns, in lieu of ground stone (Bennyhoff 1977:10). Large stone pestles were difficult to import, but when one was obtained through trade, it was owned by the household and remained within the household, used by all women within the household (Bennyhoff

1977:10). Another way acorn was processed was by passively leaching whole acorns below ground within iron-rich clay (Wohlgemuth 2004:144).

The Miwok economy in the Foothills was a nut-based economy dependent on acorns

(Heizer and Whipple 1965:237). Valley and interior live oak supplied acorns along riparian corridors in the Delta region, but oaks were not as numerous as within the groves at higher elevations found elsewhere in the Central Valley or the foothill regions of California. With a limited supply of oak, the acorn may not have played as an important role in the Delta as compared to other parts of the Central Valley. Due to the moist conditions present in the Delta, acorns may rot or mold, making acorn storage problematic.

Women harvested tubers and rhizomes in the spring, by prying up roots along major water courses with the use of a digging stick (Anderson 2005:196). Tubers are collectively referred to as Indian potatoes, a food source available in early spring, providing a supplemental food source seasonally (Bettinger and Wohlgemuth 2011:119; Levy 1978:402). When the

Spanish explored the Sacramento Valley, they described the large-seeded grasses, referred to now as semi-domesticates (Wohlgemuth 2004:144). Seed-bearing grasses were encouraged to grow by frequent burning. Seeds provided the second most important plant food, second only to acorn.

Seeds were gathered in the late spring, with the use of a seed beater along with a conical shaped burden basket (Barrett and Gifford 1933; Bettinger and Wohlgemuth 2011:118-119). Seeds were winnowed to remove the plant material covering seed, and then tossed in coals atop a basketry tray (Bettinger and Wohlgemuth 2011:118).

Other than plants, fungi species were collected, especially in the winter when most plant foods are limited. Harvesting and propagating mushroom mycelia is a practice still used today by

Foothill Miwok people (Anderson 2005). Within the wet environment of the Delta, mushrooms are prolific. The author collects many of these large edible mushrooms. Species such as oyster and monkey face mushrooms attain several pounds in weight, potentially supplying large amounts of food.

Fishing

Fishing was an important subsistence activity for the Plains Miwok people evident by the abundance of baked clay net weights observed on the surface of many archaeological sites throughout the Delta. Fishing locations were controlled by individuals who gained use-rights through inheritance (Bennyhoff 1977). The main method for capturing fish was with the use of throwing nets, such as dip, seine, set and casting nets (Levy 1978:404). Dip nets were used in deep holes in the river, while seine nets were used in faster moving waters with or without a tule balsa (Stewart 1977). According to Levy (1978), a set or casting nets were used from shore in non-navigable waters. Sturgeon were caught with a hook and line, salmon with a two-pronged harpoon, and fish that occupied shallow waters would be caught with obsidian-tipped fish spear.

Basketry traps and fish weirs were also used in conjunction with poison. Buckeye was crushed up and thrown into the water, temporarily stunning the fish so they could be easily gathered

(Levy 1978:404).

Hunting

According to Levy (1978), meat was especially important in the winter months, when

plant foods were scarce. Deer were hunted communally by surrounding the animal, possibly

setting fires around a perimeter, and driving the animals into a net. Deer were also hunted individually which involved wearing a deer head disguise and slowly stalking the animal, or hiding behind a blind in hopes of a sudden ambush. A less desirable option was to run down deer, possibly following it for several days until the animal tired and could be approached at close range. This strategy was undoubtedly hastened if the animal was injured upon first contact (Levy

1978:402-405).

Anderson (2005) provides a detailed account of animal procurement by Colonel Rice, in

1850, who describes a Cosumnes tribelet using fire to hunt along a riparian corridor. Rice describes a series of fires that were set, creating a large band of bare land encircling several acres.

A large fire was kindled in the center of circle, and the men waited with bows and arrows accompanied by dogs, as an assortment of animals fled the flames. After the fire, women equipped with burden baskets gathered grasshoppers rendered flightless with singed wings

(Anderson 2005:150-151). Large tule fires were also used to hunt an assortment of animals such as golden beaver, rabbits, squirrels, and rats. The animals were either killed during the fire or clubbed while escaping the flames (Anderson 2005:207).

Cooking and Food Preparation

The meat from deer, antelope, and tule elk was cut into strips and broiled directly on the coals of the fire, and birds, fish, and small mammals were cooked whole on the ashes of a fire, and eaten (Levy 1978:405). Meat was also prepared through drying and pulverizing (Bennyhoff

1977). After seed was lightly cooked it was ground by mortar and pestle into flour, called pinole, which could be eaten dry or cooked into a mush (Levy 1978:405). Acorn meal was cooked into mush, soup, drinks, and bread (Bettinger and Wohlgemuth 2011:24). Since stone was scarce in the Delta, women used baked clay balls to cook the contents of their watertight cooking baskets.

Clay balls were heated in the fire then placed in a basket with water. The water was heated by the

clay balls, essentially cooking the contents of the basket (Barrett and Gifford 1933; Soule 1976).

For cooking tubers, insects, and a variety of small animals, an earthen oven was used.

Material Culture

In 1905, Merriam conducted an interview with a woman he maintains was the last full-

blooded Mew’-ko. During his interview, Merriam focused primarily on language, but the

informant also provided some detailed descriptions of clothing and other apparel worn by her

people (Merriam 1967:367-368). The old woman said that during the colder months men wore robes of bear skin, and everyone wore rabbit skin blankets with cloaks of tule beneath. During ceremonies, the tule cloak was worn, adorned with red and white beads, held up by a belt. In warmer months, men wore only a breech cloth, and women wore tule skirts around their waists.

The Mew’-ko did not wear any sort of footwear, nor did they wear hats, but men did wear bear claw necklaces, shell headbands, and shell bracelets. Women wore ear pendants, and both sexes wore a nose bone (Merriam 1967).

Tule was also locally available in abundance, but required maintenance to obtain quality reeds. An account made by Sutter and his clerks describes the massive tule fires that could be seen from the fort (Anderson 2005:206). When the old growth was burned away, new growth developed, providing a higher quality reed for manufacture (Anderson 1997:35). All of the equipment used for harvesting was made by women including burden baskets and seed beaters

(Bennyhoff 1977:10).

End of an Era

The people that lived in the Delta for several millennia disappeared in a matter of

decades. Euro-Americans came into the Central Valley by the thousands beginning in the late

1840s, their influx accelerated by the discovery of gold. The Delta was settled by the 1860s and outlined by properties which would become the Delta’s new founding population. The historic

settlement of the Locke Ranch will be discussed in the following chapter, along with many of the

historic alterations made to the Locke Ranch and the archaeological sites present on the property.

Chapter 4

HISTORIC LAND USE ON THE LOCKE RANCH

AND THE RECORDED ARCHAEOLOGICAL RESOURCES

The Locke Ranch is located in the northern half of the Junizumne tribelet territory.

Prehistorically, the area was the location of several Junizumne villages (Bennyhoff 1977). By the

1860s, decades after the Junizumne people had been removed from their land, a prominent family from Massachusetts, the Locke family, bought what they would call the Locke Ranch. George

Locke was the son of the wealthy patriarch, who purchased the land along with many other investments (SCPCDD 1987:2). During the 1870s, the western portion of the Locke Ranch, within a low alluvial fan, was converted into pear orchards, and eastern part of the property was utilized for crops and grazing livestock.

In 1910, the Southern Pacific Railroad bought part of the Locke Ranch to reroute a branch of Snodgrass Slough through the eastern portion of the property as seen in Figure 4.1

(SCPCDD 1987:33). A 20 foot levee was built from the sand and sandy clay, both derived from the Locke Ranch, and dredged soil excavated while creating this branch of Snodgrass Slough. A gravel veneer 0.5 feet thick was brought in to cap the upper part of the levee for the railway

(Wallace 1996). From the construction of this levee, the elevation of the land to the far eastern boundary of the Locke Ranch was transformed into a marsh which is seasonally inundated. The land to the far west was continually utilized by George Locke who further expanded his small orchard into a much larger orchard covering the entire western portion of the property within a lowland alluvial fan. The remaining land between the ranch and the Southern Pacific Railroad was used for crops and livestock (SCPCDD 1987:33-35). Due to anti-Asian sentiments, and a large fire which burned down the Chinatown within nearby Walnut Grove, George Locke allowed his Chinese laborers to settle in what is now the town of Locke in 1915. The study area was

transformed again in the 1950s when a Delta Cross Channel was excavated and dredged from the

Sacramento River to the main channel of Snodgrass Slough, splitting the Junizumne ancestral

territory, and the study area, in half.

Figure 4.1. Historic Locke Ranch Property.

George Locke Jr. died in the 1960s, and by 1975 his descendants had sold the Locke

Ranch to a man named Clarence Chu, representing the Asian Cities Development Corporation

(ACDC). In 1985, the ACDC contracted the California Department of Parks and Recreation for consultation and mitigation of the Locke Ranch property, in an effort to proceed with the construction of a housing development, which would have been called the Locke Ranch Estates

(Slaymaker 1989). In 1985, a survey was conducted of a 27 acre parcel, the area of proposed development (SCPCDD 1987). After surveying the Locke Ranch, James Rains, an assistant environmental analyst, described the dark soil as characteristic of midden, which he noted was visible across a large area of the property (SCPCCD 1987). Exact site boundaries were unclear even after the survey was conducted, and the relationship between SAC-75 and a second mound

to the north remained problematic. It was unclear whether the northern mound represented a

distinct property, or was indeed part of a much larger site as described by Heizer and Fenenga

(1939; SCPCCD 1987). A series of post hole augers were placed by Rains (SCPCCD 1987) in an

attempt to determine the areal limits of SAC-75, but all of the maps created were hand-drawn,

leaving only a vague indication of the precise site boundaries. Rains only relocated SAC-75

during his survey, and made very little mention of the other two prehistoric sites in the area,

SAC-47 and SAC-74. The Locke Ranch Estates project never came to fruition, and the

archaeological work that was accomplished left much to be desired. A portion of the Locke

Ranch was later sold to State Parks, and that area became Delta Meadows State Park in 1990.

The smaller Locke Ranch that exists today is depicted in Figure 4.2.

Figure 4.2. Property of Locke Ranch as of 2014.

CA-SAC-75

SAC-75 was recorded in 1934 as a large site comprising two distinct mounds, covering an area of 120 yards (E-W) by 150 yards (N-S), standing nearly 20 feet above sea level as seen in

Figure 4.3 (Heizer 1934c). Heizer did not believe the site had ever been excavated, and he

remarked that, “George Locke would possibly be amenable to an institution excavating either of his two splendid mounds” (Heizer 1934c). The Locke Ranch was not visited again by an archaeologist until the fall of 1950, when James Bennyhoff and Arnold Pilling were both given

Figure 4.3. CA-SAC-75 Site Overview, Facing South.

permission to visit the Locke Ranch. Their site record notes that, “this place is also an excellent historic site, but due to the landowner’s attitude toward excavation, excavation will have to wait”

(Bennyhoff and Pilling 1950). They write, “George Locke will not allow any digging; He says that the people that excavated at the site last, left pits open” (Bennyhoff and Pilling 1950). It is unclear whether this comment refers to Heizer and Fenenga, or some other entity. An inspection of the site surface revealed artifacts such as baked clay objects of spool shape with thumbnail impressions, and some evidence suggesting that the cultural deposit of SAC-75 may extend 3

meters deep (Bennyhoff and Pilling 1950). They also observed many historic and trade goods

such as porcelain buttons, trade beads, obsidian projectiles, clam shell disk beads, and steatite beads, but shell was exceptionally rare (Bennyhoff and Pilling 1950). The record describes the primary mound, but does not indicate whether cultural resources were observed anywhere else on the Locke Ranch property.

After Heizer and Fenenga had recorded SAC-75, Fenenga returned to the Locke Ranch in

1936 to record an artifact concentration several hundred meters away. Fenenga recorded this site

as SAC-47, placing it along a slough which ran through the property. He writes in the site record,

“this site is not worth excavating” (Fenenga 1936). A 1986 survey (SCPCCD 1987) could not relocate SAC-47, but small numbers of artifacts were observed north of SAC-75. The author was approached by the landowner of the Locke Ranch, Clarence Chu, who wanted to locate all the archaeological sites on his property in an effort to avoid them during any agricultural or construction activities. He was aware of the archaeological site recorded as SAC-75, located beneath his ranch house, but the location of other archaeological deposits was uncertain.

Chapter 5

FIELD AND ANALYTICAL PROCEDURES

Survey Procedures

In 2014, an intensive survey was conducted by three people, each spaced 15 meters apart,

and walking at slow pace to ensure the best results (Fenenga 1936). Near the area and coordinates where Fenenga had placed SAC-47, no archaeological materials were found. The

1912 map of the Locke Ranch places SAC-47 along the edge of a slough. The slough is now dry and blocked from the overflow swamp north of the Locke Ranch. This dry slough separates the loamy sand found east of the remnant slough from the low lying alluvial fan which encompasses the entire western part of the Locke Ranch, as seen in Figure 5.1. The slough meanders south through the Locke Ranch, dead ending south of the ranch property. When surveying the area north of SAC-75, along the edge of the slough, artifacts were found scattered randomly on the

Figure 5.1. CA-SAC-47 Site Overview Facing South.

surface. Small fragments of baked clay were evident along the slough’s edge in the northern part of the ranch (Figure 5.1). SAC-47 is likely one of the two mounds recorded by Heizer as part of

SAC-75 in 1934 (1934c), but when Fenenga later revisited the Locke Ranch in 1936, he recorded the northern mound as a separate site, giving it the trinomial.

The second cultural resource identified during the survey was originally recorded as

SAC-74. The original hand-drawn maps attached to the site record indicate that SAC-74 is located in the northwestern part of the Locke Ranch, as seen in Figure 5.2 (Heizer 1934d).

Updated records indicate that the original site record places this site on the Elges property to the north of the Locke Ranch, even though the hand-drawn map shows its location on the Locke

Ranch. The GPS coordinates were changed to a location on the Elges property even though no survey was conducted to verify the site’s location (SCPCCD 1987). The record does indicate that by 1934 the site had been leveled for agriculture and was no longer intact.

Figure 5.2. CA-SAC-74 Site Overview Facing East.

Auger Testing

Auger tests were employed in several areas on the Locke Ranch to determine the extent of the SAC-47 deposit. The auger program entailed taking column samples every 15 meters along set lines shown in Figure 5.3. The soil extracted from the auger tests were screened through 1/8” mesh screen to obtain archaeological evidence of intact deposits. Each auger’s maximum depth was no more than 200 cm, unless archaeological evidence was revealed or non- cultural clay beds were reached. For auger samples with no evidence of midden-type soils, an additional corresponding auger sample was taken 15 m west towards the known site boundary (as originally recorded by Fenenga). Auger holes which were found to contain midden-type soils, adjacent to any of the known archaeological mounds, were marked and used to determine the appropriate placement of test units.

Figure 5.3. Aerial View of Locke Ranch.

Field and Excavation Procedures

The investigation entailed excavation in three separate areas. The first two areas detailed in Phase I excavations included two areas associated with where two barns once stood. The

Phase II excavations were geared toward delineating the site boundaries of SAC-47.

Phase I Excavation Methodology

The purpose of the Phase I investigation was to determine whether subsurface archaeological deposits are present in the vicinity of where the white and red barns once stood, as seen in Figure 5.4. The landowner wished to rebuild both barns if archaeological deposits could be avoided. There was very little seen on the surface, except the occasional small fragment of baked clay. It was unclear whether subsurface deposits exist, or whether this high ground was created historically for the construction of the barns.

The Phase I White Barn excavation involved seven excavation units placed along a north- south line, set 90 meters away from SAC-75, to determine whether subsurface cultural deposits exist in this area. Test units were excavated to a minimum of 100 cm in depth to a maximum depth of 180 cm. Units employed for this phase of the investigation were standard shovel test units (STU), 1.0x0.5 m in size and excavated in 20 cm increments. The extent of subsurface deposits and areas without significant cultural deposits were identified.

While 20 cm levels were appropriate for the initial excavations, to capture distinct packages of both intact and disturbed deposits found elsewhere on the Locke Ranch, more refined

10 cm levels were excavated, providing better resolution in determining the context and structure of the deposits. The exploratory Red Barn work entailed nine excavation units, set between the two identified mounds SAC-47 and SAC-75, to determine whether these cultural resources are connected by subsurface deposits, making one contiguous site. Each unit was excavated in 10 cm

levels to a minimum depth of 100 cm. The depth of one meter was chosen for the method of

excavation to ensure cultural resources would not be disturbed during the construction. No units

were excavated on the mound area of SAC-75. All cultural deposits found during the White Barn and Red Barn excavations represent ephemeral subsurface deposits.

Figure 5.4. Aerial View of Locke Ranch with Barns Depicted North of CA-SAC-75.

Phase II Excavation Methodology

The location of SAC-47 was verified during Phase II excavation, and the site’s

boundaries were delineated. To determine the location of SAC-47, excavation units were used to

decipher the depth and significance of deposits. These were standard shovel test units (STU),

1.0x0.5 m in size, and excavated in 10 cm increments. A total of sixteen test units was excavated, oriented along a north-south/east-west grid. Each unit was excavated to minimum depth of 50 cm, and a maximum depth of 80 cm. Appendix B lists the provenience of each unit and the total volume of matrix excavated.

Field Procedures and Sorting

Excavated materials were screened through 1/8” mesh screen, all materials placed in a plastic Ziplock bag labeled with a permanent marker, including the excavation unit, level excavated, and the date of excavation. The soil type and color from each level was recorded. If soils in a level were identified as midden, then a flotation sample two liters in volume was taken.

This was the case for Unit #6 where flotation samples were taken for the 30-40 cm, 40-50 cm, and 50-60 cm levels.

After each test unit reached its maximum depth, an auger was excavated on the floor of the unit to determine if midden-type soils existed beyond the base of the unit. This was the case in Unit #1 during the Phase I White Barn excavations, and additional levels were excavated, but no significant archaeological deposits were observed. After each excavation unit attained its final depth, and was augered, the open unit was photographed facing north.

Laboratory Procedures

After reaching the laboratory, the contents of each bag were placed in a fine-grained sifting screen, and lightly rinsed to remove debris. No items were cleaned with abrasion in an effort to avoid destruction of worn surfaces and other evidence such as starch granules which might prove useful in future investigations. After they were rinsed clean, materials were then dried completely before being placed into clean bags labeled with a permanent marker indicating the provenience, level, and the date excavated.

Soil samples were processed with the use of a method called flotation. In the process of flotation, organic materials are removed for analysis. Flotation samples were processed in a bucket, and the materials which floated to the top, the light fraction, were removed with a fine sifting screen. The materials which did not float, the heavy fraction, were poured through a series

of graduated screens for collection. The materials recovered from the heavy fraction were added

back to like materials from excavated levels. The light fractions of the flotation were dried and

sorted for further analysis, identifying seeds and nut shell fragments.

All materials collected from excavated units and surface collection were catalogued using

Microsoft Access. Each item or group of items was given a unique catalog number, also listing

the excavation unit and level the item from which was obtained, along with a general description,

number of items, and a total weight. The materials from the Phase II SAC-47 excavations were further analyzed in datasheets. The datasheets include tables listing surface collected artifacts, flaked stone, flake tools, obsidian hydration dates, baked clay, along with tables which tabulate and quantify the faunal remains (See Appendix C).

Artifact Analysis

Several artifacts were collected from the surface of SAC-47, and GPS coordinates were taken for each item. All of these artifacts were weighed, measured, and photographed, with

pertinent attributes recorded in a Microsoft Access datasheet. Artifacts collected from excavation units were separated and categorized into groups such as flaked stone, modified bone, baked clay, shell, and ground stone. Datasheets were created for each category of artifacts. For lithic flakes and tools, baked clay, and modified bone, the material composition and the dimensions of the artifact was listed. For modified bone, several additional attributes were noted including general taxon (bird, mammal, unknown), striations, shape, and the presence/absence of polished surfaces.

Baked clay fragments were categorized as differentiated if the fragment had an outer surface, or undifferentiated if the item had no identifiable surface. Lastly, ground stone was listed, ground surfaces noted, and material identified.

Faunal Analysis

As discussed by Jonathan Driver (2011), the initial steps of faunal analysis involve

grouping specimens according to well-defined attributes (Driver 2011:20). Using separate datasheets for mammal, fish, and bird bone, the faunal remains were analyzed to determine total number of bone, burnt bone, and weights for each level collected.

Mammal and Avian Bone Analysis

Size categories discussed by Thomas were used to identify size classes of mammal, as

seen in Table 5.1 (Thomas 1969). Analyzed mammal bone was categorized either as unknown mammal bone of no determinate size, mammal bone Size V based on cortical thickness, or a skeletal element identified to the taxon from which they belong. Most identifications of artiodactyls and avian remains were made by Dr. Jacob Fisher (CSUS). Additional

identifications were made by comparing redundant elements that appeared in the faunal

assemblage. Small rodent remains were identified with comparative specimens and identification

manuals (Klein and Cruz-Uribe 1984). All Size I rodent remains likely represent either meadow mouse or harvest mouse. One ground squirrel, or a similar-sized rodent, was classified as a Size

II mammal.

Table 5.1. Mammal Size Categories (adapted from Thomas 1969). Size Class Weight Range Class I Mammals weighing under 100 grams Class II Mammals weighing between 100-700 grams Class III Mammals weighing between 700-5000 grams Class IV Mammals weighing between 5000-25,000 grams Class V Mammals weighing over 25,000 grams

Fish Bone Analysis

For the fish bone analysis, the faunal remains were sorted into three categories, cranial, appendages, and vertebrae. From the fish bone, vertebrae, scutes, and pharyngeal teeth were pulled for further taxonomic analysis. Chinook salmon and rainbow trout were obtained as comparative specimens, and the vertebrae removed for direct comparisons. Comparatives of a white sturgeon were used to identify several specimens, and a detailed drawing of green sturgeon scute helped to identify several lateral and ventral scutes (Gobalet et al. 2004:815). Sacramento pikeminnow and Sacramento blackfish were identified with the use of comparative skeletons housed at the Archaeological Research Center (ARC), located at CSUS. All other minnow species were identified using faunal specimens from SAC-15 and SAC-16, previously identified by Kenneth Gobalet, now housed at AECOM Planning and Design.

The most diagnostic skeletal element used for the identification of native minnow species is the pharyngeal jaw and teeth, located in the throat of native minnow. Each species of minnow has a unique dental configuration coupled by a specific tooth shape, relating to the food eaten by each species (Table 5.2). Pharyngeal teeth are more numerous than other elements, making them an ideal index element, useful for establishing MNI estimates for the minnow species present in a faunal assemblage (Broughton 1988:68).

Table 5.2. Features of Minnow Pharyngeal Teeth. Common Name Teeth Description Dental Formula Thicktail chub Sturdy and hooked 2,5-4,2 Sacramento blackfish Knifelike and straight 6-6 or 6-5 Sacramento pikeminnow Knifelike and long 2,5-4,2 Hardhead Large molar form 2,5-4,2 Splittail Hooked 2,5-5,2 Hitch Narrow, long with hook 0-5 or 0-4 California roach Pointed 0-5 or 0-4

Hardhead was identified by the molariform shape and the large size of their teeth, meant for eating mollusks and algae. No other minnow species has a similar shaped tooth as this species, and the tooth size of this species dwarfs all other minnow species except Sacramento pikeminnow which possesses papilliform teeth. The thicktail chub has a hederodont configuration of teeth which range from straight to a hook form, all within one individual (Moyle

2002). Splittail was identified by their hook shaped teeth with a knifelike cutting edge on the dorsal side. Sacramento pikeminnow has a uniform tooth configuration which consists of large papilliform shaped teeth with prominent hooks. Sacramento blackfish have knife-like blade teeth, and a uniquely shaped jaw with an appearance that bears no resemblance to any other minnow species. Hitch were identified by their long and narrow teeth with a hook, and the California roach was identified by their small pointed teeth with a slight hook.

Many fish have pointed teeth while they are young for eating small prey, but as they mature, those teeth are lost and replaced as the fish grows into an adult form. The size of the teeth indicated the size and age of the individual. The age of each specimen was categorized as adult (A) or young adult (YA). From an assortment of teeth, along with the left and right portions of the pharyngeal jaws, an MNI was calculated by tabulating the number of both left and right jaw fragments, taking into account the relative age between specimens within each excavation unit.

Distinctive characteristics of fish vertebrae were also used in taxonomic identification.

The atlas, axis, precaudal, and caudal vertebrae have unique shape that can be identified to the species level and help provide an accurate MNI represented. For Sacramento perch, the atlas vertebrae were used, and the width of each measured to provide a relative size of the individuals identified. For comparative skeletons, 10 sunfish were caught, including three redear perch

(Lepomis microlophus), three pumpkinseed perch (L. gibbosus), and four blue gill (L.

macrochirus). All were mid-sized specimens relative to a mature adult sunfish, each weighing between 100-200 grams, with atlas vertebra measurements ranging from 4-6 mm. A majority of the identified specimens of Sacramento perch also measured within this size range, indicating that most individuals identified were likely juveniles. Axis and caudal vertebrae were used to identify

Sacramento sucker while tule perch were identified by their atlas and precaudal vertebrae.

Salmon were identified to family (Salmonidae) by their distinct vertebrae as compared to all other fish in the Delta. Salmon vertebrae have a honeycomb-like appearance on the vertebral wall.

Although most were highly fragmented, several specimens could be identified by their dorsal, lateral, or ventral scutes, or bony armor plates. Scutes are easily identified by the dotted pattern on the dorsal surface. Dorsal scutes are symmetrical with a spiked ridge that runs down the middle of each plate. The lateral and ventral plates are much smaller on any given individual, and they lack symmetry. Sturgeon are easily identified by their scutes. Over time and through evolution, sturgeon have replaced most of their once bony skeleton with cartilage and bony plates which function as scales (Gobalet 1994:126; Moyle 2002:106-109). Sturgeon have five rows of scutes, one dorsal, two lateral, and two ventral rows. White sturgeon have 11-14 dorsal, 68-76 lateral, and 18-24 ventral scutes while green sturgeon have 8-11 dorsal, 23-30 lateral, and 7-10 ventral scutes (Moyle 2002:106, 109). Due to the lack of comparative specimens for green sturgeon, all scutes were simply identified to the genus (Acipenser sp.). Size differences in the analyzed scutes surely represents several individuals, and possibly two separate species of

Acipenser. Without additional comparative specimens of both green and white sturgeon, along with individuals of various ages, the MNI could not be accurately determined.

Chapter 6

THE ARCHAEOLOGY OF CA-SAC-47

In this chapter, the chronology, site structure, artifact classes, and faunal remains recovered from SAC-47 are discussed. The chronology of SAC-47 is based on a few temporal artifacts, and a large sample of obsidian debitage which was analyzed. Next, the site structure is described for three excavation units which capture the site best, containing a majority of the cultural materials recovered. Each artifact class recovered from SAC-47 will be described and discussed. Finally, the number and weight of all faunal specimens are listed, followed by a breakdown of all the identified animal remains for each category, including mammals, avian, fish, shell, and plant remains.

Site Chronology

The bulk of evidence regarding chronology was provided by hydration measurements on

46 obsidian flakes. Other temporal artifacts were recovered from surface contexts, including a

Stockton serrated projectile point, and 12 Olivella shell beads.

Beads

Three types of Olivella beads were located in an isolated area southeast of Test Unit #6.

Twelve beads were present, including whole Olivella beads of varying sizes, small rectangular saddle-shaped beads, and large rectangular saddle-shaped beads (Figure 6.1). Five whole

Olivella spire-lopped beads, categorized as A1a and A1b, do not serve as good temporal markers, occurring in every time period (Bennyhoff and Hughes 1987). Four square saddle-shaped beads

(F3a) are attributed to the late Middle Period and the Middle/Late Transitional Period. The three

smaller saddle-shaped beads (F3b) are also indicative of the late Middle Period (Bennyhoff and

Hughes 1987).

Figure 6.1. Shell Beads.

Projectile Points

Five projectile points were recovered, four from the surface and one from subsurface

contexts. One near-complete Stockton serrated point (CAT-281), a form which typically dates to the Late Period, was recovered from SAC-47 (Figure 6.2). This specimen yielded an obsidian hydration band measurement of 3.5 microns, which dates to approximately 1381 B.P. A large

Stockton serrated tool or biface (CAT-277) was also collected and yielded a hydration reading of

2.7 microns (811 B.P.). The only projectile point recovered from excavation units was a medial fragment from a small Stockton serrated tool (CAT-223).

Two specimens (CAT-013 and CAT-282) comprised projectile point bases with side- notched hafting elements. Side-notched point typologies are generally regarded as Late Period indicators, but the proper seriation of these forms is still forthcoming. Finally, one stemmed projectile point (CAT-280) was identified, and included only the base of the large atlatl dart. This specimen was also cut for obsidian hydration, but yielded a diffuse hydration band. The

geochemical source of the obsidian specimens, and the method used to calculate their ages are discussed in the following section.

Figure 6.2. Stockton Serrated Projectile Point.

Obsidian Sourcing and Hydration

A total of 46 pieces of obsidian debitage was selected for obsidian hydration analysis, and sent to Origer’s Obsidian Laboratory (Appendix A; Table 6.1). All but one of the obsidian samples were visually identified based on macro- and microscopic attributes as belonging to the

Napa Valley source, located approximately 60 miles east of SAC-47. The one exception was identified as Annadel obsidian, the source located in close proximity to Napa Glass Mountain.

Dates for each obsidian sample were calculated by determining the rate of hydration, by comparing the obsidian from SAC-47 to other obsidian comparatives with well-established hydration rates. Hydration bands observed from each sample were measured in microns, and that value was adjusted according to regional temperature histories. The effective hydration temperatures (EHT) are calculated using temperature data which was then used to adjust each measurement. With an adjusted measurement, the age of each specimen was calculated using a diffusion formula (T=kx²), where time (T) in years before present equals the hydration rate

constant for Napa Valley multiplied by the hydration band measurements in microns squared.

The hydration rate constant is 153.4 for the controlled source Napa Glass Mountain obsidian.

The micron value for each obsidian sample is listed in reference to the excavation unit and level from which it derives (Table 6.1). The average values for each level was calculated,

along with the standard deviation (SD) and the coefficient of variation (CV). If the difference

between hydration band readings is significant, larger standard deviation and covariance values

would be represented, indicating a broad temporal error.

Table 6.1. Obsidian Hydration from CA-SAC-47. Unit Level Artifact Micron Values Mean SD CV Test Unit #1 10-20 DBTG 1.1, 2.8, 3.9, 3.9 2.9 1.31 28% 20-30 DBTG 2.5, 2.6, 2.7, 2.9, 3.1, 3.2, 3.7, 3.8 3.1 1.11 13% 30-40 DBTG 2.0, 2.3, 2.4, 2.9, 3.1 2.5 0.83 16% 40-50 DBTG 2.5, 2.6, 3.5, 3.5 3.0 0.47 11% Test Unit #5 0-10 DBTG 3.6, 3.6, 3.8 3.7 0.10 3% 10-20 DBTG 2.6, 3.0, 3.3 3.0 0.37 12% 20-30 DBTG 2.6, 2.8, 3.2, 3.2 3.0 0.50 12% 30-40 DBTG 3.3 3.3 - - Test Unit #6 10-20 DBTG 2.5, 2.7, 2.8, 3.2 2.8 0.37 9% 40-50 DBTG 3.2, 4.9 4.0 1.02 51% 50-60 DBTG 2.6, 2.7, 2.7, 3.0, 3.2 2.8 0.50 10% 60-70 DBTG 3.0, 3.2 3.1 0.12 6%

Piece-Plots PRJPT 2.7, 3.5 3.1 0.48 24%

Note: DBTG – debitage; PRJPT – projectile point; SD – standard deviation; CV – coefficient of variation.

Summary of Chronology

The chronology of SAC-47 can be best summarized as a graph showing that a majority of the obsidian hydration bands fell into a temporal range between 500-2000 B.P. (Figure 6.3),

indicating that people were periodically inhabiting SAC-47 from the latter part of the Middle

period until Phase I of the Late Period. The range of hydration dates is consistent with a limited

sample of time-sensitive artifacts recovered from the site surface.

12 10 8 6 4 2 0

Figure 6.3. Temporal Distribution of Hydration Band Measurements.

Site Structure and Content

Each test unit was excavated by 10 cm increments; a minimum depth was reached at 50

cm, to a maximum depth of 80 cm, but no cultural debris was recovered beyond 70 cm in any excavated unit. Three excavation units contained enough obsidian to provide a moderately-sized sample which was used to pinpoint the chronology of SAC-47. These excavation units also contained a majority of the cultural materials recovered from SAC-47.

The artifact classes found in excavation units at SAC-47 include baked clay, obsidian, and modified bone. Test units #1-6 contain several artifact classes, comprising the majority of

cultural materials recovered during excavation (Table 6.2). These units collectively contributed

80% of the baked clay and debitage recovered from excavated test units. Test units #7-14 had low concentrations of artifacts, including just 20% of the total baked clay fragments and debitage recovered during excavation. Artifacts present on the site surface include shell beads, lithic tools, baked clay, and ground stone; these will be discussed after a description of the site structure.

Table 6.2. Distribution of Cultural Materials at CA-SAC-47. DEBITAGE BKCLAY Unit Level PPT BIF CHT OBS MDB DIFF UND SHL HND MGS Test Unit #1 0-10 - - - 16 - 23 54 - - - 10-20 - - - 23 5 58 132 - - - 20-30 - 1 2 44 6 79 206 - - - 30-40 - 1 - 26 5 45 138 - - - 40-50 - 1 - 5 - 25 66 - - - Test Unit #2 0-10 - 1 - 25 - 36 209 - - - 10-20 - - - 28 - 55 350 - - - 20-30 - - - 29 1 32 90 - - - 30-40 - - - 1 - 2 3 - - - 40-50 ------4 - - - 50-60 - 1 - 1 - - 1 - - - 60-70 - - - - - 1 - - - - Test Unit #3 0-10 - - - - - 14 25 - - - 10-20 - - - 1 - 20 52 - - - 20-30 - - - 1 - 5 24 - - 1 Test Unit #4 0-10 - - - - - 20 127 - - - 10-20 - - - 7 - 6 15 - - - 20-30 - - - 1 ------Test Unit #5 0-10 - - - 7 2 45 121 - - - 10-20 - - - 8 - 30 90 - - - 20-30 - - - 10 8 17 77 - - - 30-40 - - - 2 - 3 50- - - - Test Unit #6 0-10 - - - 5 - 12 80 - - - 10-20 - - - 8 - 27 199 - - - 20-30 - - - 11 - 43 290 - - - 30-40 - - - 5 - 25 144 - - - 40-50 - - - 2 - 10 63 - - - 50-60 - - - 8 - 7 20 - - - 60-70 - - - 2 - 6 30 - - -

Table 6.2. Distribution of Cultural Materials at CA-SAC-47 (continued). DEBITAGE BKCLAY Unit Level PPT BIF CHT OBS MDB DIFF UND SHL HND MGS Test Unit #7 0-10 - - - 1 - 1 8 - - - 10-20 - - - 6 - 1 5 - - - 20-30 - - - - - 5 5 - - - 30-40 - - - 2 - 2 15 - - - 40-50 Test Unit #8 0-10 - - - - - 2 13 - - - Test Unit #9 0-10 - - - - - 9 51 - - - Test Unit #10 0-10 1 - - 1 - - 2 - - - 10-20 - - - 23 - 13 33 - - - 20-30 - - - 13 - 2 48 - - - 30-40 - - - 1 - 1 12 - - - 40-50 ------1 - - - Test Unit #11 0-10 - - - 4 - 8 55 - - - 10-20 - - - 2 - 1 43 - - - Test Unit #12 0-10 - - - 2 - - 3 - - - 10-20 ------20-30 ------1 - - - Test Unit #13 0-10 - - - 1 - 3 17 - - - Test Unit #14 0-10 - - - 1 ------10-20 - - - 1 ------20-30 - - - 1 - 3 34 - - - 30-40 - - - - - 1 26 - - - Test Unit #A 0-10 - - - - - 5 11 - - - 10-20 - - 1 3 - 11 5 - - - 20-30 - - - 3 - 4 5 - - - Test Unit #B 0-10 - - - 1 - 8 3 - - -

Piece-Plots 4 1 - - - 35 - 12 6 -

TOTAL 5 7 7 342 27 763 3356 12 6 1

Note: PPT – projectile point; BIF – biface; MDB – modified bone; BKCLAY – baked clay (DIFF – differentiated; UND – undifferentiated); SHL – shell artifacts; HND – handstone; MGS – miscellaneous ground stone; CHT – chert; OBS – obsidian.

Test Unit #1

Test Unit #1 was disturbed with organic materials and goat scat in the 0-20 cm levels

(Figure 6.4). From 20-50 cm, the soil was compact and reddish gray in color (5YR 5/2). From

50-60 cm, the soil was mottled until becoming light brown in color, and culturally sterile. This excavation unit had the highest concentration of cultural materials, accounting for 20% of the total baked clay, 39% of the faunal remains, 59% of the modified bone, and 33% of the debitage recovered from SAC-47.

Figure 6.4. Test Unit #1.

This unit yielded one flake tool, two bifaces, and 41 flakes of obsidian debitage. For obsidian hydration analysis, 21 samples from the 10-50 cm levels were tested. Average micron values from each level ranged from 2.5 to 3.1 microns, representing a time range of 676-1037

B.P. The standard deviation and covariance values were high, indicating a relatively long span of

deposition. The upper levels from this unit were highly disturbed. The standard deviation and covariance values decrease in the deeper levels.

Test Unit #5

Test Unit #5 had a deflated appearance with very little organic material on the surface.

The soil remained compact with a grayish brown color (10YR 5/2) from 0-50 cm (Figure 6.5).

Beyond 50 cm, the soil became much lighter in color and lacked any cultural materials. The materials recovered from this unit accounted for 11% of the total baked clay, 18% of the faunal remains, 33% of the modified bone, and 7% of the obsidian debitage recovered at SAC-47.

Figure 6.5. Test Unit #5.

This unit yielded 27 flakes of obsidian. For obsidian hydration analysis, 15 samples were tested, and 11 specimens yielded hydration bands which correlate to a date range of 750-1700

B.P. Hydration lots from three levels provided low standard deviation and covariance values,

with means ranging from 3.0 to 3.7 microns, representing a time range of 1037-1571 B.P. This is

a narrow window of occupation.

Test Unit #6

Test Unit #6 was excavated to a final depth of 80 cm. The surface of this unit was highly

disturbed with organic materials and goat scat in the top 10 cm. From 10-60 cm, the soil was loose and had a reddish brown color (5YR 5/2)(Figure 6.6). Three flotation samples were taken from levels between 30-50 cm, revealing an assortment of charred plant remains. This excavation unit accounted for 23% of the total baked clay, 21% of the bone, and 12% of the total obsidian debitage recovered at SAC-47.

Figure 6.6. Test Unit #6.

There were relatively large quantities of obsidian flakes, accounting for a total of 41 pieces from which 16 samples were submitted for obsidian hydration analysis, but only 13

specimens had readable bands. Average values for each level ranged from 2.8 to 4.0 microns,

which represents a date range of 600-2700 B.P., but if a single outlier (4.0 microns) is excluded, the average for each level would only range from 2.8 to 3.2 microns, narrowing the range of occupation to 884-1202 B.P.

Artifact Classes

The artifact classes include flaked stone, modified bone, baked clay artifacts, and ground stone artifacts. These artifacts are described below.

Flaked Stone

There are no local raw materials suitable for lithic production in the Delta, so materials outside this region would be needed for tool production. Even though several materials were available outside the Delta, obsidian arguably possesses properties superior to other materials.

Obsidian not only fractures in a predictable fashion during manufacture, it also creates an edge sharper than anything else known in the natural world. Obsidian was the dominant lithic material at SAC-47, but chert debitage was also present in small quantities. Nearly all of the 342 pieces of debitage were pressure flakes, indicating that artifacts were generally imported as formed or nearly formed implements. Lithic manufacture is conducted either by percussion or pressure flaking (Andrefsky 2004:11). Pressure flaking is the removal of a flake by applying pressure directly to the objective material (Andrefsky 2004:11). This type of removal is associated with the final stages of lithic production.

Six obsidian tools were recovered from excavation units including a medial fragment of a large stage five biface (CAT-068), two bifaces (CAT- 023 and CAT-040) which represent the detached tips of larger bifacial tools, and a small biface fragment (CAT-031) of indeterminate

morphology. As previously mentioned, a large Stockton serrated tool or biface (CAT-277) was also recovered (Figure 6.7). Five additional flaked stone tools were collected from the surface of

SAC-47 including four projectile points and one biface. All of the projectile points were previously discussed (see Chronology, above). The last is a proximal end fragment of a biface

(CAT-279).

Figure 6.7. Stockton Serrated Biface (CAT-277).

Chert flakes were collected from Test Unit #1, and one flake was collected from Unit #A.

This blue-green Franciscan chert comes from the North Coast Range, at sources within 50 miles of SAC-47. These sources extend across a large portion of the North Coast Range (Andrefsky

2004:53). It is a tough material unlike obsidian, which is easily manufactured into tools that retain a sharp edge after repeated use.

Modified Bone Artifacts

Modified faunal remains are prevalent at Delta archaeological sites, including modified bone and antler. Gifford (1940) describes 46 types of modified bone present in Delta sites. At

SAC-47, several modified bone artifacts were identified including 15 specimens identified as

mammal bone, six as bird bone, and six specimens of unknown taxonomy. Many of the

specimens were fragmentary and could only be identified by a shaped or polished surface. For

the analysis, all specimens are referenced by catalog number, indicating the lot of faunal remains

from which they were removed.

Two fragments of drilled mammal bone beads were identified from CAT-118 lot. A highly polished fine point was identified from CAT-026 lot, as the tip of a bone awl (Figure 6.8).

One specimen from CAT-026 lot and another specimen from CAT-118 lot were identified as bird bone tubes, with an end that is tapered inward, to enable insertion. These specimens are discolored at one end, the point at which the pipe bowl was inserted (Schenck and Dawson

1929:352; Schenck and Dawson 1926: pl.78n,s).

Figure 6.8. Bone Awl Tip, Bird Bone Pipe Fragments (Left CAT-026 lot; Center CAT-026 lot; Right CAT-118 lot)

Several specimens from the CAT-026, CAT-104, and CAT-118 were lots were identified as

burned fragments of bird bone tubes with polished and shaped surfaces. These polished

fragments of bird bone are similar to bird bone tubes described by Dawson and Barr, who remark

on the distinctive polish which they suspect is created from extended use (Schenck and Dawson

1929:352). Ethnographic accounts of the “big time” ceremonies of the northern Miwok suggest

that dancing and hand games provided the main source entertainment (Maniery and Dutschke

1989:488-489).

Table 6.3. Modified Bone from CA-SAC-47. Unit Level CAT # Bone Polished Shaped Striations Test Unit #1 10-20 008 Mammal No Yes Yes 008 Mammal Yes No No 008 Mammal Yes No No 008 Avian Yes No No 008 Unknown Yes Yes No 20-30 016 Mammal Yes Yes No 016 Mammal No Yes Yes 016 Mammal No Yes No 016 Mammal Yes Yes No 016 Mammal Yes Yes No 016 Avian Yes Yes No 30-40 026 Avian Yes Yes No 026 Avian No Yes No 026 Unknown Yes Yes No 026 Unknown No Yes No 026 Unknown Yes Yes Yes Test Unit #2 20-30 057 Mammal No Yes Yes Test Unit #5 0-10 104 Mammal Yes Yes Yes 104 Avian Yes Yes No 20-30 118 Mammal Yes Yes Yes 118 Mammal Yes Yes Yes 118 Mammal No Yes Yes 118 Mammal No Yes No 118 Avian No Yes No 118 Unknown No Yes No 118 Unknown Yes Yes No 118 Mammal Yes No No

Baked Clay

A unique feature of Delta archaeology is the prevalence of baked clay. The scarcity of

stone in the Delta region made baked clay a suitable medium for producing cooking and fishing

tools made of stone elsewhere (Schenck and Dawson 1929:359). At SAC-47, different grades of

baked clay were present, ranging from a rough, sandy baked clay, to a smooth, fine-grained baked

clay, apparently lacking sand temper. No complete baked clay objects were found in excavated

units. On the surface of the site, however, several complete baked clay artifacts were collected,

included spool-shaped net weights, round to oval shaped cooking balls, baked clay with

amorphous shapes, and baked clay fragments which display impressions.

Baked Clay Net Weights

Baked clay net weights are typically a spool shape. The weights were tied around the edges of a net to weigh it down, so the net could be thrown effectively (Stewart 1977). The throwing net was an especially useful fishing technology in shallow waterways. Net weights were the most prevalent artifact observed at SAC-47, indicating the importance of this item as a fishing technology. Of the nine net weight specimens collected, four were complete, and their sizes ranged from between 44.5-129.3 grams in weight.

A refitted spool net weight (CAT-283) has light sedge impression over the entire surface

(Figure 6.9). This artifact is the largest complete net weight, weighing 129.3 grams. Another complete spool-shaped net weight (CAT-284) weighed 44.5 grams. CAT-285 is a fragmented half of a spool net weight with sedge impressions over much of the surface.

Figure 6.9. Baked Clay Net Weights. (Left to Right, CAT 283, CAT-284, CAT-285, CAT-286)

A complete spool net weight (CAT-287 and CAT-288) and a near-complete specimen

(CAT 286) each display well-defined sedge impressions over their entire surface (Figure 6.10).

In Test Unit #B, level 0-10 cm, five fragments (CAT-278 lot) were collected that refit, making the upper half of a net weight with well-defined sedge plant impressions on the surface. Two specimens (CAT-278 and CAT-291), have perforated ends, but the hole does not perforate through the entire net weight. Journey (1971) suggests that the perforations were caused when the wrapping material was secured with a twig at both ends, to hold the wrapping in place while the net weight dried. The perforation was squeezed back together after the net weight had dried

(Journey 1971:5). The final artifact CAT 289 is a crudely made flat and round shaped net weight, weighing 66.7 grams. This artifact is a light color, with several imperfections on the surface. If this artifact was in a complete condition it would surely be the largest net weight specimen, weighing approximately 200 grams.

Figure 6.10. Baked Clay Net Weights. (Left to Right, CAT 287, CAT-288, CAT-289)

Baked Clay Cooking Balls

The second most common artifact identified at SAC-47 was baked clay cooking balls.

Cooking balls are the most prevalent artifact observed at Late Period sites in the Delta (Kielusiak

1982; Schenck and Dawson 1929:360). Baked clay cooking balls are believed to be used as a substitute for cooking stones, based on their association with hearths (Schenck and Dawson

1929:362). Out of the eight cooking balls collected, four were complete, and ranged from 165.5-

240.4 grams in weight. All cooking balls were of a similar shape, oval with flattened sides

(Figure 6.11). One cooking ball (CAT-297) had four dotted lines, and another (CAT-293) had

three dotted lines and a flattened spot that allows the ball to be placed down with minimal

surfaces touching. These two artifacts were likely created at the same time or by the same

person. Five baked clay cooking ball fragments were collected in Unit #6 (CAT-150 lot), and

another collected from Unit #2 (CAT-059 lot). These artifacts were identified based on their

consistency with the shapes preserved in the complete artifacts.

Figure 6.11. Baked Clay Cooking Balls. (Left CAT-293, Right CAT-294)

Baked Clay with Impressions

The baked clay fragments with impressions fall into one of four categories including

basketry impressions, plant impressions, small punctate patterns of artistic design, and large

punctuates of unknown function. Several artifacts (CAT-311-314) had identifiable basketry impressions. One specimen (CAT-311) is a flat fragment of baked clay with a zig-zag basketry pattern impression. Another fragment (CAT-314) has the impression of a basket, reminiscent of the dimpled pattern on a golf ball, as seen in Figure 6.12.

Figure 6.12. Baked Clay Fragment with Basketry Impressions (CAT-314).

Punctate impressions were identified on several artifacts (CAT-316-317), as seen in

Figure 6.13. Three baked clay fragments from Unit #1 (CAT-021 lot) displayed punctates, as did

one from Unit #5 (CAT-122 lot) which displays a line of three punctates.

Figure 6.13. Baked Clay Objects with Punctate Impressions (Left to Right, CAT-315, CAT-316, CAT-317)

Baked Clay with Amorphous Shapes

Several baked clay objects were identified as complete artifacts of amorphous shape.

Two (CAT-306 and CAT-307) are small baked clay objects with an irregular shape. They do not serve any known function and may have been created unintentionally. Three others (CAT-308-

310) are baked clay lumps which appear to have been created for use as crude cooking balls or

some other purpose. CAT-308 is about the size of a golf ball, and appears to have been crudely

hand molded.

Ground Stone

Only one small fragment of ground stone (CAT-081) was recovered from excavation

units at SAC-47. This fragment was collected from Unit #3, at 20-30 cm below surface. The

ground surface is shaped and polished. Several ground stone specimens were collected from the

surface of the site including seven handstone fragments and two fire-affected millingslab

fragments. Stone is scarce at this location and every large stone found in this area ended up being

some type of ground or burned rock.

Handstones are defined as a handheld tool which can be strategically designed with

finger grips or grooves to make them easier to hold (Adams 2002:142-143). CAT-320 was identified as handstone margin fragment with pecking and a highly formalized shape (Figure

6.14). This artifact is a dense and heavy metamorphosed stone, worn from extended use, displaying a prominent polished surface. Three handstones (CAT-321-323) are made from a metamorphic material, and all have a smooth surface. CAT-321 and CAT-322 are complete handstones, composed of a dense metamorphosed stone. There is evidence of use-wear, but due to the density of the material, the handstone shows only ephemeral use-wear. CAT-323 is a metavolcanic cobble tool with evidence of battering. Another (CAT-324) is a near-complete handstone made of sedimentary rock. This artifact has a coarse surface and would have functioned as an abrader. Use-wear is ephemeral but present on all handstone specimens.

Figure 6.14. Handstone Fragment (CAT-320).

Summary of Artifact Classes

Several other artifact classes such as shell beads, projectile points, and ground stone, were represented by artifacts collected from the surface of SAC-47. The artifact classes recovered from excavated units included baked clay, obsidian debitage, flaked tools, and modified bone. Aside from the artifacts classes recovered from excavated units, a significant number of faunal remains were recovered, discussed in the following section.

Faunal Remains

There were a total of 10,701 identified bone specimens (Table 6.4). Identifiable bone includes 26 shellfish, 645 mammal, 98 avian, and 7008 fish bone. Test units #1-6 provided nearly all (99.8% ) of the faunal remains recovered during excavation. The NISP is listed in

Table 6.4 for each animal class, along with all unknown faunal remains.

Table 6.4. Distribution of Faunal Remains at CA-SAC-47. Unit Level Mammal Bird Fish Shell Unknown TOTAL Test Unit #1 0-10 10 1 21 - 30 62 10-20 44 4 315 3 331 697 20-30 96 15 1147 1 475 1734 30-40 67 8 808 2 333 1218 40-50 19 6 278 2 100 405 Test Unit #2 0-10 20 - - - 75 95 10-20 18 - 9 3 7 37 20-30 6 1 10 - 29 46 Test Unit #3 0-10 1 - - - - 1 10-20 3 - 2 - - 5 Test Unit #4 0-10 16 4 855 2 207 1084 10-20 11 2 904 1 156 1074 20-30 1 - 16 1 5 23

Table 6.4. Distribution of Faunal Remains at CA-SAC-47 (continued). Unit Level Mammal Bird Fish Shell Unknown TOTAL Test Unit #5 0-10 25 4 172 1 54 256 10-20 20 3 566 2 80 671 20-30 41 13 615 2 228 899 30-40 2 - 88 - 36 126 Test Unit #6 0-10 1 - - 2 3 10-20 54 2 39 2 158 20-30 51 17 358 - 668 30-40 57 6 345 2 601 40-50 11 6 175 - 307 50-60 16 5 244 - 390 60-70 31 - 40 - 115 Test Unit #7 0-10 2 - - - - 2 40-50 3 - - - - 3 Test Unit #9 0-10 1 - 1 - - 2 Test Unit #10 10-20 4 - - - - 4 20-30 6 - - - - 6 Test Unit #11 0-10 2 1 - - - 3 10-20 1 - - - - 1 Test Unit #13 0-10 1 - - - - 1 Test Unit #14 10-20 1 - - - - 1 Test Unit #A 0-10 1 - - - - 1 10-20 2 - - - - 2

TOTAL 645 98 7008 26 2924 10,701

The NISP and MNI values were also calculated for each family, genus, or species present

in the faunal assemblage. Grayson (1979) discusses the inherent fault with using MNI as a

measure for relative abundance, showing that MNI counts do not provide an accurate measure

independent of the NISP (Driver 2011:24). He discusses how MNI values only take on meaning

when similar taxa are compared (Grayson 1979:204). If similar animals were affected by the

same taphonomic processes before reaching the archaeological deposit, one would expect a

similar level of survivorship. Animals of different sizes and species may have preservation

differences (Grayson 1979). In the context of SAC-47, preservation differences likely affected

the presence of some plants and animals while others may be overrepresented in the

archaeological deposit. Large animals such as artiodactyls leave much larger remains compared to smaller taxa. Different animals are also butchered in different ways, leaving disproportionate remains (Grayson 1979). Finally, fragile small animal bone or plant remains may not preserve well in the archaeological record, or they may be lost through 1/8” mesh screen during excavation.

All bone was identified as burned or unburned in the faunal analysis (Table 6.5;

Appendix C. Bone would become burned when it was prepared for food or possibly exposed to fire after disposal. Unburned bones represented by large mammals, birds, and fish remains are considered a cultural product at SAC-47, based primarily on their presence among burned bone, within the archaeological deposit. Rodent bone is an exception to this rule. The presence of large numbers of unburned rodent bones indicates that these remains were likely a product of bioturbation within the deposit.

Table 6.5. Burned Bone Distributions for Major Faunal Categories. Total Percent Faunal Category Total Bone Burned Bone Burned Bone Mammal Bone 645 342 53.0% Avian Bone 98 42 42.9% Fish Bone 7008 187 2.7%

TOTAL 7751 571 7.4% Artiodactyls

Several species of artiodactyls were among the faunal bone including one tule elk, one

deer, and one pronghorn antelope individual. The tule elk was identified by a sesamoid and left

tibia element. The deer and pronghorn antelope were identified by their phalanges. Two tooth

fragments were attributed to artiodactyl but could not be differentiated to the species level. A

metapodial was identified as a juvenile artiodactyl, but the element was too fragmented to be

identified to the species level.

Artiodactyls manifest seasonal differences in abundance, tied directly to their annual

reproductive cycles. In the late fall, artiodactyls aggregate during the winter months during breeding, but by early spring they disperse in anticipation of fawning (Bouey 1995:261). During these months when plant resources are scarce, large game would have been sought.

A large number of antler fragments were identified in the faunal assemblage, accounting for a NISP of 30. Pronghorn do not have antlers, so these remains can be attributed to the cervid family representing either tule elk or deer. Antler was not calculated for MNI counts, due to the fact that antler may be found all over the countryside after deer and elk shed their antlers seasonally. A complete vestigial phalanx was also identified as cervid, as pronghorn do not possess these appendages. Tule elk was represented by two specimens, representing a minimum of a single individual. Deer and pronghorn antelope were both represented by a minimum of a single individual each.

Table 6.6. Mammal Remains (MNI and NISP counts) from CA-SAC-47. Taxon Common Name MNI NISP Artiodactyla Artiodactyl 1 5 Cervidae Unknown Cervid - 23 Cervus elaphus Tule Elk 1 3 Odocoileus hemionus Black-tailed Deer 1 1 Antilocapra americana Pronghorn Antelope 1 1 Carnivora Carnivore 1 1 Spermophilus beecheyi Ground Squirrel 1 1 Unidentified Mammal, Size I 4 43 Unidentified Mammal, Size II 3 30 Unidentified Mammal, Size V - 24 Unidentified Mammal, Unsized - 513

TOTAL 13 645

Small Mammals

One canine was identified as belonging to an unidentified Size III carnivore, likely

belonging to an animal such as a skunk or raccoon, to name a few. Small- to medium-sized

carnivores are well-represented in the Delta, even today.

The only Size II mammal identified to the species level was a ground squirrel represented

by a complete humerus. Squirrels currently live throughout the Locke Ranch, indicating the high

likelihood that this species represents a recent intrusive element. No other Size II mammal remains could be identified to species. These elements included four tarsals, five carpals, two caudal vertebrae, one tooth, one tibia, one femur, and one cranial fragment. These Size II remains likely represent either ground squirrel or pocket gopher. Twelve of the thirty elements identified as Size II mammals were burned, accounting for 40% of these remains, suggesting that at least some of these remains are part of the cultural deposit.

Size I rodent remains are small and typically would not be recovered in an 1/8” screen, but in certain units (i.e., Test Unit #1 and #6) there were large amounts of faunal materials, so the

entire contents of a screen were bagged, then sorted in the laboratory. Many small faunal

remains, typically lost during excavation, were recovered indirectly alongside large

concentrations of faunal remains. These elements included 13 vertebrae, eight femur, four atlas,

two metatarsal, two mandible, two pelvis, one humerus, one radius, one tibia, and one scapula.

All of the Size I faunal remains likely belong to either meadow mouse or one of two species of

harvest mice. Only two of the 43 elements identified as Size I mammals were burned, but several elements were discolored. Most elements appear to be contributed by more recent bioturbation.

Fossorial rodents are problematic since they frequently die in their burrows.

Avian Remains

As compared to other faunal assemblages from Delta sites, birds represented a small portion of the animals represented in the SAC-47 faunal assemblage (Goshen 2013). Seven elements were attributed to Anatidae, representing a MNI of three (Table 6.6). The NISP was identified by one pelvis, one humerus, one tibiotarsus, two carpometatarsus, and two tarsometatarsus. These individuals all represent small waterfowl ranging from 500-1000 grams.

A passeriform species of bird was also identified by its beak, designed for seed eating. The avian remains that could not be identified, accounted for 90 specimens.

Table 6.7. Avian Remains (MNI and NISP counts) from CA-SAC-47. Taxon Common Name MNI NISP Passeriformes Perching Birds 1 1 Anatidae Small Waterfowl 3 7 Unknown Unknown Bird - 90

TOTAL 4 98

Fish Remains

Fish bone was abundant at SAC-47, accounting for 7008 specimens. Unidentifiable

specimens, lacking teeth or other characteristic elements, were attributed only to class,

Actinopterygii, which would include all fish living in the Delta. Native minnows were also

common; seven of eight native minnow species, all belonging to the Cyprinidae family, were

present in the SAC-47 fish bone. Fish were identified by their teeth, vertebrae, or scutes; these

are discussed below (Table 6.7). Live weights of all native fish are derived from Bouey (1995).

Table 6.8. Fish Remains (MNI and NISP counts) from CA-SAC-47. NISP % Taxon Common Name MNI NISP of Total Acipenser sp. Sturgeon 1 60 19.9 Archoplites interruptus Sacramento Perch 39 39 12.9 Catostomus occidentalis Sacramento Sucker 1 3 0.9 Gila crassicauda Thicktail Chub 14 41 13.6 Hesperoleucus symmetricus California Roach 1 1 0.3 Hysterocarpus traskii Tule Perch 4 6 1.9 Lavinia exilicauda Hitch 1 1 0.3 Mylopharodon concephalus Hardhead 2 4 1.3 Orthodon microlepidotus Sacramento Blackfish 2 3 0.9 Pogonichthys macrolepidotus Splittail 4 9 2.9 Ptychocheilus grandis Sacramento Pikeminnow 7 12 3.9 Salmonidae Salmon family 1 71 23.5 Cyprinidae Minnows - 24 7.9 Actinopterygii 6734

TOTAL 77 7708 -

Thicktail Chub (Gila crassicauda)

The thicktail chub is a short, deep-bodied fish that was once prevalent in overflow lakes and small sloughs throughout the Delta (Bouey 1995; Moyle 2002). This species is now extinct; the last of these specimens were purportedly caught in the late 1950s in the southern part of the

study area (Mills and Mamika 1980). Bouey (1995) estimated 197 grams as the average weight

of this species. From the few specimens available, the average length of this species is estimated

at 10-12 cm (Moyle 2002).

Sacramento Pikeminnow (Ptychocheilus grandis)

The Sacramento pikeminnow is the largest freshwater fish in the Delta. This fish inhabits fast-moving waterways, eating small fish as a main staple. The average weight, calculated from ten specimens, is 579 grams (Bouey 1995: 274). The largest Sacramento pikeminnow known measured 115 cm long and weighed 14.5 kg.

Splittail (Pogonichthys macrolepidotus)

The splittail is a large minnow, easily recognizable by the enlarged lobe of the tail

(Moyle 2002:146). This species inhabits a diverse array of aquatic habitats including rivers,

sloughs, and lakes. This species spawns in the Sacramento River, at the northern reaches of the

study area. Bouey (1995) noted an average weight of 126 grams. This species is long-lived

though, and between 5-7 years, their average weight is over 500 grams; they can attain lengths of

35 cm after three years (Moyle 2002).

Hardhead (Mylopharodon concephalus)

The hardhead is a large minnow with a deep body and a flattened head (Moyle 2002).

This species prefers fast-moving waterways with a gravel substrate from which to feed on

mollusks. The average weight of this species is 406 grams, with an average adult length of 33 cm

(Bouey 1995; Moyle 2002).

Sacramento Blackfish (Orthodon microlepidotus)

The Sacramento blackfish is a moderately-sized minnow which lives in the slower moving backwaters of lakes and small sloughs. Only one of these specimens contained teeth, but the shape of the jaw and the arrangement of teeth spacing on the jaw is unique compared to other minnow species. From 17 specimens, the average weight of the equated to 157 grams, and average length estimated at 13 cm (Bouey 1995; Moyle 2002).

Hitch (Lavinia exilicauda)

Hitch is a small fish with a laterally compressed body and a small head. This fish

inhabits low lakes and slow-moving waterways (Moyle 2002). A single specimen was identified

by the small needle-like appearance of the teeth. This species weighs 190 grams on average, and

is typically 12 cm in length (Bouey 1995: Moyle 2002).

California Roach (Hesperoleucus symmetricus)

California roach is a small fish approximately 10 cm in length. This fish occupies a wide variety of aquatic habitats. Roach have a unique dental formula which no other native minnows possess. The dental formula is comprised of a single row of teeth on the pharyngeal jaw. The average size of adult specimens is 10 cm, but no weight is available for this species (Moyle

2002).

Sacramento Perch (Archoplites interruptus)

Sacramento perch is the only native member of the Centrarchidae family in the Delta, and

this species is the most identified species among all the fish bone. From 403 live specimens,

Bouey (1995) provided an average weight of 190 grams.

Tule Perch (Hysterocarpus traskii)

The tule perch is the only member of the surf perch family living in the Delta. This

species is unique in that it gives birth to live young. This species occupies a wide variety of

aquatic habitats in the Delta (Moyle 2002). From a sample of 11 live samples, an average mean

weight of 50 grams was calculated (Bouey 1995).

Sacramento Sucker (Catostomus occidentalis)

The Sacramento sucker is the second largest freshwater fish in the Delta. This species

inhabits a varied set of aquatic habitats throughout the Delta. These elements could only account

for a MNI of one. Unlike all the other fish analyzed in this investigation, this species does not

have a useful index element which can be readily distinguished. All vertebrae except the axis and

caudal vertebrae are difficult to distinguish between other cyprinids. Due to these difficulties in

faunal identification, this species is underrepresented in this analysis. The average weight of 39 specimens was 406 grams (Bouey 1995:272).

Salmonidae

The family is represented by salmon, rainbow trout, and steelhead. Most of the vertebrae fragments were too large to be rainbow trout, but considering the highly fractured state of these remains, the broader categorization of Salmonidae was employed.

The skeletons of fish belonging to the Salmonidae family are less heavily ossified than those of other native fish present in the Delta, and the bones are easily fragmented (Broughton

1988:89; Casteel 1976:87-89). If it is not the fragility of salmon vertebrae that precluded their preservation archaeologically, then the manner of procurement may have affected their presence.

Ethnographically, in many areas in the Central Valley, salmon was typically caught, dried, and

then pulverized into salmon flour (Hash et al. 2015:87). If salmon was processed in a similar way

in the Delta, then very little evidence of salmon procurement would be evident. Small resident

fish were likely cooked whole atop a fire, and when cooked, the cranium and vertebral column

were likely tossed aside before consumption. If salmon were eaten in the same fashion, vertebrae

would be expected in the faunal assemblage. From 29 adult specimens, Bouey (1995), calculated

an average of 8413 grams.

Sturgeon (Acipenser sp.)

Green sturgeon and white sturgeon both cohabitate the Delta waterways, the latter more abundant in the Delta than green sturgeon (Broughton 1988:65; Moyle 2002:106-108). White sturgeon were present in the Sacramento River throughout the year, but were most abundant during the spawning season which lasts from February to June (Moyle 2002:108). There is little known about the life history of green sturgeon but there is some evidence to suggest that they spawn in the main stream of the Sacramento River (NOAA 2005). A few scutes were large, but a majority of them were very small, possibly from juvenile individuals. This fish may grow to a massive size exceeding 12,000 grams (Bouey 1995).

Shellfish Remains

No shellfish remains were observed on the surface of SAC-47. Freshwater shell, including Margaritifera sp. and Gonidea angulata, was recovered in small quantities from excavated units, and all represented small, very fragile fragments, accounting for a total weight of

2.2 grams. The freshwater shell recovered may have been naturally acquired in the deposit from the slough bordering SAC-47. Abalone (Haliotis sp.), a marine shellfish, was also present, likely

brought from the coast to be manufactured into artifacts. These remains were also found in small

quantities, accounting for only 7.1 grams total from all excavated units.

Plant Remains

Plants are an important food source for many foragers around the world. Test Unit #6 had a dark, culturally rich soil where several plant remains were recovered in the 20-30 cm level,

so flotation samples were taken from the subsequent levels to obtain a sample. Plant remains

recovered during excavation consisted of carbonized plant remains such as burned walnut shell

and acorn shell.

During excavation, flotation samples were taken from the 30-40 cm, 40-50 cm, and 50-60 cm levels, consisting of 2 liter samples from each level. The results of the flotation revealed an assortment of small charred seeds (Table 6.8). These seeds could not be identified, and were simply recorded as large or small seeds. One species of large seed was identified as wild grape

(Vitis californica). Unknown nutshell fragments were likely acorn shell, but the fragments were too small to identify reliably. Black walnut (Juglans sp.) was also identified by shell fragments.

All of these nutshell fragments were burned, indicating they were likely culturally deposited.

Table 6.9. Distribution of Plant Remains. Small Large Grape CAT # Unit Level (cm) Walnut Nutshell Seed Seed Seed 050 Test Unit #2 10-20 - 1 - - - 113 Test Unit #2 10-20 - - - 1 - 120 Test Unit #5 20-30 - - - 1 1 126 Test Unit #5 30-40 1 - - - - 149 Test Unit #6 20-30 6 - - - - 155 Test Unit #6 30-40 8 3 - - 1 155 Test Unit #6 30-40 - - 2 - - 163 Test Unit #6 40-50 3 3 - 2 - 163 Test Unit #6 40-50 - 3 2 - - 169 Test Unit #6 50-60 1 2 2 - - 169 Test Unit #6 50-60 - - 6 - - 260 Test Unit #A 0-10 4 - - - -

A baked clay fragment was collected in excavation Unit #3 (CAT-078) contained the positive and negative impressions of acorns (Figure 6.15). On the interior portion of this differentiated baked clay fragment, there is the positive mold impression of an acorn, and negative impression imprint of two separate acorns. When this artifact was fired, there were two acorns inside the object. This may have weakened the fired item, which later fragmented apart, revealing these impressions.

Figure 6.15. Interior Baked Clay Fragment with Acorn Impressions (CAT-078).

These resources were procured seasonally, possibly contributing a significant portion of the diet if other high-ranked resources were scarce in the winter months. Acorns and black walnuts could be gathered in the fall and stored for long durations, creating an incentive for procurement by foragers. In the late spring and summer, small grass seeds dominate the grasslands and provide an abundant, reliable food supply. Wild grapes are harvested in the early fall season.

Summary of Results

Six units contributed the majority of the cultural material recovered from SAC-47.

Artifact classes recovered included beads, baked clay, flaked stone, ground stone, and modified bone artifacts. Baked clay was the most commonly recovered artifact from both the surface of the site and from excavation units. The faunal remains were dominated by fish bone with much smaller quantities of mammal, bird, and shellfish remains. It is clear that the procurement of fish was the focus of subsistence at SAC-47. In the following chapter, the SAC-47 assemblage is compared to the cultural remains found from other sites in the Delta.

Chapter 7

RESULTS AND IMPLICATIONS

All the sites under investigation date to comparable time periods and contain faunal assemblages which have been analyzed with comparable methods. The location and excavation history of each site is described, along with a brief discussion of the chronology. Then, the habitation mosaics, faunal remains, and taxonomic diversity found at each site under investigation are explored. Finally, resource selectivity is discussed to understand the subsistence strategies employed at SAC-47.

Site Comparison

The faunal data generated from the analysis of SAC-47, along with the temporal artifacts

present at this locality, are compared to the data from five similar sites in the Delta. The

chronology for SAC-42 and SAC-43 was derived from obsidian hydration measurements

(Origer’s Obsidian Laboratory), radiocarbon dating, and temporal artifacts. The obsidian

hydration analysis for SAC-47 was also conducted by Origer, so the EHT date adjustments from micron measurements are comparable. The chronology for SAC-65 and SAC-329 is based on radiocarbon dates derived from bone, along with the temporal artifacts present. The chronology of SAC-145 is based solely on soil studies conducted on the stratigraphic deposit along with the temporal artifacts (Ritter 1972).

Prehistorically, the study area encompassed the northern and southern extent of the Plains

Miwok territory along the Sacramento River. The first two sites, SAC-42 and SAC-43, are both located in the Pocket area of Sacramento, in the northern extent of the study area (Figure 7.1).

SAC-65 and SAC-145 are centrally located in the southern part of the study area, two miles east

of the Sacramento River. The last two locations, SAC-47 and SAC-329 are located in the southern portion of the study area, within the Delta islands.

Figure 7.1. Historic Vegetation Map Depicting the Location of All Sites under Investigation.

CA-SAC-42

The Souza Site, SAC-42, is located in the Pocket area of Sacramento along the

Sacramento River, in the northern extent of the study area. This site was excavated in the 1930s, again in 1984, and most recently in 1994 (Milliken 1995). Neither the number of excavation units, nor the volume excavated is reported. The burial patterns and temporal artifacts recovered from this site indicate that SAC-42 was a large residential site used as a cemetery in the late

Middle Period, and the location was periodically abandoned during the Late Period (Milliken

1995). Obsidian hydration measurements from Napa obsidian range between 2.4 and 2.6

microns, indicating that the mound was occupied during the late Middle Period.

CA-SAC-43

The Brazil Site, SAC-43, is also located in the Pocket area of Sacramento. This site is

located less than 3 km south of SAC-42. SAC-43 was excavated in the late 1960s under the direction of Patti Johnson of the University of Davis, and involved 10 1.5x1.5 m excavation units, with all materials sifted through 1/8” mesh screens (Bouey 1995). In 1985, Peak and Associates conducted 11 excavation units, 1x1 m in dimension, sifted through 1/8” screen mesh. The

volume of soils excavated is not reported, but Bouey (1995) remarks that there was a limited use

of controlled excavations. In 1991, the cultural remains were analyzed by Far Western

Anthropological Research Group, Inc. Site SAC-43 was temporally dated with shell beads,

projectile points, and charmstones, to between 1700-500 B.P. (Simons 1995:248). Radiocarbon

dating indicates the site was first occupied earlier than the temporal artifacts suggest, falling

between 2350-600 B.P. Obsidian hydration measurements taken on Napa obsidian ranged

between 1.3 and 3.7 microns, relating to a wide range of dates, but a majority of the micron

readings correspond to a date range from 1500-500 B.P. It is clear that this site was occupied

from the late Middle Period into Phase I of the Late Period.

CA-SAC-65

SAC-65 is located on a large knoll along the south shore of Stone Lake, three km east of

the Sacramento River (Schulz et al. 1979). The California Department of Parks and Recreation

began excavations in the spring of 1974, revealing a limited amount of evidence regarding

subsistence activities. The project entailed 39 1.5x1.5 m excavation units removed in 10 cm

arbitrary levels, and screened through 1/8” mesh screens. The total volume of soil excavated equated 32.6 m3. The artifact assemblage, along with a radiocarbon date of 530±160 RCYBP,

obtained from bone collagen, indicates that this site was occupied during Late Period Phase I

(Schulz et al. 1979).

CA-SAC-145

The Stone Lake Site, SAC-145, is located on the south shore of the Stone Lakes one mile

northeast of SAC-65. Excavations were conducted in 1971 under the direction of William

Pritchard (Ritter 1972). This project involved the excavation of 33 1x1 m randomly selected

excavation units. Time constraints prevented a complete faunal analysis of all units; only 11 of

which were chosen for complete treatment. The total volume of soil excavated was

approximately 10 m3 (Schultz 1971:1). Soil studies determined the site was occupied between

1000-200 B.P. (Ritter 1972).

CA-SAC-329

SAC-329 is located on the northern tip of Andrus Island where the Sacramento River splits to create Georgiana Slough along the western side of the island and the Sacramento River along its eastern side of the island. The site was excavated by CSUS in 1975 as mitigation during a Sacramento River Bank protection project conducted by the Sacramento District Army Corps of

Engineers (Soule 1976:1; Zelazo 2013:58). For this project, eight 1x2 m units were excavated from 1-3 m in depth (Soule 1976). No volume of excavated soil is reported in the document.

Based on the prevalence of Stockton serrated, Desert side-notched, Gunther barbed, Cottonwood,

and Rose Spring series projectile points, along with M series Olivella shell beads (M1a, M2a,

M2b), Soule (1976) places the range of this site’s occupation between 1170-350 B.P.

Site Variability

The variability of sites in the Delta is explored first by comparing the habitat mosaics that

are present at each site under investigation. Next the presence of mammals, bird, and fish at all

the sites is discussed and compared. A discussion of the diversity of species for each site is

discussed in the site richness section. This is followed by a discussion of mammal, bird, and fish

remains at all the sites under investigation.

The NISP is available for four of the sites under investigation, but two sites, SAC-145 and SAC-329, only provide MNI values for the faunal assemblages. Although the MNI used for

SAC-145 and SAC-329 effectively reduces the sample size represented at both sites, these values are expected to provide an acceptable comparison since they are derived from NISP. The NISP and MNI percentages for mammal, bird, and fish are compared separately. This is followed by a discussion of the taxonomic diversity. All introduced species and Size I animals are excluded from this comparison.

Habitat Mosaics

Three separate habitat mosaics surround the six sites under investigation. Each habitat mosaic has freshwater marsh, riparian woodland, and riparian waterways in close proximity, and grassland habitats at various distances. The proportions of such habitats are discussed for three habitat mosaics, including any additional habitats present at the sites under investigation.

Zelazo (2013) found that the catchment area of SAC-329 during the Late Period was comprised of 86% freshwater marsh and 14% riparian woodland habitat. Site SAC-47 is in close proximity to SAC-329, sharing a similar habitat configuration. Both sites are a considerable distance from grassland microenvironments, approximately 20 km (Zelazo 2013:72).

Unlike all other sites compared, both SAC-65 and SAC-145 are located in close proximity to Stone Lake, a backwater lake dominated by lethic resident fish species. Habitats in the nearby vicinity include riparian woodlands and freshwater marsh. No accurate percentages regarding habitat distribution was available for this site. These sites are less than 10 km from grassland habitats.

At both SAC-42 and SAC-43, the site catchment is comprised of 75% freshwater marsh and 25% riparian woodland (Zelazo 2013:82). These sites have access to larger riparian woodlands, and are located less than 10 km from grassland habitats. Both sites would be expected to have slightly larger amounts of terrestrial fauna than all other sites compared.

Site Richness

The species diversity and richness of each site was listed, including all the animals that are attributable to a family level of identification (Table 7.1). Except for the low mammal

Table 7.1. Distribution of Taxonomic Richness at Delta Sites. SAC-42 SAC-43 SAC-47 SAC-65 SAC-145 SAC-329 Mammal 13 17 6 11 13 15 Avian 6 21 2 5 2 6 Fish 11 11 12 11 11 11

Total Richness 30 59 19 27 26 32

richness of SAC-47, mammal species were comparably represented at each site. Both SAC-47 and SAC-145 have a low richness of bird species. Sites SAC-42, SAC-65 and SAC-329 also have a low richness, only slightly higher than SAC-47 and SAC-145. Site SAC-43 though, had a high diversity of bird species, representing a fairly rich resource at this locale. The taxonomic richness of fish species was almost equal at every site compared. The only difference was the

proportions each fish species comprised. The identified specimens from each site are discussed

next.

Mammal Remains

Size II mammals represented 69.8% of the terrestrial fauna at SAC-47 and 51.8% at

SAC-65 (Table 7.2). At SAC-329, there is a large number of Size III mammals, such as

jackrabbit and cottontail, representing 41.5% of the fauna. At SAC-65, there is a large presence

of Size III mammals representing 19.6% of the fauna present. The proportions of terrestrial fauna

were very different at SAC-42 and SAC-43, which were dominated first by artiodactyls, and to a

lesser extent, carnivores. At SAC-42, artiodactyls comprised 77.2%, and carnivores comprised

17.6%. Nearby at SAC-43, artiodactyls were represented by 58.0%, and 27.1% carnivore

remains. At SAC-329, there was also a significant presence of carnivores, represented 22.0% of the terrestrial fauna.

Table 7.2. NISP and MNI Counts for Mammal Remains from Delta Sites. Taxon SAC-42 SAC-43 SAC-47 SAC-65 SAC-145 SAC-329 NISP % NISP % NISP % NISP % MNI % MNI % Cervus elaphus 61 16.8 84 9.7 3 6.9 3 5.4 1 2.0 6 14.6 Odocoileus hemionus 26 7.2 107 12.3 1 2.3 4 7.1 2 3.9 4 9.8 Antilocapra americana 26 7.2 68 7.8 1 2.3 - - 3 5.9 - - Artiodactyl 167 46.0 244 28.2 7 16.3 ------Carnivore 64 17.6 235 27.1 1 2.3 5 8.9 3 5.9 9 22.0 Size III Mammal - - 13 1.5 - - - - 1 2.0 4 9.8 Sylvilagus sp. 2 0.5 29 3.3 - - 4 7.1 1 2.0 5 12.2 Lepus californicus 2 0.5 34 3.9 - - 11 19.6 3 5.9 12 29.3 Size II Mammal 15 4.1 53 6.1 31 70.0 29 51.8 37 72.5 1 2.4

TOTAL 363 - 867 - 44 - 56 - 51 - 41 -

Richness 13 17 6 11 13 15

Avian Remains

When the avian fauna were compared, it was apparent that SAC-47 and SAC-65 have

very few avian remains (Table 7.3). At SAC-43 there was an array of bird species that

represented a large portion (42.0%) of all the animals species identified. At SAC-43 large

waterfowl represented 87.3% of the total avian remains. SAC-65 also had a more noticeable

presence of large waterfowl versus small waterfowl. This is in stark contrast to the paucity of

avian remains recovered from SAC-47.

Table 7.3. NISP and MNI Counts for Avian Remains from Delta Sites. Taxon SAC-42 SAC-43 SAC-47 SAC-65 SAC-145 SAC-329 NISP % NISP % NISP % NISP % MNI % MNI % Passeriformes 2 1 1 0.1 1 12.5 ------Large Waterfowl 26 13.5 1480 87.3 - - 21 95.5 3 12.0 8 57.1 Small Waterfowl 165 85.5 214 12.6 7 87.5 1 4.5 22 88.0 6 42.9

TOTAL 193 - 1695 - 8 - 22 - 25 - 14 -

Richness 6 21 2 5 2 6

Fish Remains

There is a large presence of fish remain at all the sites, however, the proportions of resident versus anadromous fish varies (Table 7.4). While resident fish were prevalent at all sites, there are discrepancies between the proportions of each species represented at each site. At SAC-

47, thicktail chub and Sacramento perch were identified in comparable numbers, collectively

representing 32.0% of the identified fish species. While thicktail chub represented the majority of

minnow remains identified at SAC-42, SAC-43, SAC-47, and SAC-329, there was a more even

distribution of minnow species at SAC-65.

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Table 7.4. NISP and MNI Counts for Fish Remains from Delta Sites. Taxon SAC-42 SAC-43 SAC-47 SAC-65 SAC-145 SAC-329 NISP % NISP % NISP % NISP % MNI % MNI % Acipenser sp. 20 1.0 98 2.6 60 24.0 54 15.4 1 0.0 13 0.8 Archoplites interruptus 1390 69.9 1077 28.8 39 15.6 240 68.6 1472 58.0 865 55.6 Catostomus occidentalis 286 14.4 284 7.6 3 1.2 9 2.6 91 3.6 103 6.6 Gila crassicauda 145 7.3 1188 31.7 41 16.4 23 6.6 286 11.3 221 14.2 Hesperoleucus symmetricus - - - - 1 0.4 ------Hysterocarpus traskii 20 1.0 15 0.4 6 2.4 1 0.3 24 0.9 13 0.8 Lavinia exilicauda 40 2 287 7.7 1 0.4 12 3.4 460 18.1 100 6.4 Mylopharodon 3 0.2 33 0.9 4 1.6 2 0.6 17 0.7 57 3.7 conocephalus Orthodon microlepidotus 41 2.1 433 11.6 3 1.2 5 1.4 29 1.1 50 3.2 Pogonichthys macrolepidotus 10 0.5 154 4.1 9 3.6 1 0.3 143 5.6 50 3.2 Ptychocheilus grandis 15 0.8 76 2.0 12 4.8 2 0.6 12 0.5 79 5.1 Salmonidae 19 1.0 96 2.6 71 28.4 1 0.3 2 0.1 4 0.3

TOTAL 1989 - 3741 - 250 - 350 - 2537 - 1555 -

Richness 11 11 12 11 11 11

When comparing the fish remains from all the sites under investigation, it is clear that

Sacramento perch is the dominant species at every site except SAC-47. SAC-47 had a large

presence of Sacramento perch, (15.4% of the fish NISP), but both Salmonidae and sturgeon

specimens comprised 52.4% of the total sample. The only other site with a significant presence

of anadromous fish is 15.4% at SAC-65. All other sites had less than 5.0% anadromous fish

represented in their reported NISP. A larger representation of anadromous fish was expected at

the sites along faster-moving waterways, but according to Broughton (1988), salmon were not

accessible from the fast-moving water of the Sacramento River.

A large number of Sacramento sucker were identified in the faunal assemblages of SAC-

42, SAC-43, SAC-65, SAC-145, and SAC-329. Sacramento sucker live in a broad array of aquatic habitats, so their presence at all Delta sites is to be expected. There were very few

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identifiable Sacramento sucker remains at SAC-47. This species was likely underrepresented at

SAC-47 due to the difficulties related to identification.

Plant Remains

Only three species of plant materials were identified at SAC-47, including several pieces

of black walnut shell (Juglans californica), grape seeds (Vitis californica), and a peculiar piece of

baked clay with a positive mold and negative imprint of acorn nutshell. There were several small

and large seeds, and fragments of what appear to be acorn shell, but they were too small to

accurately identify. Only two sites, SAC-43 and SAC-329, provide plant remains for

comparison. At SAC-47 and SAC-329, the most prevalent plant remains were black walnut shell.

At SAC-43, there was a much larger diversity of plant remains, including acorn, but no black

walnut or grape seed was present.

Summary of Comparisons

This comparison revealed several patterns between the six sites reviewed. Faunal

assemblages were comparable at sites located in close proximity to each other, with some notable

exceptions. There is a greater representation of anadromous fish remains, and a paucity of avian

remains at SAC-47, but the terrestrial remains recovered from SAC-47 are comparable to those found at SAC-65, SAC-145, and SAC-329. Unlike the sites in the southern part of the study area,

SAC-42 and SAC-43 had a large presence of terrestrial remains, specifically the remains of artiodactyls and carnivores, but resident fish still comprised a majority of the faunal remains recovered from SAC-42. To further explore the comparison to other sites, the resource selectivity employed at SAC-47 is discussed.

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Resource Selectivity

Selection preferences, prey selection, and resource selectivity are all terms for the choices foragers make when several food choices are available. The faunal and botanical remains identified at various sites reviewed in this investigation represent neither one forager nor a group of foragers from a specific time, but instead many foragers over several hundred years: a

“collective predator” (Broughton 1994a:374). The collective predator hunts, fishes, and forages from a resource patch or catchment area (Broughton 1994a). The diet composition represents a

wide diet breadth which is guided by seasonal availability within this catchment area, but the

decisions regarding which resources to procure at any given time is the manifestation of optimal

foraging strategies (Bouey 1995; Kelly 1995). Hunting and fishing strategies which maximize

the caloric intake are expected to prevail. This prey choice model suggests that animals of high

caloric value are considered highly-ranked and sought after relative to lower-ranked resources

(Kelly 1995). Is that always the case?

According to Broughton (1988), the fishing technologies employed by the Delta inhabitants precluded their procurement of anadromous fish from the fast-moving water of the

Sacramento River. Anadromous fish remains were scarce at all the sites reviewed by Broughton

(1988), including SAC-145 and SAC-329. By contrast, SAC-47 had a large number of anadromous fish, representing 52.4% of the total NISP.

Resident fish were also prevalent at SAC-47, SAC-65, SAC-145, and SAC-329. Why did the inhabitants of Delta sites procure small size animals and resident fish? Optimal foraging models suggest that there would be an increased handling cost for small animals (Broughton

1994a; Kelly 1995). Researchers using the prey choice model often assume that each prey item is taken individually, not considering the processing and handling time involved for each individual

(Broughton 1994a:374). Although foraging models suggest prey selection is based on size, the

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encounter rate for each resource also has a significant impact on the rate of returns (Broughton

1994a; Kelly 1995). Also, many small animals were processed quickly by pulverizing or cooking whole (Bennyhoff 1977; Levy 1978).

Moyle (2002:254) explains that Chinook salmon commonly stray from their natal waterways, venturing into smaller waterways. Sturgeons also venture through small waterways when they migrate to their spawning grounds (Moyle 2002:108). At SAC-47, the encounter rate of anadromous fish was likely dependent on their seasonal abundances. At SAC-47, there is a small slough which once flowed through the property. This narrow waterway may have made it possible to catch anadromous fish alongside resident fish. The primary fishing technology in the

Delta was the throwing net, which could be thrown and pulled back ashore, collectively harvesting whatever fish were present. Ugan (2005) found that mass harvest techniques provided far more calories than procuring resources individually. He found that most large animals provided between 15,000-25,000 calories, when taken individually, but many factors may affect a successful hunt, including weather conditions and the abundance of such resources (Ugan

2005:77). Surprisingly, Ugan (2005) found that many animals considered low-ranked resources such as insects, small mammals, and fish actually provided large caloric returns if harvested en masse. These caloric returns ranged from 3700-36,000 caloric returns, for one hour of harvesting time (Ugan 2005). Encounter rates affect the productivity of such a method, but even a low rate of encounter provides a substantial return.

Summary

All sites compared were occupied at comparable time periods within the ethnographic boundaries of the Plains Miwok. Each site had various configurations of habitats, but all were dominated by freshwater marsh. Some sites showed a significant presence of terrestrial and avian

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fauna, but the underlying theme presented here was the prevalence of resident fish at Delta sites, and the large presence of anadromous fish at SAC-47. These findings are summarized in the following chapter.

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Chapter 8

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

The study of SAC-47 was authorized by the landowner of the Locke Ranch, Clarence

Chu, in an effort to preserve archaeological resources present on his property. There were two goals of the excavation. The first goal was to determine whether archaeological deposits exist off-site, at the locations where barns once stood, in Phase I excavations. No off-site excavation units contained significant archaeological deposits, but monitoring during any construction activities is recommended. The second goal of this investigation was to delineate the site boundaries of SAC-47 by Phase II excavation. Several productive excavation units were present, and the furthest extent of the entire deposit was determined by sterile excavation units along the periphery of the site. After the landowner was informed about the extent of the archaeological deposit, he decided to avoid the northern portion of his ranch during any ground disturbance activities.

During the course of this investigation, lasting approximately two years, the detrimental effects of overgrazing by goats and sheep became apparent throughout SAC-47. The effects of overgrazing resulted in a barren ground surface vulnerable to erosion. Once the herd of goats and sheep could no longer find above-ground plants, they began rooting below surface for food. It is recommended that grazing animals only be allowed to browse for short durations to avoid ground erosion and other impacts.

Data generated through excavation fulfilled two objectives for the archaeological investigation. The first objective was to obtain faunal remains and artifacts that could be used to glean evidence of subsistence activities. The second objective was to compare the results of

SAC-47 to that of other Delta sites, to determine how site variability affects the contents of an archaeological deposit.

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Traditionally, archaeologists have emphasized ethnographic accounts which purport the importance of acorn and salmon to prehistoric populations in the Central Valley of California.

According to Broughton (1988), salmon was not procured in the Delta due to technological limitations. Schulz (1995) suggests that the fragility of salmon remains and the methods of processing may have precluded their recovery archaeologically. Acorn may be underrepresented due to their method of disposal, or the simple fact that plant preservation is poor in the wet Delta.

Results indicate the faunal and artifact assemblages found at SAC-47 reflect subsistence strategies which target low-ranked resident fish and high-ranked anadromous fish. Fish represented a large portion of the total fauna recovered. Resident fish, especially Sacramento perch and thicktail chub, contributed 26.5% of the total identified fauna recovered from SAC-47.

Anadromous fish such as sturgeon and species belonging to the Salmonidae family, contributed

43.5% of the total fauna recovered from SAC-47.

Size II mammals also had a significant presence at SAC-47, representing 10.3% of the total identified fauna from SAC-47. This evidence indicates that mass harvesting was the prominent subsistence strategy employed at this locale. This site was likely a fishing camp for the most part, but small animals were caught when encountered. Other subsistence activities were engaged at this locale, evident by the presence of lithic tools, ground stone, along with the remains of plants, artiodactyls, and waterfowl, but from the faunal remains it is evident that these subsistence strategies played a subsidiary role compared to the procurement of fish.

This investigation is unique in that very little data related to subsistence exists, and new research is not forthcoming. Few site reports conducted on sites in the Delta generate such faunal evidence, marking this investigation as the only one of its kind in over 20 years. The data provided in this investigation can be used for future research and statistical analysis, providing a valuable direct measure of subsistence activities in the Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta region.

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Appendix A

OBSIDIAN HYDRATION

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Origer’s Obsidian Laboratory P.O. Box 1531 Rohnert Park, California 94927 (707) 584-8200, Fax 584-8300 [email protected] January 20, 2016

Dear Mr. Cairns:

I write to report the results of obsidian hydration band analysis of thirty specimens from site CA-SAC-47. This work was completed as requested in your letter dated December 27, 2015.

Procedures typically used by our lab for preparation of thin sections and measurement of hydration bands are described here. Specimens are examined to find two or more surfaces that will yield edges that will be perpendicular to the microslides when preparation of each thin section is done. Generally, two parallel cuts are made at an appropriate location along the edge of each specimen with a four-inch diameter circular saw blade mounted on a lapidary trimsaw. The cuts result in the isolation of small samples with a thickness of about one millimeter. The samples are removed from the specimens and mounted with Lakeside Cement onto etched glass micro-slides.

The thickness of each sample was reduced by manual grinding with a slurry of #600 silicon carbide abrasive on plate glass. Grinding was completed in two steps. The first grinding is stopped when each sample's thickness is reduced by approximately one-half. This eliminates micro-flake scars created by the saw blade during the cutting process. Each slide is then reheated, which liquefies the Lakeside Cement, and the samples are inverted. The newly exposed surfaces are then ground until proper thickness is attained.

Correct thin section thickness is determined by the "touch" technique. A finger is rubbed across the slide, onto the sample, and the difference (sample thickness) is "felt." The second technique used to arrive at proper thin section thickness is the "transparency" test where the micro-slide is held up to a strong source of light and the translucency of each sample is observed. The samples are reduced enough when it readily allows the passage of light. A cover glass is affixed over each sample when grinding is completed. The slides and paperwork are on file at Origer's Obsidian Lab under File No. OOL-961.

The hydration bands were measured with a strainfree 60-power objective and a Bausch and Lomb 12.5- power filar micrometer eyepiece mounted on a Nikon Labophot-Pol polarizing microscope. Hydration band measurements have a range of +/- 0.2 microns due to normal equipment limitations. Six measurements are taken at several locations along the edge of each thin section, and the mean of the measurements is calculated and listed on the enclosed data page.

Each specimen was "sourced" based on macro and microscopic attributes. Results concluded that one specimen (Lab No. 10) derived from Annadel, while the remaining 29 specimens derived from Napa Glass Mountain.

Five specimens failed to yield normal hydration band measurements. Two specimens (Lab Nos. 3 and 18) were marked with variable width (VW) and had weathered surfaces. Two specimens (Lab Nos. 15 and 26) were marked with diffused hydration (DH) and had weathered surfaces.

One specimen (Lab No. 22) was marked by weathered surfaces and had two hydration bands. The first band was marked with diffused hydration (DH) and the second band had a crack which measured 4.9 microns. Multiple bands can be the result of deliberate reworking or accidental breaking of a specimen. The remaining 25 specimens yielded normal hydration band measurements.

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We calculated dates by determining the rates of hydration through comparison of the subject obsidian to an obsidian with a well-established hydration rate. Effective hydration temperatures are also taken into account. The steps we follow allow us to essentially convert the subject specimens’ hydration band widths to their control source equivalency. We establish what we term “comparison constants.” This is done in most cases by using data from laboratory induced hydration, which we completed earlier in 2015.

Next, effective hydration temperatures (EHT) differences are taken into account between the control source’s EHT and the subject specimens’ EHT. EHT values are calculated using temperature data from the website, www.wrcc.dri.edu/summary/climsmut.htm and following steps outlined by Rogers (2007). We are able to adjust the subject specimens’ hydration band measurements and use them in the standard diffuse formula (Time = kx²) to arrive at dates. “K” is the hydration rate constant and “x” is the hydration band measurement.

In this case, one specimen derived from Annadel and was compared to the induced hydration data from Napa Glass Mountain, the control source for which a good hydration rate has been determined (see Origer 1987). Hydration rate adjustments are shown on the following table using Tremaine (1989).

The EHT of the control obsidian source (Napa Glass Mountain) is 16.6 degrees. EHT values were calculated from five weather stations near the site location (Vacaville, Antioch Pump P., Davis 1 WSW, Sacramento Arpt, and Lodi). From those EHT values we estimate that the site has an EHT value of 19.0. This means that obsidian hydrated more quickly than the same sources of obsidian would have at the cooler control locality. This EHT value is used to make adjustments to take into account the affect that temperature had on hydration development on the specimens (see Basgall 1990; Origer 1989).

After making all the necessary adjustments, dates are calculated from the hydration band measurements using the diffusion formula: T = kx² where: T = time in years before present k = hydration rate constant (153.4) for the control source (Napa Glass Mountain obsidian) x = hydration band measurement in microns The following table shows dates derived after making required hydration band measurement adjustments for differences in hydration rate and EHT.

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Hydration Lab # Hydration Band Rate Adjusted EHT Adjusted Date (in years (in microns) Hydration Band Hydration Band before present) 1 2.8 2.4 884 2 1.1 0.9 124 3 VW - - 4 3.9 3.4 1773 5 3.9 3.4 1773 6 2.0 1.7 443 7 2.3 2.0 614 8 3.1 2.6 1037 9 2.4 2.1 676 10 2.9 3.8 3.3 1671 11 2.5 2.1 676 12 3.5 3.0 1380 13 2.6 2.2 742 14 3.5 3.0 1380 15 DH - - 16 2.8 2.4 884 17 2.7 2.3 811 18 VW - - 19 2.5 2.1 676 20 3.2 2.8 1202 21 3.2 2.8 1202 22.1 DH - - 22.2 4.9 4.2 2705 23 3.2 2.8 1203 24 3.0 2.5 959 25 2.6 2.2 742 26 DH - - 27 2.7 2.3 811 28 2.7 2.3 811 29 3.0 2.6 1037 30 3.2 2.8 1202

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Origer’s Obsidian Laboratory P.O. Box 1531 Rohnert Park, California 94927 (707) 584-8200, Fax 584-8300 [email protected] March 28, 2016

Dear Justin:

I write to report the results of obsidian hydration band analysis of 29 specimens from site CA-SAC-47. Procedures typically used by our lab for preparation of thin sections and measurement of hydration bands are described here. Specimens are examined to find two or more surfaces that will yield edges that will be perpendicular to the microslides when preparation of each thin section is done. Generally, two parallel cuts are made at an appropriate location along the edge of each specimen with a four-inch diameter circular saw blade mounted on a lapidary trimsaw. The cuts result in the isolation of small samples with a thickness of about one millimeter. The samples are removed from the specimens and mounted with Lakeside Cement onto etched glass micro-slides.

Each specimen was "sourced" based on macro and microscopic attributes. The results are that one specimen (Lab No. 11) derived from Annadel, one (lab No. 19) is not able to be assigned to a source because it appears burned, and the remaining 27 specimens appear to have derived from Napa Glass Mountain.

Seven specimens failed to yield normal hydration band measurements. Five specimens (Lab Nos. 1, 5, 11, 19 and 27) were marked with diffuse hydration (DH) and two specimens (Lab Nos. 8 and 25) had no visible hydration bands (NVB). The remaining 22 specimens yielded normal hydration band measurements.

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After making all the necessary adjustments, dates are calculated from the hydration band measurements using the diffusion formula: T = kx² where: T = time in years before present k = hydration rate constant (153.4) for the control source (Napa Glass Mountain obsidian) x = hydration band measurement in micron The following table shows dates derived after making required hydration band measurement adjustments for differences in hydration rate and EHT.

Hydration band adjustments and dates ¹ The hydration band adjustment is 6% per degree difference between the site EHT value and the "source- rate" EHT value Please don’t hesitate to contact me if you have questions regarding this hydration work.

Sincerely,

Thomas M. Origer Director

References

Basgall, M 1990 Hydration Dating of Coso Obsidian: Problems and Prospects. Paper presented at the 24th annual meeting of the Society for California Archaeology, Foster City, California.

Origer, T. 1987 Temporal Control in the Southern North Coast Ranges of California: The Application of Obsidian Hydration Analysis. Papers in Northern California Anthropology, Number 1. Berkeley.

1989 Hydration Analysis of Obsidian Flakes Produced by Ishi During the Historic Period. Current Directions in California Obsidian Studies. Contributions of the University of California Archaeological Research Facility. Number 48. Berkeley, California.

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Rogers, A. 2007 Effective hydration temperature of obsidian: a diffusion theory analysis of time-dependent hydration rates. Journal of Archaeological Science 34:656-665.

Tremaine, K. 1989 Obsidian as a Time Keeper: An Investigation in Absolute and Relative Dating. Unpublished masters thesis in Cultural resources management, Department of Anthropology, Sonoma State University, Rohnert Park.

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Hydration Lab # Hydration Band Rate Adjusted EHT Adjusted Date (in years (in microns) Hydration Band Hydration Band before present) 1 DH - - 2 3.6 3.1 1474 3 3.8 3.3 1671 4 3.6 3.1 1474 5 DH - - 6 3.3 2.9 1290 7 3.0 2.6 1037 8 NVB - - 9 2.6 2.2 742 10 2.6 2.2 742 11 DH - - 12 3.2 2.8 1203 13 2.8 2.4 14 3.2 2.8 1203 15 3.3 2.9 1290 16 3.1 2.7 1118 17 2.6 2.2 742 18 2.7 2.3 811 19 DH - - 20 2.9 2.5 959 21 3.2 2.8 1203 22 2.5 2.2 742 23 3.7 3.2 1571 24 3.8 3.3 1671 25 NVB - - 26 2.7 2.3 811 27 DH - - 28 3.5 3.0 1381 29 3.6 3.1 1474

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Appendix B

CA-SAC-47 TEST UNITS

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Phase Site Unit North East Soil Excavated (m3) I SAC-75 WB 1 4235390 10630755 0.9

I SAC-75 WB 2 4235360 10630720 0.8 I SAC-75 WB 3 4235330 10630720 0.7 I SAC-75 WB 4 4235390 10630720 0.7 I SAC-75 WB 5 4235405 10630720 0.7 I SAC-75 WB 6 4235420 10630720 0.7 I SAC-75 WB 7 4235390 10630690 0.7 II SAC-47 1 4235517 10630645 0.4 II SAC-47 2 4235512 10630659 0.4 II SAC-47 3 4235510 10630674 0.25 II SAC-47 4 4235557 10630616 0.25 II SAC-47 5 4235557 10630644 0.25 II SAC-47 6 4235556 10630675 0.4 II SAC-47 7 4235556 10630706 0.4 II SAC-47 8 4235602 10630620 0.25 II SAC-47 9 4235601 10630649 0.25 II SAC-47 10 4235599 10630679 0.4 II SAC-47 11 4235599 10630710 0.25 II SAC-47 12 4235650 10630621 0.25 II SAC-47 13 4235649 10630650 0.25 II SAC-47 14 4235647 10630680 0.25 II SAC-47 A 4235599 10630725 0.25 II SAC-47 B 4235556 10630720 0.25 III SAC-75 RB 1 4235450 10630625 0.5 III SAC-75 RB 2 4235450 10630641 0.5 III SAC-75 RB 3 4235450 10630656 0.5 III SAC-75 RB 4 4235450 10630671 0.5 III SAC-75 RB 5 4235435 10630625 0.5 III SAC-75 RB 6 4235435 10630640 0.5 III SAC-75 RB 7 4235435 10630657 0.5 III SAC-75 RB 8 4235435 10630670 0.5 III SAC-75 RB 9 4235420 10630625 0.5

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