Sedimentology, Facies and Diagenesis of Warm-Temperate Carbonates on a Tectonically Structured Island Shelf: Key Studies from Rhodes, Greece

Sedimentology, facies and diagenesis of warm-temperate carbonates on a tectonically structured island shelf: key studies from Rhodes, Greece

Den Naturwissenschaftlichen Fakultäten der Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg zur Erlangung des Doktorgrades

vorgelegt von Jürgen Paul Herbert Titschack aus Darmstadt Als Dissertation genehmigt von den Naturwissen- schaftlichen Fakultäten der Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg

Tag der mündlichen Prüfung: 3.11.2006

Vorsitzender der Promotionskommission: Prof. Dr. D.-P. Häder

Erstberichterstatter: Prof. Dr. A. Freiwald

Zweitberichterstatter: Prof. Dr. W. Buggisch

Drittberichterstatter: Prof. Dr. T. Brachert To my father

Zusammenfassung Rezente und fossile Kaltwasserkarbonate, besonders von off enen Schelfen, repräsentieren ein zentrales Forschungsgebiet während der letzten Jahrzehnte. Im Gegensatz dazu sind Untersuchungen von tektonisch aktiven Gebieten mit einem rapide veränderlichen Relief bis heute selten. Die vorliegende Doktorarbeit umfaßt drei Fallstudien verschiedener Ablagerungsräume: (1) gebunden an submarine Steilwände, (2) gebunden an submarine Höhen und (3) subaerische Ablagerungsräume. Ziel war es, einen detaillierten Einblick in die Faziesvariabilität, die sedimentären Prozesse und die kontrollierenden Parameter dieser sedimentären Systeme zu geben. Bedingt durch die Variabilität der untersuchten Ablagerungsräume und der Fazies mußte eine angepaßte Methodik für jede Fallstudie verwendet werden. Die plio-pleistozänen warm-temperierten Karbonate von Rhodos wurden in einer tektonisch aktiven Region nahe dem hellenischen Bogen, an dem die afrikanische unter die europäische Platte subduziert wird, abgelagert. Diese tektonisch dynamische Umgebung beeinfl ußte die stratigraphische, topographische und sedimentologische Geschichte der Insel. Dies spiegelt sich ebenfalls in dem stark strukturierten Inselschelf mit einem steilen Paläorelief wider, das durch die NW-SE verlaufenden Mikrograbensysteme hervorgerufen wird. Die plio-pleistozäne Stratigraphie beschreibt einen übergeordneten Transgressions-Regressions-Zyklus, der während der maximalen Überfl utung bathyale Tiefen im frühen Pleistozän erreichte. Der regressive Halbzyklus dauert bis heute an. Dieser Zyklus ist in Mittel- und Kleinzyklen unterteilt, die tektonische Veränderungen oder glazial-interglaziale M eeresspiegelschwankungen widerspiegeln. Ablagerungen auf dem tektonisch strukturierten Schelf von Rhodos bildeten sich entlang submariner Steilwände, auf submarinen Höhen sowie unter subaerischen Bedingungen entlang der Küste. Sedimentäre Systeme gebunden an submarine Steilwände (Fallstudie 1) wurden entlang einer Steilwand nahe Lindos, östliches Rhodos, untersucht. Der Aufschluß weist Ablagerungssysteme auf, die in Mikrogräben, am Fuß von Steilwänden und in Spalten sowie Vertiefungen im Untergrund auft reten. Karbonatproduktionsstätten waren an den submarinen Steilwänden entwickelt, die Substrat zur Besiedlung bereitstellten. Die gebildeten Karbonate unterlagen einer wiederkehrenden Umlagerung. Die ausgebildeten Sedimenttransportprozesse hingen hauptsächlich von dem Gefälle und der Verfügbarkeit von feinem Matrixsediment ab. Als Umlagerungsprozesse konnten ‘rock falls’, ‘debris falls’, ‘grain fl ows’ und ‘debris fl ows’ unterschieden werden. Autochthone Karbonatproduktionsstätten herrschten auf submarinen Hochs vor. Das untersuchte warm-temperierte Rotalgenriff vom ‘Coralligène-Typ’ und der überlagernde Maerl von Plimiri (Fallstudie 2), südöstliches Rhodos, konnten mit der Elektronen-Spin-Resonanz Methode datiert werden. Die Alter des primären Aragonites und neomorphen Kalzitsparites der Muschel Spondylus gaederopus, unterstützt durch die Untersuchung der stabilen Sauerstoff - und Kohlenstoffi sotope dieser Muschel, erlaubten die Korrelation der beobachteten Kleinzyklen mit spätpleistozänen Meeresspiegelschwankungen (Marines Isotopenstadium (MIS) 5 – 1). Des weiteren konnte ein Intervall meteorischer Diagenese zeitlich dem MIS 4 zugeordnet werden. Im subaerischen Ablagerungsraum entwickelten sich unter anderem äolische Systeme entlang der Küste. Der untersuchte Äolianit nahe Kattavia (Fallstudie 3), südwestliches Rhodos, weist eine fl ache, schichtförmige Morphologie auf. Er ist in drei äolische Sequenzen durch ‘super (bounding) surfaces’ unterteilt, die als Bodenhorizonte ausgebildet sind. Das Auft reten von Ooiden, als häufi ger Sedimentbestandteil, wird als wichtige Beobachtung für die Paläoumwelt- und stratigraphische Interpretation der Ablagerungen genutzt. Das Ooidvorkommen bei Kattavia stellt sowohl eines der nördlichsten Ooidvorkommen im Quartär dar, als auch im gesamten Phanerozoikum und legt subtropische bis tropische Bedingungen während der Ooidbildung nahe. Folglich wird eine interglaziale Bildung der Ooide und anschließende glaziale Bildung der Äolianite angenommen, da durch die glaziale Meeresspiegelabsenkung die Ooide zu diesem Zeitpunkt für einen äolischen Transport zur Verfügung standen. Das Vorkommen von Ooiden in allen äolischen Sequenzen deutet auf mehrere Bildungsphasen (während Warmzeiten) hin. Alle untersuchten Ablagerungssysteme weisen eine starke Beeinfl ussung durch das Paläorelief auf. Das Relief des Untergrundes kontrollierte wo, wie, wieviel und wie schnell Sediment abgelagert wurde. Hierbei wurde der Akkommodationsraum der Ablagerungssysteme entlang submariner Steilwände eher durch die Hangneigung der Ablagerungen als durch den Meeresspiegel bestimmt. Dagegen VI Zusammenfassung wurde der Akkommodationsraum sedimentärer Systeme auf submarinen Höhen durch Meeresspiege lschwankungen und in subaerisch äolischen Systemen durch das Klima kontrolliert. Folglich sollte in sedimentären Systemen auf strukturierten Schelfen die bathymetrische Position und das sedimentäre Milieu berücksichtigt werden. Das komplexe Paläorelief des Untergrundes stellte Substrat und diverse ökologische Nischen zur Verfügung, in denen sich hochdiverse warm-temperierte Biozönosen (Biodetritus Assoziationen) bilden konnten, was sich auch in der hohen Faziesvariabilität widerspiegelt. Bedingt durch die laterale Diskontinuität der Sedimente war die Integration mehrerer Aufschlüsse für die Rekonstruktion der stratigraphischen Entwicklung notwendig. Das Fehlen tropischer Faunenelemente in den marinen plio-pleistozänen Ablagerungen von Rhodos ist überraschend, wenn man das Vorkommen der spätpleistozänen ooid-führenden Äolianite in Betracht zieht, die, wenn auch nur zeitweise, subtropische bis tropische Verhältnisse nahe legen. Am wahrscheinlichsten ist, daß die Einwanderung tropischer Faunenelemente zum einen durch die spezifi schen paläogeographischen Konfi gurationen des Mittelmeeres und zum anderen durch die permanent warm- temperierten Verhältnisse im westlichen Mittelmeer und angrenzenden Atlantik verhindert wurde. Eine Beobachtung, die man bei der Interpretation sedimentärer Systeme in Randmeeren, sowohl heute als auch im Fossilen, berücksichtigen sollte. Summary Cool-water carbonates in modern as well as ancient environments, especially from open shelf settings, have become a central topic of research during the last decades. Studies from tectonically active regions, which are strongly infl uenced by a rapidly changing relief are rare today. Within this PhD thesis three key studies were selected from Plio-Pleistocene warm-temperate deposits from the island of Rhodes in diff erent palaeoenvironmental settings: (1) submarine cliff related, (2) submarine high related and (3) subaerial environments, so that a detailed insight into the facies variability, sedimentary processes and controlling parameters of sedimentary setting on highly structured island shelves could be given. Due to the variability of the studied palaeoenvironments and facies each key study requested an adapted method. Th e Plio-Pleistocene warm-temperate carbonates of Rhodes were deposited in a tectonically active region in the vicinity of the Hellenic Arc, where the African plate is progressively subducted underneath the European plate. Th us, the stratigraphic, topographic and depositional history of Rhodes is largely aff ected by the dynamic tectonic setting. Th is is also refl ected in the highly structured island shelf with a steep palaeorelief accentuated by NW-SE oriented micrograben systems. Th e Plio-Pleistocene stratigraphy records a large-scale transgressive-regressive cycle with maximal fl ooding conditions reaching bathyal depth during the early Pleistocene. Th e regressive hemicycle lasts until today. Th is cycle is subdivided into medium- and small-scale cycles refl ecting tectonic changes or glacial-interglacial sea-level fl uctuations. Deposition on the tectonically structured shelf of Rhodes took place along submarine cliff faces, on submarine highs and under subaerial conditions along the coast. Sedimentary systems related to submarine cliff faces (key study 1) were studied along a basement rock cliff close to Lindos, eastern Rhodes. Th e outcrop exhibits depositional systems, which are related to micrograbens, to the foot of steep cliff s, to neptunian dykes and depressions in the basement rocks. Carbonate factories developed on the fl anks, which provided substrates for organism settlement, and underwent frequent redeposition. Redepositional events were most likely caused by earthquakes. Th e process of redeposition depended predominantly on the slope angle and the availability of fi ne matrix sediment. Redeposition via rock falls, debris falls, grain fl ows and debris fl ows are distinguished. On the top of submarine highs autochthonous carbonate factories prevailed. Th e herein studied warm- temperate coralligène-type red algal reef and succeeding maerl from Plimiri (key study 2), southeastern Rhodes, could be dated with the Electron Spin Resonance (ESR) method. Th e ages of the primary aragonite and neomorphic calcite spar of the bivalve Spondylus gaederopus, as well as oxygen and carbon stable isotope analyses of this bivalve, allowed the correlation of the identifi ed small-scale sedimentary cycles to Late Pleistocene sea-level fl uctuations (Marine Isotope Stage (MIS) 5 – 1). Furthermore, an interval of meteoric diagenesis could be assigned to MIS 4. In the subaerial environment, coastal aeolian systems developed commonly. Th e herein studied aeolianite close to Kattavia (key study 3), southwestern Rhodes, exhibits a low-angle sheet-like morphology. It is diff erentiated into three aeolian sequences bound by super (bounding) surfaces. Th e super surfaces are developed as soil horizons. Th e occurrence of ooids as dominant sediment constituent in all three sequences is used as important hint for the palaeoenvironmental and stratigraphic interpretation of the deposits. Th e ooids from the Kattavia aeoliante represent one of the northern-most ooid occurrences in the Quaternary, as well as in the Phanerozoic and suggest subtropical to tropical conditions during their formation. Th erefore, an interglacial ooid formation and subsequent glacial aeolianite formation, when the ooids were available for aeolian transport due to the glacial lowering of the sea level, is suggested. Th e ooid occurrence in all aeolianite sequences suggests several phases (interglacials) favourable for their formation. All studied depositional systems exhibit a strong infl uence by the palaeorelief. Th e basement rock relief controlled where, how, how much and how fast sediment was deposited. Th ereby, the accommodation space of sedimentary systems related to submarine cliff faces was rather controlled by the slope angle of the deposits than by sea level. In contrast, the accommodation space of sedimentary systems on submarine highs was controlled by sea-level fl uctuations and by climate for the subaerial aeolian sedimentary setting. Hence, the bathymetric position and sedimentary environment should be considered in sedimentary systems on structured shelves. VIII Summary

Th e complex palaeorelief of the basement rocks provided substrates and diverse ecological niches for manifold warm-temperate biocoenoses (skeletal associations). Consequently, the Plio-Pleistocene deposits show a high facies variability. Due to their lateral discontinuity, the integration of several outcrops was needed to reconstruct the stratigraphy. Th e absence of tropical faunal elements in the marine Plio-Pleistocene deposits of Rhodes is surprising if taking into account the presence of Late Pleistocene ooid-bearing aeolian deposits on the island, suggesting frequent tropical conditions during this interval. Most likely, the specifi c palaeogeographic confi guration of the Mediterranean Basin and the permanent warm-temperate climatic conditions in the western Mediterranean Basin and adjacent Atlantic hindered the invasion of tropical elements. An observation, which should be kept in mind when studying sedimentary systems in marginal seas, today as well as in the fossil record. “… when Zeus and the immortals made division of the lands of earth, not yet to see was Rhodes, shining upon the waves of sea, but the isle lay hidden deep within the salt sea’s folds. But for Helios no lot was drawn; for he was absent, and they left him of broad earth no heritage, that holy god. And when he made known his mischance, Zeus was in mind to portion out the lots again; but he allowed him not, for he said that beneath the surge of sea his eyes had seen a land growing out of the depths, blessed with rich nourishment for men and happy with teeming fl ocks. … And there grew up from the watery wave this island (Rhodes), and great Helios who begets the fi erce rays of the sun, holds her in his dominion, that ruler of the horses breathing fi re.”

(Pindar, 522 – 443 BC, Odes Olympian 7 ep3-ep4; http://theoi.com/Titan/Helios.html#Rhodes)

Preface It is not possible to do science on Rhodes without being impressed by its wealth of cultural history. Th e myth of the genesis of the island of Rhodes, refl ecting the Pleistocene geological evolution of the island, highlights the observational capabilities of the ancient Greeks and their search for explanation. Th e long scientifi c tradition of the Greek people can also be recognised on Rhodes by the presence of one of the seven sages of the antique period, Colobulus (600 to 500 BC; ruler of Lindos), the construction of the Colossus of Rhodes in Rhodes town, the sixth wonder of the world (about 290 BC), as well as the lodging of one of the fi rst astronoms, Hipparchus (190 - 120 BC), who, as fi rst, observed the precession of the equinoxes, calculated the duration of a year (accuracy within 6.5 minutes), and provided one of the fi rst calculations of the earth circumference (approximately 32 148 km; http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/ history/Mathematicians/Hipparchus.html).

Th is PhD thesis deals with the geological evolution of a slender island shelf in a cool-water to transitional tropical environment with the example of the Plio-Pleistocene deposits of Rhodes, Greece. Hereby, the focus was set on the integration of diff erent methodologies, such as microfacies, geochemistry and palaeontology. Following a brief introduction, this thesis presents chapters introducing into the peculiarities of cool-water carbonates (chapter 2) and the regional geology of Rhodes (chapter 3). Th e main part constitutes three key studies covering linked depositional systems: (a) steep submarine cliff faces (chapter 4); (b) submarine highs (chapter 5); and (c) subaerial coastal plains (chapter 6). Th e diversity of the studied depositional sites demanded an adapted methodology for each studied site. Th e key study chapters include discussion and conclusions and can therefore be read independently. Finally, the obtained results are discussed and general conclusions for the studied depositional systems are drawn.

Acknowledgements I am very grateful to all my co-authors for their contributions to the various manuscripts and in particular to André Freiwald who initiated and supervised this thesis. My work benefi ted from his company in the fi eld, his expertise in cool-water carbonates, their biology, sedimentology and diagenesis. André Freiwald and Werner Buggisch are kindly acknowledged for taking the responsibility as referees. Richard G. Bromley, Ulla Asgaard, Kim Hansen, Jesper Milan (all Copenhagen University), Campell S. Nelson (University of Waikato), John Miller (University of Edinburgh), John Wilson (Royal Holloway University of London), Gerhard Schmiedl (University Leipzig), as well as Tim Beck, Daniel Jansen, Nina Joseph, Steff en List and Agostina Vertino (all University of Erlangen-Nuremberg) are gratefully acknowledged for their stimulating company in the fi eld and their logistic support. Especially Richard G. Bromley is warmly thanked for introducing me to the Plio-Pleistocene geology of Rhodes and the study of trace fossils, as well as for helping to improve my English. In this regard, I would also like to emphasise my gratitude towards Campell S. Nelson. Our discussions on cool-water carbonate environments, modern and fossil, gave me inspiring new ideas. Furthermore, I am grateful to Marco Brandano (Univerity Rome) and Michael Rasser (Staatliches Museum für Naturkunde Stuttgart) for the identifi cation of red algae, a diffi cult task where specialists are needed, as well as Christoph Hemleben (University of Tübingen) and Gerhard Schmiedl for the identifi cation of foraminifers in thin sections. Tim Beck and Wolfgang Rähle are kindly acknowledged for the taxonomic identifi cation of marine molluscs and land snails, respectively. Ulrich Radtke (Cologne University) is warmly thanked for the Electron Spin Resonance dating of the bivalve shells and the inspiring discussions on the dating method, and Michael Joachimski (University of Erlangen-Nuremberg) for measuring oxygen and carbon stable isotopes. Carbonate sedimentology is a broad fi eld with increasing complexity. Inspiring ideas are ascribed to stimulating conversations with Wolfgang Schlager (Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam), Robert N. Ginsburg (University of Miami), Fritz Neuweiler (Universté Laval, Quebec) and Ravi Borkhataria (Shell, Den Haag). Miriam Andres, Ravi Borkhataria, Boris Kostic, Sonja-B. Löffl er, Axel Munnecke, Hildegard Westphal (University Bremen), Max Wisshak, Nina Joseph, Edith Maier and my mother Marianne Titschack are XII Preface and Acknowledgments kindly acknowledged for their comments on earlier draft s of chapters or manuscripts. I am deeply indebted to my colleagues of the “Freiwald team” at the Institute of Palaeontology, Erlangen, especially to Kai Kaszemeik, Axel Munnecke, Sonja-B. Löffl er, Michaela Bernecker, Agostina Vertino, Tim Beck, Max Wisshak, Lydia Beuck and Matthias López Correa for countless inspiring discussion, and to Marcus Endreß, Nina Joseph, Edith Maier, Birgit Leipner-Mata, Marie-Luise Neufert, Christian Schulbert, Barbara Seuß, Christel Sporn and Petra Wenninger, as well as to Indra Gill-Kopp (University of Tübingen), for their technical support. Especially Birgit Leipner-Mata is thanked for the preparation of countless thin section and peels, knowing that the porous, salty rocks were always a challenge. Th e local authorities of Lindos and Lardos, as well as the Institute for Geology and Mineral Exploration (IGME), Athens, Greece is thanked for supporting my work. Especially, I would also like to express my gratitude to Tsampikos Anthanasas, Kafenion owner in Lardos, and his family, for their friendship. His great interest in my work, his engagement in supporting me with equipment and in introducing me to the local farmers, as well as directing me to new spectacular outcrops in the Lardos valley, ensured good progress of my work. I am especially grateful for his Greek coff ee and Souma, the long talks and the introduction into the Greek way of life. Th e PhD thesis benefi ted from the funding by the Deutschen Forschungsgemeinschaft Fr 1134/7-1-3 and partly by the Eurodom Project (Contract N°: HPRN-CT-2002-00212). Prof. Dr. Jean-Pierre Henriet is kindly thanked for the employment in the Eurodom Project – keeping my back free during the fi nal spurt. Finally, I would like to express my gratitude to my family and my friends, for their support throughout my studies and in this regard I am especially grateful to Yvonne, my wife, for her love, support and patience. – Th ank’s to you all. Content Zusammenfassung V Summary VII Preface XI Acknowledgements XI Content XIII List of abbreviations XVII 1 Introduction 1

1.1 Aim of this study 1 2 Cool-water carbonates 3

2.1 Carbonate classiﬁ cation systems 3

2.2 Environmental controls 5

2.3 Facies patterns and sediment body symmetries 6

2.4 Diagenesis of cool-water carbonates 6

2.5 The Mediterranean Sea 7 3 The geological setting 11

3.1 Geological evolution of the Mediterranean Basin 11

3.2 Geological research on Rhodes 12

3.3 Miocene to Recent geological evolution of Rhodes 13

3.4 The stratigraphy of the Plio-Pleistocene deposits 14

4 Sedimentary systems related to submarine cliﬀ faces – Plio-Pleistocene cliﬀ - bound, wedge-shaped, warm-temperate carbonate deposits from Rhodes (Greece): sedimentology and facies 17

4.1 Introduction 17

4.2 Geological Setting 18

4.3 Stratigraphy 18

4.4 The Lindos-Pefkos Road Cutting 18

4.5 Facies description and interpretation 19

4.5.1 Kolymbia Limestone 19

4.5.2 St. Paul’s Bay Limestone 24

4.5.3 Cape Arkhangelos Calcarenite 27 XIV Content

4.6 Discussion 33

4.6.1 Depositional processes 34

4.6.2 Bioerosion 36

4.6.3 Depositional Model 36

4.7 Conclusions 39 5 Sedimentary systems on submarine highs – Facies, sequence stratigraphy and diagenesis of a Late Pleistocene mixed siliciclastic-carbonate warm- temperate red algal reef (Coralligène) on Rhodes, Greece: correlation with global sea-level ﬂ uctuations 41

5.1 Introduction 41

5.2 Geological setting 42

5.3 Locality 42

5.4 Methods 42

5.5 Results 45

5.5.1 Coralligène Facies (CF) 45

5.5.2 Maerl Facies (MF) 57

5.5.3 Mixed Siliciclastic-Carbonate Facies (SCF) 58

5.5.4 Aeolian Sand Facies (ASF) 59

5.6 Discussion 61

5.6.1 Sequence stratigraphy 61

5.6.2 Diagenesis 61

5.6.3 Cycle correlation with global sea level 64

5.6.4 Accumulation rates 66

5.7 Conclusions 66 6 Subaerial sedimentary systems – Late Quaternary ooid-bearing aeolianites from Rhodes (Greece): sedimentology and facies 69

6.1 Introduction 69

6.2 Geological setting 71

6.3 Methods 71 Content XV

6.4 Results 71

6.4.1 Unit A 73

6.4.2 Unit B 77

6.4.3 Unit C 79

6.5 Interpretation and discussion 81

6.5.1 Sequence stratigraphy 81

6.5.2 Palaeoenvironment 85

6.5.3 Ooid formation in the Mediterranean 86

6.6 Conclusions 86 7 Discussion 87

7.1 Sedimentary systems 87

7.2 Skeletal associations and palaeoenvironment 90

7.3 Diagenesis of cool-water carbonates 91 8 Conclusions 93 9 Outlook 95 10 References 97

List of abbreviations

A/S ratio - Ratio of accommodation space versus sediment supply Ar - Aragonite BC - Before Christ Cc - Calcite C factory - Cool-water factory cg - Coarse gravel cs - Coarse sand dnCc - Dense neomorphic calcite ESR - Electron Spin Resonance fg - Fine gravel fs - Fine sand GAB - Gialos Algal Biolithite HL - Haraki Limestone HMC - High-magnesium calcite IMC - Intermediate-magnesium calcite LMC - Low-magnesium calcite m - Mud MF - Maerl Facies M factory - Mud-mound factory mfs - Maximum fl ooding surface ms - Medium sand nCc - Neomorphic calcite PDB - PeeDee Belemnite RF - Rhodes Formation SCF - Mixed Siliciclastic-Carbonate Facies SEM - Scanning electron microscope SPBL - St. Paul’s Bay Limestone SST - Sea Surface Temperature T factory - Tropical-water factory WBBB - Windmill Bay Boulder Bed φ - Phi (grain size in logarithmic scale) Ω - Carbonate saturation state of seawater

1 Introduction

During the last decades researchers became in- the near future, exploration will have to broaden creasingly aware of carbonate depositional systems its search. Th is will automatically lead into cool- beyond the tropics (Nelson 1988a; James & Clar- water carbonate environment – a sedimentary sys- ke 1997; Pedley & Carannante 2006). Many sedi- tem not well understood until today. mentological studies from modern and ancient cool-water open shelves and shelf margins, espe- 1.1 Aim of this study cially from off shore southern Australian and New Most studies on cool-water carbonates are from Zealand (e.g., Bone & James 1993; Nicolaides & open shelves and open ocean environments (James Wallace 1997; Gillespie et al. 1998; Nelson & James 1997). Studies on highly structured shelves and 2000; James et al. 2000; Dix & Nelson 2004, 2006; marginal seas are more or less absent in the tropics Feary et al. 2004), but also from off shore Europe (Johnson 1988; Evans & Clayton 1998) as well as in (e.g., Henrich et al. 1995, 1996; Weaver et al. 2004; cool-water carbonate settings (Betzler et al. 2000; Freiwald & Roberts 2005 and references therein), Brachert et al. 2002; Halfar et al. 2006; Reuter et and the Mediterranean Sea (e.g., Pérès & Picard al. 2006). Although today rocky coastal areas are 1964; Kruzic 2003; Tursi et al. 2004; Roveri & Ta- widespread with complex ecosystems and bioco- viani 2003; Kershaw et al. 2005; Braga et al. 2006) enoses (e.g., Hofrichter 2001), fossil counterparts highlight the diff erences of cool-water carbonates are rarely described. to their tropical counterparts. Th e research cul- Th is study presents three sedimentary systems minated recently in two ODP/IODP legs on the along a highly structured island shelf transect, Australian (ODP Leg 182; Feary et al. 2004) and their facies variability, depositional processes and European shelf margin (IODP Leg 307; Expedition response to sea-level fl uctuations. Th e examples Scientists 2005) and in several large EU-Projects, from Rhodes represent a unique environment in such as ACES, GEOMOUND, ECOMOUND and diff ering from the well-studied open-ocean cool- HERMES, all of them concentrating on the diver- water carbonate shelf settings (James & Clarke sity of cool-water carbonates along the European 1997; Rao 1996) by its highly structured island shelf margin (http://www.cool-corals.de; http:// shelf. Furthermore, the Rhodes occurrences diff er www.geomar.de/projekte/ecomound/; http:// geo- from other cool-water carbonate occurrences from mound.ucd.ie/; http://www.eu-hermes.net/). structured island shelves, e.g. the New Zealand At present stage, cool-water carbonate research occurrences (Kamp & Nelson 1987; Dix & Nelson is more or less exclusively of scientifi c interest. 2004), by its position in the marginal Mediterrane- But the industry becomes increasingly aware of an Sea with all its environmental, oceanographic it. In Brittany, maerl is dredged for the use as soil and biogeographic peculiarities (Hofrichter 2001; conditioner (Grall & Hall-Spencer 2003; Hall- Pomar et al. 2004). Spencer et al. 2003). Atypical tropical carbonates All key studies were chosen in diff erent topogra- with characteristics of cool-water carbonates play phical and environmental settings. Th e fi rst one an important role as drinking-water aquifers on (chapter 4) demonstrates the facies variability and Majorca and Menorca (Pomar 2001; Pomar et al. complexity, and the involved depositional proces- 2004). On New Zealands North Island and from ses related to steep submarine cliff s. Th e second southwest Alberta, Canada, oil and gas is produced key study (chapter 5) focuses on an autochthonous from reservoirs provided by cool-water carbona- red algal reef and its diagenesis growing on a sub- tes (Martindale & Boreen 1997; Hood et al. 2004). marine structural high and the reefs response to Dodd & Nelson (1998) pointed out that Cenozoic sea-level fl uctuations. Finally, in the third key stu- low-aragonitic cool-water carbonates may be bet- dy, an aeolian system (chapter 6) with its internal ter analogues for the aragonite-depleted Palaeo- composition and climatic control is investigated. zoic tropical carbonates rather than modern tro- Multidisciplinary methods, such as microfacies pical carbonate settings, which contain more than analysis, oxygen and carbon stable isotope analy- 50 % aragonitic components (e.g., Stehli & Hower ses, electron spin resonance dating or component 1961; Friedman 1964). An important factor during analysis, were applied for describing these hetero- diagenesis, which may also be signifi cant for the geneous environmental settings. characterisation of Palaeozoic reservoirs. Main goal of this study is to contribute to a better With the shortcoming of oil and gas reservoirs in understanding of cool-water carbonate systems, 2 Chapter 1 — Introduction and of sedimentary systems developing on tectonically structured shelves in a marginal sea environment. Th e diversity of biocoenoses and sedimentary processes provide the opportunity to study the regulating factors and the facies variability in cool- water carbonates. 2 Cool-water carbonates

During the golden age of carbonate research, bet- following chapter. Excellent compilations of cool- ween the 1950s and 1980s, when scientists disco- water carbonate environments are given by Nel- vered modern carbonate environments as power- son (1988a), Hayton et al. (1995), Henrich et al. ful tool to interpret the rock record (James 1997), (1995, 1996), Betzler et al. (1996, 1997a, 1997b), cool-water carbonates were more or less ignored. Rao (1996), Betzler (1997), James & Clarke (1997), Th is was possibly due to the fact that tropical car- Mutti & Hallock (2003), Pomar et al. (2004), Schla- bonate environments, besides being easily acces- ger (2005) and Pedley & Carannante (2006). sible and providing modern analogues of many ancient limestones, gave carbonate sedimentologists 2.1 Carbonate classiﬁ cation systems the opportunity to work in pleasant surroundings, Th e fi rst diff erentiation of tropical and cool-water including warm weather, snorkelling and diving carbonates was suggested by Lees & Buller (1972) (Bathurst 1975). who invented the term Foramol - and Chlorozoan However, the occurrence of carbonate deposits - association for the diff erentiation of cool-water outside the tropical climatic realm was known to (Foraminifera - Molluscan) and tropical (Chloro- the scientifi c community since the 1930s but it las- phyta and Zoantharia) skeletal associations. Th e ted until Chave’s paper in 1967 to draw attention increased research in cool-water carbonate systems of carbonate sedimentologists to the topic (Chave revealed diverse carbonate systems with multiple 1967 and references therein). Today, carbonates are skeletal assemblages. Th erefore, Lees (1974), Ca- known from both hemispheres in seawater tempe- rannante et al. (1988) and Hayton et al. (1995) sug- ratures ranging from -2° to 40°C and from nearly gested that the designation of carbonates only into all latitudes (Fig. 2.1; Rao 1996; James & Clarke two skeletal associations represents an oversimpli- 1997). fi cation and widened the Lees & Buller (1972) clas- Th e intense research following Chave (1967) re- sifi cation by establishing several new cool-water sulted in several carbonate classifi cation schemes as well as tropical skeleton associations. Ensuing, incorporating cool-water carbonates in a global James (1997) introduced a hierarchical classifi cati- carbonate concept, which will be the focus of the on in generally subdividing the established skeletal

Fig. 2.1. Global distribution of tropical and cool-water carbonates compiled from Henrich et al. (1995), Rao (1996), and James (1997). Biogeographic zonation with their boundary isotherms, defi ned by their minimal (winter) and maximal (summer) temperature, are indicated (modifi ed aft er Lüning 1985 and Briggs 1995). 4 Chapter 2 — Cool-water carbonates associations into a Photozoan association, which others (see Fig. 2.2). Further terminologies, relying corresponds with the term Chlorozoan of Lees & on the latitude or water temperature, were sugges- Buller (1972) and covers shallow warm-water ben- ted from diff erent authors (Fig. 2.3). thic calcareous communities, and a Heterozoan as- Recently, Schlager (2000, 2003, 2005) suggested a sociation, in which the author included the skeletal further approach by the diff erentiation of carbona- associations described by Hayton et al. (1995) and te factories into T (tropical) factory, C (cold-water)

Fig. 2.2. Hierarchical classifi cation system of carbonates modifi ed aft er James (1997) with data from (1) Lees & Buller (1972), (2) Lees (1975); (3) Nelson (1988b), (4) Carannante et al. (1988), (5) Hayton et al. (1995), and (6) James (1997).

Fig. 2.3. Comparison of terminologies proposed for carbonate sediments of diff erent climatic zones (modifi ed aft er Schlager 2003, 2005 and Mutti & Hallock 2003). Terminologies are based either on skeletal associations (1-6), latitude (7) or temperature Chapter 2 — Cool-water carbonates 5 factory, and M (mound) factory. His classifi cation applied. A further possibility is the use of the Dun- is based on the classifi cation of James (1997) but ham or Embry & Klovan classifi cation systems for includes also abiotically and biotically induced car- carbonate rocks as extension instead of the term bonate particles into the classifi cation (Fig. 2.4). ‘facies’, e.g. serpulid packstone or bryozoan-brachiopod rudstone (Dunham 1962; Embry & Klo- van 1972). Subsequently, facies can be assigned to the skeletal association sensu James (1997), e.g. Photozoan or Heterozoan Association, or to a carbonate factory sensu Schlager (2000, 2005), both representing a useful characterisation of skeletal associations (Figs. 2.2, 2.4).

2.2 Environmental controls Th e distribution of cool-water carbonates is generally controlled by the input of siliciclastica by rivers (Chave 1967). Th ereby, the siliciclastica do not necessarily hinder the carbonate producing organisms but dilute the carbonate sediments. In carbonate-dominated environments the distribution Fig. 2.4. From precipitation modes to carbonate factories of skeletal associations relies not only on latitude, (modifi ed aft er Schlager 2000, 2005). temperature, salinity, and water depth (Lees 1975; Carannante et al. 1988). Carannante et al. (1988) Recent publications (e.g., Henrich et al. 1995; highlighted the infl uence of regional oceanogra- Betzler et al. 1997b; Kühlmann 1996; Freiwald & phic particularities such as upwelling and river dis- Roberts 2005) observed additional skeletal assem- charge on the distribution of skeletal associations. blages, so far not considered by the previous clas- Considerations which were recently addressed by sifi cation schemes, e.g., assemblages dominated by Pomar et al. (2004) and Mutti & Hallock (2003) azooxanthellate cold-water corals and planktonic who discussed the development of specifi c skele- foraminifers, by bryozoans and brachiopods, by tal associations as result of multiple environmental serpulids and bryozoans, by red algae and bryozo- parameters, such as nutrients, water energy, turbi- ans (chapter 4) or by corals and red algae (chapter dity, bathymetry, salinity, oxygenation, carbonate

5). Th e ongoing research will lead to the discovery saturation, pCO2, Mg/Ca ratio, alkalinity, substrate of further skeletal associations, especially when an- requirements, competitive displacement, as well cient limestones are included, as already initialised as biological and evolutionary trends. Pomar et al. by James (1997). Th e acronyms in use for subdi- (2004) interpreted the common occurrence of He- viding the Heterozoan association, such as barna- terozoan Associations in Mediterranean carbonate mol or rhodechfor, were useful at the start when platforms during the tropical Miocene phase as the the amount of associations was limited. Nowadays, result of specifi c environmental parameters, such the classifi cation gets increasingly complex due to as changes in trophic conditions, rather than of the continual discovery of new assemblages, recent changes in temperature. Furthermore, they discri- as well as fossil. For somebody who has no basic minated the infl uences of global processes, such as knowledge in cool-water carbonate sediments it sea-fl oor spreading, and regional processes, such will be increasingly diffi cult to catch the meaning as tectonically enhanced weathering, upwelling, of these acronyms. and river runoff , on these parameters. Th ese pro- To avoid the above mentioned diffi culties in clas- cesses vary in diff erent time spans, amplitudes and sifying cool-water carbonates, acronyms are abo- on the dimension of aff ected area (regional to glo- lished and skeletal associations are entitled aft er bal). Interior seas, such as the Mediterranean Ba- their dominant constituents with the extension ‘fa- sin, and intramontane basins are more sensitive to cies’, e.g. ‘serpulid facies’ or ‘bryozoan-brachiopod these regional factors than open oceans (Pomar et facies’. Additionally, if there are well known terms al. 2004). Th e relative high ratio of their coastline for a specifi c facies, such as ‘coralligène facies’ for and shelf area versus their water volume points to coralligène-type red algal reefs or ‘maerl facies’ for the increased infl uence by, e.g., rivers, local topo- a red algal sands (see chapter 5), these terms are graphic anomalies, climate of the hinterland, and 6 Chapter 2 — Cool-water carbonates local nutrient supply by upwelling, rivers, or aeo- corals (Freiwald & Roberts 2005 and references lian import. therein), sponges (Krautter et al. 2001; Conway et al. 2005), serpulids (chapter 4; Ten Hove 1979) and 2.3 Facies patterns and sediment body some other organisms. Th e response of cool-water symmetries carbonate shelves to exposure is somewhere between siliciclastics and tropical carbonate shelves Cool-water carbonate shelves are characteri- and depend on the degree of lithifi cation, which sed by coasts formed by sandy beaches or rock highly infl uences the sediment availability for re- cliff s, seaward-dipping shelves and sigmoidal shelf depositional processes during sea-level lowstands. breaks, bending down to gentle slopes. Th ey are In the light of these factors, cool-water carbonate generally unrimmed, most are ‘distally steepened’ systems, being able to form positive sedimenta- with few homoclinal ramps. Th e scarcity of homo- ry structures (mounds, reef mounds or buildups) clinal ramps in the today’s oceans is most likely in various water depths, possess the potential to due to the rarity of modern shallow, intracratonic form complex shelf morphologies. Th erefore, they basins (James 1997). Sedimentary structures with should be seen as independent sedimentary sys- a positive relief are scattered over the outer shelf tems somewhere in between the end members of and upper slope (Schlager 2005). Oft en, cool-water tropical rimmed carbonate shelves and siliciclastic carbonate shelf settings tend to lowstand shedding shelve systems. and are compared with siliciclastic shelves (e.g., Betzler et al. 1997a, 1997b; James 1997; Schlager 2.4 Diagenesis of cool-water carbonates 2005). Generally, lithifi cation of carbonate deposits is Generally, the developed shelf profi le, platform well-documented in the tropical realm with key or ramp type, and its facies distribution are the re- studies ranging from modern back to Precambrian sult of the type of sediment being produced (car- time and taking place in various environments, e.g. bonates) or imported (siliciclastics), the place of meteoric, marine or burial (e.g., Schneidermann production or import, and redistribution processes & Harris 1985; Schroeder & Purser 1986; Melim (Pomar 1995, 2001). Siliciclastic shelves are cha- et al. 2002 and references therein). Near surface racterised by a point source of sediment, supplied and shallow burial diagenesis in the marine re- by rivers. In carbonate-dominated environments alm is triggered by a combination of physicoche- the carbonate production rate, the environmental mical and biological processes (James et al. 2005). preferences (e.g., nutrient, temperature, salinity, Th ereby, lithifi cation is caused by (1) the acti- water depth, substrate, oxygen, light, turbidity) of ve pumping of highly supersaturated seawater concerned organisms and early diagenetic proces- through the porespace and (2) by the dissolution ses are key factors shaping the shelf profi le (Pomar of aragonite and subsequent precipitation of cal- 2001). Tropical carbonates are characterised by a cite (e.g., neomorphism, microspar cementation; high shallow-water (< 50 m water depth) carbona- Munnecke et al. 1997, 2001; Melim et al. 2002). te production and an eff ective early marine lithifi - Primary aragonitic constituents are preserved as cation stabilising the steep slopes. Tropical rimmed moulds fi lled with low-magnesium calcite (LMC). platforms represent one end member of carbonate In contrast, carbonate dissolution in seawater is shelves. principally controlled by the mineralogy, aragonite In contrast, cool-water carbonates exhibit various versus low-, intermediate- (IMC) or high-magne- sediment production centres in diff erent water sium calcite (HMC). Secondary controlling factors depths. Many of them have the potential to build are skeletal robustness (Smith et al. 1992), grain sedimentary structures with positive relief and slo- size (Walter & Burton 1990), organic coatings, pes dipping up to 23° (Pomar 1995, 2001; Whee- intraskeletal pore space, intracrystalline organic ler et al. 2005). Th ese systems show a much higher matter (Freiwald 1995) and the size and shape of variability in key species and their environmental crystallites (Henrich & Wefer 1986). requirements than their tropical counterparts with Studies on the diagenesis of cool-water carbona- production centres in various water depths domi- tes are limited (e.g., Hood & Nelson 1996; Caron nated by kelp, sea grass, red algae (coralligène or et al. 2005; James et al. 2005; Dix & Nelson 2006 maerl; see chapter 5; Henrich et al. 1995, 1996), and references therein). Th e diagenetic potential bryozoans (chapter 4; James et al. 2000; Andres of cool-water carbonates is generally thought to & McKenzie 2002; Bernecker & Weidlich 2005), be reduced for near surface lithifi cation due to en- Chapter 2 — Cool-water carbonates 7

Mg Calcite Fig. 2.5. Mineralogical composition of diff erent carbonates M factory (modifi ed aft er Schlager 2005). Th e primary content of arago- (mud mounds) nite is critical for the early marine diagenetic potential.

C factory T factory (tropical carbonates) (non-tropical carbonates) (contours of 2x, 8x and 16x mean data density)

Calcite Aragonite hanced dissolution, especially of aragonite, caused IODP Leg 307: “Modern Carbonate Mounds: Th e by lower temperature and higher pCO2, and due to Porcupine Drilling”. Th ey drilled through one of a low aragonite content of the primary sediment these cold-water coral mounds and detected no when compared with tropical platform carbonates signifi cant lithifi cation through 150 m of coral- (Fig. 2.5; Alexandersson 1979; Lewy 1981; Nelson dominated mound deposits (Expedition scientists 1988b; James & Clarke 1997; Dix & Nelson 2006). 2005; own observations). Further exceptions are James et al. (2005) highlighted the key role of ara- known from the warm-temperate Mediterranean gonite also for the lithifi cation of cool-water car- Sea, where many examples of a constructive ear- bonates. However, lithifi cation preferentially takes ly marine diagenesis are documented by nodular place in the deeper burial environments and oft en limestone and intermediate magnesium calcite ce- follows substantial mechanical and chemical com- ment formation in bathyal environments by Mil- paction (James & Bone 1989; Hood & Nelson 1996; liman & Müller (1973, 1977), Müller & Staesche Dix & Nelson 2006). Knoerich & Mutti (2003) em- (1973), Müller & Fabricius (1974), Sartori (1974), phasised that cool-water shelf carbonate mud pos- McKenzie & Bernoulli (1982), Allouc (1990) and sesses a poor diagenetic potential for near-surface Aghib et al. (1991), as well as well-lithifi ed Plio- lithifi cation, comparable to pelagic (calcite) mud. Pleistocene warm-temperate limestones from Reduced sedimentation rates, if compared with Rhodes (Titschack & Freiwald 2005; chapter 4) their tropical counterparts, lead to enhanced resi- and from Calabria and Sicily (e.g., Barrier 1984; dence times of skeletal constituents on the sea fl oor. own observations). Further studies are needed, Th is may result in an increased carbonate dissolu- which evaluate the infl uence of the primary sedi- tion due to ongoing bioerosion and fragmentati- ment composition and grain size, the carbonate on causing a reduction in grain size and skeletal saturation state of the seawater (Ω) and pore wa- robustness, as well as an increase of the intraskel- ter, the infl uence of organic matter and its decay, etal porosity and of reactive surfaces, as well as a and diff erent cementation processes, such as phy- degradation of intracrystalline organic coatings, all sicochemical precipitation, organo-mineralisation favouring carbonate dissolution. (sensu Neuweiler et al. 2000, 2003) or microbialite However, the diagenetic pathway of cool-water formation (sensu Reitner et al. 1995), on the lithi- carbonates is still not completely understood as fi cation process. highlighted by the diagenesis in cold-water coral mounds in the northeast Atlantic. Noé et al. (2006) 2.5 The Mediterranean Sea suggest a shallow burial lithifi cation of hard- Th e Mediterranean Sea represents a land-locked grounds occurring on the slopes of some of these marginal sea, only connected to the Atlantic Oce- mounds, while there are contrasting results of the an via the Strait of Gibraltar (14 km wide, 284 to 8 Chapter 2 — Cool-water carbonates

320 m deep) and to the Black Sea via the Dardanel- (winter) and 24°C (summer) in the northern and les (61 km long 1.2 to 6 km wide, 55 m deep) and western area while reaching 16° to 26°C in the Bosporus (700 m wide, 36 m deep). It is internally southern and eastern part of the basin (Fig. 2.6; structured into two large basins, the western and Hofrichter 2001). Th e salinity shows a similar eastern Mediterranean Basin, which are connected trend and can reach values up to 40 ‰ during Sep- by the Strait of Sicily (130 – 140 km wide, 300 – tember and November in the southeastern region 350 m deep) and the Strait of Messina (3 km wide, (Hofrichter 2001). Th e increase in salinity is caused 90 m deep; Hofrichter 2001). by a negative water budget due to a high evapora- Today, the oceanography of the Mediterranean tion rate of 154 cm/a. Th is is balanced by rainfall Sea is highly aff ected by its internal topography. (30 cm/ a), infl ow from rivers (20 cm/a), the Black Sea surface temperatures (SST) vary between 13° Sea (7 cm/ a) and especially from the Atlantic Oce- A 0°10° 20° 30°

40° 40°

34° 34°

February 0° 10° 20° 30° B 0°10° 20° 30°

40° 40°

34° 34°

August 0° 10° 20° 30° Temperature [°C] 12 13 14 15 16 17 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 12.5 13.5 14.5 15.5 16.5 17.5 22.5 23.5 24.5 25.5

Fig. 2.6. Sea surface temperatures (SST) of the Mediterranean Sea during February (A: coldest interval) and August (B: warm- est interval). White dotted line shows the boundary between the warm-temperate northwestern and subtropical southeastern Mediterranean Sea (modifi ed aft er Hofrichter 2001).

1 Th e water budget of the Mediterranean Sea published by Hofrichter (2001) is not balanced by a negative infl ow of 1 cm/a. Chapter 2 — Cool-water carbonates 9 an (96 cm/a; Hofrichter 2001)1. Th e increase in term ‘Godot Basin’, defi ned as a basin potentially salinity is also responsible for the antiestuarine available for a tropical faunal colonisation, but hin- circulation pattern in the Mediterranean Sea with dered by specifi c oceanographic parameters. deep-water formation restricted to the northern Tyrrhenian, Adriatic, Levantine and Aegean Seas. Th e specifi c oceanographic confi gurations of the Mediterranean Sea also cause a frequent stagnation of the bottom waters, especially in the eastern basin, and the development of organic rich sediments, called sapropels (Rohling 1994). Th ereby sapropel formation in the eastern Mediterranean Basin was linked to maxima in the Nile runoff , which are in turn linked to peaks in the Indian Ocean Summer monsoon. Joined to these maxima increased precipitation due to an increased activity of Mediterra- nean depressions, as well as a reduced evaporation occurs. All factors correlate with periods of peak insolation in the summer of the northern tropics (Rohling 1994; Cheddadi & Rossignol-Strick 1995; Rossignol-Strick & Paterne 1999). Th e SST shift in the Mediterranean Sea highlights its transitional character between the warm-temperate and tropical biogeographic realms delinea- ted by the summer isotherm of 25°C and winter isotherm of 20°C (Fig. 2.6; Lüning 1985; Briggs 1995; Betzler et al. 1997b; Halfar et al. 2006). While the western basin is assigned to the warm-temperate realm throughout the year, the eastern basin exhibits subtropical conditions during summer and warm-temperate conditions during winter. Th e faunal character of the Mediterranean Sea today, as well as during the Plio-Pleistocene, refl ects a warm-temperate heterozoan skeletal association. Aft er the extinction of tropical faunas in the Medi- terranean Sea during the Messinian salinity crises in Late Miocene time no tropical faunal invasion took place into the eastern Mediterranean Sea even though temperature and salinity would have been favourable during most of the time. Th is is proven by the presence of ooids during climatic maxima (see chapter 6), the common occurrence of beachrocks along the modern coastlines (e.g., on Rhodes, own observation; Strasser et al. 1989) and the Recent invasion of tropical faunal elements into the eastern Mediterranean Sea via the Suez Chan- nel or by accidental human introduction (Oliverio & Taviani 2003). Invasion of tropical fauna into the eastern Mediterranean Basin is only possible via the Strait of Gibraltar and the western Medi- terranean Sea, both clearly belonging to the warm- temperate climatic realm and therefore hindering the invasion of tropical faunal elements from the Atlantic. Taviani (2002) consequently invented the

3 The geological setting

3.1 Geological evolution of the Mediterranean and irregularities at the plate boundary (Zitter Basin et al. 2003; Ten Veen et al. 2004). Generally, the southern Hellenic Arc is governed by the motion From the tectonic viewpoint, the Mediterranean of the African plate, which is subducted below Basin is one of the world’s most tectonically active the small Aegean Sea plate (Christova & Nikolova basins and represents one of the most extensively 1998). Th e plate motions are driven by the SW-NE studied regions in respect of plate tectonic pro- convergence of the African and Eurasian plates, cesses (Stanley & Wezel 1985; Zitter et al. 2003). It which results in the westward movement of the forms part of the boundary between the African, Anatolian, the southwest movement of the small Eurasian and Arabian plate (Fig. 3.1). Th e motions Aegean Sea plate (Fig. 3.1; Ten Veen et al. 2004; of the major plates drive smaller plates, such as the Sodoudi 2005) and the E-W extension of the Ae- West Mediterranean, Apulian Adriatic, Anatolian, gean Sea plate (Christova & Nikolova 1998; Armijo Levantine Sinai and Aegean Sea plates. et al. 2003). Th e Late Cretaceous to Holocene tec- In the eastern Mediterranean Basin, the plate tonic evolution of the eastern Mediterranean Ba- boundaries exhibit a large variety of tectonic pro- sin, including the position of the plate boundaries, cesses (collision, subduction, back-arc extension, palaeogeography and tectonostratigraphic evo- strike-slip faulting) within a relative small geogra- lution, is extremely complex (see also the palaeo- phical area. Th ey are a good example of imminent geographic maps of Meulenkamp & Sissingh 2003 continental collision governed by promontories and Popov et al. 2004). Th e position of the plate

Fig. 3.1. A: Plate boundaries in the Mediterranean Basin. Dot- ted lines indicate the recently discussed positions of the Af- rican - Aegean Sea plate boundary. AAP: Apulia Adria plate; AP: Arabian plate; ASP: Aegean Sea plate; LSP: Levantine Si- nai plate; WMP West Medi- terranean plate; HA: Hellenic Arc; CA: Cyprus Arc (modifi ed aft er Udias 1985; Huguen et al. 2001; Aksu et al. 2005; Reinecker et al. 2005). B: Th e eastern Hellenic Arc highlighting major fault zones southeast of Rhodes (modifi ed aft er Mas- cle et al. 1986 and Woodside et al. 2002). 12 Chapter 3 — Th e geological setting

3.2 Geological research on Rhodes (Table 3.1) boundary at the junction between Hellenic and Cyprus Arc, SE of Rhodes is still controversially Th e geological research of Rhodes started in the discussed (Fig. 3.1 A; compare Robertson 1998; year 1840 with descriptions by Hedenborg (1837), Mascle et al. 1986; Aksu et al. 2005 with Zitter et Hamilton (1840, 1842) and Spratt (1842). Th e fi rst al. 2003; Ten Veen et al. 2004). While Mascle et detailed geological and palaeontological work was al. (1986) and others suggest the subduction zone conducted by Bukowski (1887 – 1899, see Table to be positioned along the Strabo Fault zone (Fig. 3.1), who published the fi rst geological map, and 3.1 B), Zitter et al. (2003) and others interpret this worked on the lacustrine molluscs. His work was Strabo Fault zone as backthrust of the Mediterra- accompanied by Fischer’s (1877, 1878) work on nean Ridge accretionary prism and a subduction marine molluscs, Pergens’ (1887) work on bryo- zone south of the Mediterranean Ridge deforma- zoans and Jüssen’s (1890) work on corals, all from tion front (Fig. 3.1 A). Plio-Pleistocene deposits. Th e Hellenide orogen forming the Aegean Arc A new era in the geological research on Rhodes represents a polyphase orogeny with a coalescence started with the military invasion of Italy in 1912 of at least two or three subduction zones since Me- and lasted until the end of second world war (last sozoic times. Th e tectonic evolution of the Helle- publication by Boni 1947; see Table 3.1). Th e re- nides is summarised by Jacobshagen (1986). Th e search concentrated on the geology and palaeon- complexity of the Hellenide orogen is also refl ected tology of the Upper Cenozoic deposits. by the pre-Oligocene tectonic structure of Rhodes Th e third phase started in the sixties, again do- organised in 4 allochthonous nappes, which lie on minated by Italian scientists, who concentrated on an Cretaceous to Palaeogene autochthonous base- multiple aspects of the geology of Rhodes (Table ment. All nappes are covered by Oligocene to Re- 3.1). A major step was the detailed geological map cent post tectonic deposits (Fig. 3.2; Jacobshagen of Mutti et al. (1970) and the description of the 1986; Mutti et al. 1970). tectonic evolution of Rhodes from Late Miocene to Recent time. Many publications concentrated

Fig. 3.2. Schematic geological map of the island of Rhodes, showing the important tectonic structures and units (based on the geological map of Mutti et al. 1970). Chapter 3 — Th e geological setting 13

Table 3.1. Geological research history of Rhodes. Interval Research topic References 1840 - 1842 First general geological observations Hedenborg 1837; Hamilton 1840, 1842; Spratt 1842 1877 - 1899 Geological research Bukowski 1887, 1889, 1899, fi rst geological overview map; Foullon 1891 Palaeontological research Plio-Pleistocene marine fauna Fischer 1877, 1878; Terquem 1878; Pergens 1887; Bu- kowski 1892b; Jüssen 1890 Neogene to ?Pleistocene lacustrine fauna Bukowski 1892a, 1893, 1894, 1895, 1896 1912 - 1947 Geological research Fallot 1912; Migliorini 1925a, 1925b, 1930, 1931a, 1931b, 1933a, 1933b, 1943a, 1943b, 1945; Renz 1929; Migliorini & Desio 1931; Comel 1934; Martelli 1934; Migliorini & Venzo 1934

Palaeontological research Pre Plio-Pleistocene fauna Pieragnoli 1914 Plio-Pleistocene marine fauna Zuff ardi-Comerci 1927, 1935; Bevilacqua 1928; Airaghi 1930; Reina 1933a, 1933b, 1934; Venzo 1934; Alberici & Tamini 1935 Neogene to ?Pleistocene lacustrine fauna Magrograssi 1928 Neogene to Quaternary mammal fauna Boni 1947 1954 - 1989 Stratigraphic and tectonic research Ferrari Ardicini 1962; Orombelli & Montanari 1967; Dermitzakis & Georgiades-Dikeoulia 1970; Benda et al. 1977; Jacobshagen 1986; Hatzipanagiotou 1988; Løvlie et al. 1989; Pirazolli et al. 1989

Research on pre-Plio-Pleistocene rocks Pozzi 1965a, 1965b; Pozzi & Orombelli 1965; Mutti 1965, 1967; Orombelli & Pozzi 1967

Geological research Mutti et al. 1970, fi rst detailed geological map; Meu- lenkamp et al. 1972; Meulenkamp 1985 Palaeontological research Neogene to ?Pleistocene lacustrine fauna Willmann 1980, 1981; Mostafawi 1989 Plio-Pleistocene marine fauna Moncharmont Zei 1954; Mangin 1960; Zaccaria 1968; Broekman 1973, 1974; Gaetani & Sacca 1984 Neogene to Quaternary mammal fauna De Bruijn et al. 1970; Marinos & Symeonides 1973; Symeonidis et al. 1974; Kuss 1975 1995 - today Stratigraphic and sedimentological research Pio-Pleistocene deposits Hanken et al. 1996; Hansen 1999; Nelson et al. 2001; Løvlie & Hanken 2002; Titschack & Freiwald 2005; Cornée et al. 2006

Research on pre-Plio-Pleistocene rocks Garzanti et al. 2005

Research on the tectonic Kontogianni et al. 2002

Palaeontological research Plio-Pleistocene marine fauna Moissette & Spjeldnæs 1995; Spjeldnæs & Moissette 1997; Hajjaji et al. 1998; Bromley 1999; Moissette et al. 2002 Trace fossils Bromley & Asgaard 1993; Hanken et al. 2001; Bromley & Hanken 2003 Neogene to Quaternary mammal fauna Th eodorou et al. 2000; Milàn et al. in press on the lacustrine mollusc fauna (Willmann 1980, donts and dwarf elephants (Symeonidis et al. 1974; 1981), and on the diverse mammal fauna including Kuss 1975). rodents, insectivors, rabbits in the broader sense, Recent research on the island started in 1995 and cattle and horses in the broader sense, deer, masto- concentrated mostly on the Plio-Pleistocene cool- 14 Chapter 3 — Th e geological setting water carbonates (Table 3.1). Hanken et al. (1996) al. 2000). Rhodes kept connected to a mainland in provided a comprehensive and detailed description western – northwestern direction. Tilting caused a including the most-accepted stratigraphic scheme subsidence of a southeastern block while a north- for the Plio-Pleistocene deposits. western block was uplift ed and structured in micrograben systems with diametres of up to seve- 3.3 Miocene to Recent geological evolution ral kilometres (Meulenkamp et al. 1972; Hanken et of Rhodes al. 1996). In these depressions, a transgressive succession of fl uviatile-lacustrine to lagoonal-marine Th e geological evolution of Rhodes since Mio- sediments (Damatria and Kritika Formation; Fig. cene time refl ects the evolution of the plate 3.3) developed, while in the southwestern block se- boundary along the junction between the Hellenic dimentation was restricted to the Monolithos area and Cyprus Arc. During the Late Cenozoic, the where about 75 m of travertine limestones were geological evolution of Rhodes was clearly linked deposited. to the northeast-trending left -lateral transform system of the Strabo and Pliny Fault Zones (Fig. Phase 4: 3.1 B; Zitter et al. 2003) and is subdivided in four Diff erent vertical movements persisted during successive phases (Meulenkamp et al. 1972; Meu- Phase 4 in the Late Pliocene to Pleistocene. Th e lenkamp 1985; Hanken et al. 1996): area west of Rhodes was also aff ected by downfaul- ting, which caused the separation of Rhodes from Phase 1: the mainland. A change in stress regime around Phase 1 started 20 to 15 Ma ago with an arc-pa- < 1.8 Ma aff ected the eastern Aegean region, ac- rallel extension in the S and SE Aegean region, re- companied by uplift of the entire outer Aegean Arc sulting in an anticlockwise rotation of the eastern (Duermeijer et al. 2000). According to Kontogianni Aegean Arc and a clockwise rotation of the western et al. (2002), the inversed tilting of Rhodes, possib- Aegean Arc (Duermeijer et al. 2000; Huguen et al. ly along the same axes as in Phase 3, was caused by 2001; Armijo et al. 2003). Th is resulted in a consi- a reverse fault off shore the east coast of the island. derable uplift of Rhodes, which became a part of Th ereby, the island was tilted en block resulting in the Asiatic mainland, possibly already in the Early further subsidence of the southwestern part and Miocene. During the entire period erosion pre- the uplift of the northeastern-eastern region (with vailed whereas deposition was restricted to fi ssures an uplift rate of 1.2 m/ka; Kontogianni et al. 2002). and depressions in Mesozoic to Palaeogene limes- An independent movement of several tectonic tones. blocks along the east coast of Rhodes as suggested by Pirazzoli et al. (1989) was excluded by Hanken Phase 2: et al. (1996) and Kontogianni et al. (2002). During Phase 2 major subsidence led to terrestrial sedimentation in the northern and western 3.4 The stratigraphy of the Plio-Pleistocene part of the island (Levantinian deposits of Mutti et deposits al. 1970; see Fig. 3.3). Deposits were dominated by braided river conglomerates and sheet-fl ood depo- One of the fi rst comments on the Plio-Pleisto- sits in the lower, and by lacustrine and meandering cene deposits is given by Bukowski (1899) who river deposits in the upper part. Th e bulk of sedi- already describes the large-scale transgressive-re- ment was supplied by the Asiatic hinterland (see gressive character of these deposits, refl ecting the also Benda et al. 1977; De Bruijn et al. 1970). tectonic evolution of the island since the Pliocene (corresponding with end of Phase 3 and 4 see abo- Phase 3: ve). Bukowski (1899) assigned the Plio-Pleistocene Phase 3 started with block movements, due to sedimentary evolution to a rise in sea level rather a progressive development of transform motions than to a tectonic origin. Th is was a coherent con- along the eastern branch of the Hellenic Arc, e.g., clusion if considering that Bukowski was not awa- the Pliny and Strabo Fault Zone, since the upper- re of plate tectonic processes, which provide the most Miocene (Fig. 3.1 B; Bukowski 1899). Th is driving force for large-scale vertical movements in caused the uplift of the present island and the sub- short intervals. mergence of the landmass east of Rhodes linked to Mutti et al. (1970) gave the fi rst formal stratigra- the development of the Rhodes Basin (Woodside et phy for all deposits on Rhodes in his geological map Chapter 3 — Th e geological setting 15 is study refers to the stratigraphic scheme of Hanken et al. (1996). HL: Haraki Limestone; SPBL: St. Paul’s Paul’s St. SPBL: Limestone; (1996). HL: Haraki et al. Hanken scheme of the stratigraphic to refers is study erent stratigraphic schemes for the Plio-Peistocene deposits from Rhodes. from deposits Th the Plio-Peistocene schemes for stratigraphic erent Diff Bay Limestone; WBBB: Windmill Bay Boulder Bay Bed; WBBB: Windmill Limestone; GAB: Gialos AlgalBay Biolithite. Fig. 3.3. Fig. 16 Chapter 3 — Th e geological setting and explanatory notes. Th is stratigraphic scheme phic scheme. Th erefore, no revised lithostratigra- was modifi ed by Meulenkamp et al. (1972), Han- phic scheme is presented in this study. Herein, it sen (1999), Nelson et al. (2001) and Cornée et al. is referred to the well-accepted lithostratigraphic (2006; Fig. 3.3) for the Plio-Pleistocene deposits. scheme of Hanken et al. (1996). Hanken et al. (1996) were the fi rst to give a detailed stratigraphic scheme of these deposits, including an description of the complex facies pattern, lithology, thickness, distribution, faunal and trace fossil composition, age range, palaeoenvironment and type locality for all diff erentiated deposits. Th ey subdivided the large-scale tectonically–driven transgressive-regressive cycle in three medium-scale cycles, which correspond with their formations, the Kritika, Rhodes, and Lindos Acropolis Formation (Fig. 3.3). Hansen (1999) and Nelson et al. (2001) highlighted that on these medium-scale cycles small-scale cylces are superimposed, which may correspond to eustatic sea-level fl uctuations. Th is is verifi ed in chapter 5 for the Late Pleisto- cene deposits of Plimiri. While Hansen (2001) and Cornée et al. (2006) questioned the medium-scale cycle status of the Lindos Acropolis and Kritika Formation, the results presented in chapter 5 clearly support the presence of a medium-scale cycle during Late Pleistocene time coinciding with the Lindos Acropolis Formation. Evidence for a medium-scale cycle in the Kritika Formation was found by Nelson et al. (2001). Unfortunately, Hanken et al. (1996) rejected to apply the international guide of stratigraphy (Stei- ninger & Piller 1999; http://www.stratigraphy.org/) to their scheme by subdividing their formations into ‘facies groups’ and not into ‘members’, due to the high facies variability and the diachronous character of their ‘facies groups’. Th eir stratigraphic scheme was slightly modifi ed by Hansen (1999), Nelson et al. (2001) and Cornée et al. (2006). Nel- son et al. (2001) suggested its modifi cation to the standards of the international guide of stratigraphy by tranfering the ‘facies groups’ into ‘formations’, while Cornée et al. (2006) changed the ‘facies groups’ into ‘members’. However, a revised lithostratigraphic scheme for the Plio-Pleistocene deposits on Rhodes is needed, which should cover the whole record of Plio-Pleis- tocene deposits, and should follow the international guide of stratigraphy. It also should be based on the cooperation with the Institute of Geology and Mineral Exploration, Athens, Greece, in accordance and in dialogue with all other researchers and research groups working on these deposits, and it should be published in an international journal, so that all researchers have access to the stratigra- 4 Sedimentary systems related to submarine cliﬀ faces – Plio-Pleistocene cliﬀ -bound, wedge-shaped, warm-temperate carbonate deposits from Rhodes (Greece): sedimentology and facies

4.1 Introduction systems and biocoenoses, fossil counterparts are rarely described in the geological record (Johnson Since the stimulating publication by Chave 1988; Betzler et al. 2000; Hofrichter 2001). (1967), non-tropical carbonates in modern as well Th e aim of this study is to examine the depo- as in ancient environments have become a central sitional system and facies of Plio-Pleistocene topic of research during the last decades (Nelson warm-temperate carbonates deposited in an area 1988a; Henrich et al. 1995; James & Clarke 1997; of complex submarine palaeotopography that was James et al. 2004). While today research focuses infl uenced by the close vicinity of a convergent on recent and fossil temperate carbonates of open plate boundary (Fig. 4.1). Th e rocks, deposited shelves (e.g., Nelson et al. 1982; Boreen & James during a large-scale tectonically-driven transgres- 1995; Betzler et al. 1997b; Brachert et al. 2001) sive-regressive cycle, occur as depositional prisms and on deep-water reefs or reef mound structures in micrograbens and their downslope extension, (e.g., Wilson 1979 and references therein; Scoffi n at the foot of former submarine cliff faces and in & Bowes 1988; Bernecker & Weidlich 1990; Scoffi n local depressions in the underlying basement. Th e 1993; Freiwald 2002; Freiwald et al. 2002), studies deposits display a high degree of facies variability, of temperate carbonates in tectonically active re- and are typically thin and laterally discontinuous. gions, strongly infl uenced by a rapidly changing On Rhodes, extensive knowledge of palaeorelief, palaeotopography, are rare to date (Johnson 1988, hinterland and stratigraphy in larger sedimentary 1992; Kamp & Nelson 1987; Kamp et al. 1988; Soja basins (Moissette & Spjeldnæs 1995; Hanken et al. 1996; Evans & Clayton 1998; Betzler et al. 1997a, 1996; Hansen 1999, 2001; Titschack & Freiwald 2000; Dix & Nelson 2004). Although today rocky 2005) provide the unique possibility to pursue the coastal areas are widespread with complex eco- sedimentary evolution during the Plio-Pleistocene

Fig. 4.1. A: Tectonic overview of the E Hellenic Arc. FZ: Fault Zone. B: Map of the island of Rhodes showing the main Plio- Pleistocene outcrops, distinguished as marine- versus terrestrial-dominated (aft er Meulenkamp et al. 1972; Hanken et al. 1996). Th e isolated nature of the marine-dominated Plio-Pleistocene sediments is caused by deposition within depocentres caused by graben systems lying in a NW-SE direction. 18 Chapter 4 — Sedimentary systems related to submarine cliff faces on Rhodes and to investigate the depositional pro- sive cycle, on which higher-order relative sea-level cesses near submarine cliff s. changes were superimposed (Hansen 1999; Nel- son et al. 2001). Th e shallow ramp deposits during 4.2 Geological Setting early transgression (Kolymbia Limestone) or late Rhodes, as part of the Hellenic Arc in the S Ae- regression (Cape Arkhangelos Calcarenite) are do- gean Sea, has been strongly infl uenced by the con- minated by molluscs, bryozoans and red-algal-rich vergent active plate boundary between the Euro- calcarenites, which interfi nger distally with the he- pean and African Plates since the Miocene (Mascle mipelagic Lindos Bay Clay. During the maximum et al. 1986). Th e position of Rhodes in its proximity transgression, no shallow-water facies was deposi- to a major plate boundary and the close junction of ted in the Lindos region. Instead, the St. Paul’s Bay the Hellenic and Cyprus Arcs provide the potential Limestone occurs in proximal settings, bound to for large scale vertical movements of up to sever- submarine cliff s, with a bathyal coral assemblage of al hundred metres (Fig. 4.1A; Pirazzoli et al. 1989; the ’white coral community‘ (Pérès & Picard 1964) Woodside et al. 2000). Th erefore, relative sea-level dominated by Lophelia pertusa, Madrepora oculata changes are thought to refl ect dominantly tecto- and Desmophyllum cristagalli. nically induced vertical movements, on which the Plio-Pleistocene glacio-eustatic sea-level changes 4.4 The Lindos-Pefkos Road Cutting were superimposed (Hansen 1999, 2001; Nelson et Th e Lindos-Pefk os Road Cutting is located on the al. 2001). SE fl ank of Zata Mountain (altitude: 359 m) SW of Rhodes is the largest Dodecanese island, co- Lindos (Fig. 4.3A), consisting of Lindos Limesto- vering 1404 km2. Its modern topography was cre- ne. On its SE fl ank, a fl at ridge (herein called Zata ated by Neogene pre-Pliocene fault tectonics. Th e Ridge) is developed with two terrace levels (100 m pre-Pliocene rocks consist of ophiolite complexes and 120 m) bounded by steep cliff s. Zata Mountain (Jurassic to Cretaceous), Mesozoic carbonates and is intersected by several micrograbens with widths Tertiary fl ysch (Mutti et al. 1970). In the region of of up to 30 m, running in a NW-SE direction (Fig. Lindos the pre-Pliocene rocks are represented by 4.3B). a Cenomanian carbonate ramp, the ‘Lindos Lime- Th e observed laterally discontinuous Plio-Pleis- stone’ (Mutti et al. 1970). tocene deposits occur in (1) micrograbens or in Th e majority of the Plio-Pleistocene deposits are their downslope extension (localities 1, 2, 3; Figs. restricted to the eastern part of Rhodes. Th e north 4.3C-c, 4.4), (2) at the foot of former submarine of Rhodes is dominated by marine facies contras- cliff s or fault planes (locality 4; Figs. 4.3C-c, 4.5), ting with terrestrial facies in the south (Fig. 4.1B; (3) in erosional depressions in the Lindos Limesto- Meulenkamp et al. 1972). Th e marine deposits are ne (localities 5, 6; Figs. 4.3C-a, 4.6) and (4) in base- generally preserved in graben systems functioning ment neptunian dykes (locality 6; Fig. 4.3C-b). as depocentres with widths of a few kilometres At localities 1 and 2 (Fig. 4.3) the depositional down to a few metres (Hanken et al. 1996; Hansen lenses are separated by a microhorst of Lindos 1999, 2001). Th ese micrograbens widen in a SE di- Limestone. Th e Plio-Pleistocene deposits can be rection and are connected to the Levantine Basin. traced upslope from the road cutting to the lower Th e Plio-Pleistocene deposits comprise marine and terrace level on the Zata Ridge (locality 6) and terrestrial siliciclastic facies as well as temperate show thicknesses up to 2.5 m. Th e Plio-Pleistocene carbonate facies. Both facies developed on a small deposits at locality 3 were deposited in a microgra- island shelf structured by a complex topography. ben where the Lindos Limestone fault planes show an intense bioerosion. Locality 4 represents a de- 4.3 Stratigraphy posit at the foot of a former submarine cliff (Fig. Th e stratigraphic framework for the Plio-Pleis- 4.5). Th e deposits in erosional depressions, caused tocene deposits on Rhodes (Fig. 4.2) was establis- by the negative relief of Lindos Limestone, show a hed by Mutti et al. (1970) and Meulenkamp et al. maximum thickness of 5 m (localities 5 and 6; Fig. (1972), and refi ned by Hanken et al. (1996). It was 4.6). Basement neptunian dykes occur subparallel defi ned in relatively large depocentres with good or perpendicular to the edges of the terraces or to exposure. Th e deposits described in this study be- graben faults and show widths of up to 0.5 – 1 m long to the Rhodes Formation. (not studied in detail; locality 6). According to Hanken et al. (1996), the Rhodes Th e Plio-Pleistocene deposits could be diff e- Formation records one major trangressive-regres- rentiated into six facies belonging to three ’facies Chapter 4 — Sedimentary systems related to submarine cliff faces 19

Fig. 4.2. Lithostratigraphic nomenclature used by previous workers for the Plio-Pleistocene deposits of NE Rhodes (HL: Haraki Limestone; SPBL: St. Paul´s Bay Limestone; WBBB: Windmill Bay Boulder Bed). Scheme C of Hanken et al. (1996) is followed in this study. Th e local relationships of the lithological units studied immediately to the SW of Lindos are graphically depicted at right. (Legend also for Figs. 4.3 – 4.6).

groups‘ shown in the composite column in Fig. 4.2 4.5.1 Kolymbia Limestone and in idealised stratigraphic columns for all localities in Fig. 4.3D. Th e localities show not only Field appearance and lithology a lateral, but also a vertical discontinuity in their Th e Kolymbia Limestone on Rhodes comprises facies development, so that the composite column a wide variety of facies having contrasting litholo- results from the integration of stratigraphic logs gies. from localities 4 and 5 (Fig. 4.2, 4.3D). At the Lindos-Pefk os Road Cutting the Kolym- bia Limestone is strictly bound to steep cliff faces 4.5 Facies description and interpretation and micrograbens, and at localities 3 and 4 shows a Th e Plio-Pleistocene deposits at the Lindos-Pef- wedge-shaped geometry. Th e Kolymbia Limestone kos Road Cutting can be subdivided into three `fa- consists of a rud- to fl oatstone rich in angular and cies groups´: Kolymbia Limestone, St. Paul’s Bay ungraded Lindos Limestone clasts and boulders Limestone and Cape Arkhangelos Calcarenite. having diameters up to 80 cm (Fig. 4.8A). Its thick- Th e Cape Arkhangelos Calcarenite is further sub- ness and the grain-size of Lindos Limestone clasts divided into 4 facies types: Bryozoan-Brachiopod decrease with increasing distance from Lindos Li- Facies (F1), Mytilaster Facies (F2), Serpulid Facies mestone cliff faces. (F3) and Neptunian Dyke Facies (F4). 20 Chapter 4 — Sedimentary systems related to submarine cliff faces : C s or : Detailed map map Detailed : B and A

: Idealised stratigraphic columns columns stratigraphic : Idealised Fig. 4.3. Fig. tec- showing area research the of locali- examined and faults tonic sepa- laterally are ties. All localities Lindosrated by Limestone. Note Localities 1 of the positions that extension in downslope 3 are to fault (additional micrograbens of 1996). et al. Hanken from data Schematic sketch through the slope through sketch Schematic the deposi- Zata showing Ridge of the Plio-Pleistocene of sites tional restrictedsediments to erosional in Lindos Limestone depressions dykes neptunian basement (a), to their or micrograbens to (b), and as the as well extensions downslope cliff submarine former of foot in Fig. 4.2). (c, legend plains fault D all sections. of Chapter 4 — Sedimentary systems related to submarine cliff faces 21

Contacts Facies Th e Kolymbia Limestone directly overlies the Th e matrix (sediment between the components Lindos Limestone. Th ese Lindos Limestone sur- > 2 mm) between the Lindos Limestone clasts faces are intensely bioeroded. At the top a hard- (> 5 cm) is a packstone (seldom grainstone) do- ground is developed, partly overprinted by micro- minated by red-algal clasts, bryozoans, and sand- stylolites. sized Lindos Limestone clasts (Fig. 4.8C). Locally, encrusting and rarely branching red algae as well

Fig. 4.4. Locality 2 represents a sediment wedge in downslope extension of a micrograben (type 1, legend in Fig. 4.2).

Fig. 4.5. Locality 4 represents a more proximal facies in direct contact with a cliff face (type 2, legend in Fig. 4.2). Features of the three facies boundaries are indicated by icons. 22 Chapter 4 — Sedimentary systems related to submarine cliff faces

Fig. 4.6. Locality 5 represents the deposition in a local depression in the Lindos Limestone surface (type 3, legend in Fig. 4.2). Arrowhead: Previous position of bioeroded pavement presented in Fig. 4.11. as small rhodoliths (< 2 cm) occur. Th e bryozoans comprise the body fossil of the boring bivalve, Li- are abundant, showing dominantly encrusting and thophaga lithophaga. In subcommunity B only the erect robust growth-forms. To a minor degree the base of G. torpedo is preserved and the surfaces are Kolymbia Limestone contains echinoderms, ser- dominated by sponge borings (Table 4.1). pulids, gastropods, bivalves, coral fragments, as well as benthic and planktonic foraminifers (Fig. Interpretation 4.7, Table 4.1). At the Lindos-Pefk os Road Cutting only the Interparticle pores and vugs are fi lled with mud- proximal, basal part of Kolymbia Limestone is ex- to wackestone with rare foraminifers and other posed, which is rich in Lindos Limestone boulders. biodetritus, commonly followed by an inverse gra- It is interpreted as rock fall, on account of its oc- ded internal sediment that grades from a mudsto- currence, being bound to steep Lindos Limestone ne into a peloid grainstone. Finally an isopachous cliff s or fault planes, its wedge-shaped distribution bladed spar is developed on the remaining pore and its high content of Lindos Limestone boulders. and vug walls. Th is spar is also dominant in intra- Th e criteria of diff erent depositional processes are particle pores like zooids of bryozoans, concep- presented in Fig. 4.14. tacles of red algae, etc. Syntaxial overgrowths on Trace fossil community 1 is in fact compound, echinoid fragments are rare. Moulds of gastropods and shows evidence of an increase in water depth. and bivalves document the dissolution of aragoni- Where the Lindos Limestone was rapidly covered tic components. with sediment aft er colonisation in very shallow water (0 – 10 m), complete specimens of Gas- Bioerosion trochaenolites torpedo are preserved containing Th e bioerosional trace fossil assemblage (defi ned Lithophaga lithophaga. In the Mediterranean Sea as community 1; Fig. 4.8B) on the Lindos Limesto- L. lithophaga is largely restricted to 0 – 10 m ne clasts is highly variable. Small clasts are domi- (Kleemann 1973, 1974). However, where the nated by completely bioeroded surfaces, while big Lindos Limestone remained exposed longer, G. boulders show bioerosion limited to one side only. torpedo was truncated posteriorly by continued Generally, there occur two subcommunities (Table bioerosion by sponge borings in water depths 4.1) on the clast surfaces as well as cliff surfaces co- > 10 m (Bromley & Asgaard 1993). vered by Kolymbia Limestone. Subcommunity A Th erefore the Kolymbia Limestone is interpreted shows specimens of Gastrochaenolites torpedo that as a deepening-upward succession with fi nal depo- are preserved tolerably complete and commonly sition above storm wave base (< 40 – 60 m). Diage- Chapter 4 — Sedimentary systems related to submarine cliff faces 23

Fig. 4.7. Semi-quantitative plots of the organism association of the diff erent facies.

Table 4.1. Fossil and trace fossil assemblages at Lindos-Pefk os Road Cutting Facies name Fossil assemblage Trace fossil assemblage Kolymbia Limestone Major constituents: branching and laminar red algae, Community 1: rhodoliths, bryozoans Subcommunity A: Minor constituents: bryoliths (encrusting bryozoans with Gastrochaenolites torpedo Kelly & a spherical shape), echinoderms, gastropods (chiefl y ver- Bromley, 1984 metids), bivalves, Cladocora caespitosa (Linné, 1758) Suncommunity B: Foraminifers: benthic (dominated by Elphidium sp. and mi- Entobia gonoides Bromley & As- liolids), planktonic gaard, 1993, E. ovula Bromley & D’Alessandro, 1984, E. volzi Brom- ley & D’Alessandro, 1984, E. laquea Bromley & D’Alessandro, 1984, E. parva Bromley & D’Alessandro, 1989, E. magna Bromley & D’Alessandro, 1989, E. gigantea Bromley & D’Alessandro, 1989, E. isp. (Form A of Bromley and D’Alessandro, 1984) St. Paul’s Bay Limestone Major constituents: Lophelia pertusa (Linné, 1758), Ma- On basement surfaces: drepora oculata Linné, 1758, Desmophyllum cristagalli Milne Community 1 overprinted by com- Edwards & Haime, 1848, Dendrophyllia cornigera (Lamarck, munity 2: 1816) Entobia geometrica Bromley & Minor constituents: Caryophyllia sp., Gryphus vitreus D’Alessandro, 1984, Trypanites isp. (Born, 1778), Terebratula grandis Blumenbach, 1803, large oysters, bryozoans, serpulids, pteropods, crustaceans, red In bioclasts: algae, echinoderms, ostracods Entobia ispp., Saccomorpha isp., Foraminifers: Orbulina universa d’Orbigny, 1839, Globigeri- Orthogonum isp. noides ruber (d’Orbigny, 1839), Hyalinea balthica (Schröter, 1783), Ammonia sp., Cibicides sp., Hyrrokkin sarcophaga Cedhagen, 1994, miliolid and agglutinated foraminifers 24 Chapter 4 — Sedimentary systems related to submarine cliff faces

Table 4.1. continued. Facies name Fossil assemblage Trace fossil assemblage Brozoan-Brachiopod Major constituents: Bryozoans (dominated by erect robust Bases of community 1 overprinted Facies and delicate growth-forms), Argyrotheca spp., Megerlia trun- by community 3: (Cape Arkhangelos Cal- cata (Linné, 1767), Terebratulina retusa (Linné, 1758), echin- Entobia ovula Bromley & carenite) oderms, red algae (rarely geniculates) and micro-rhodoliths D’Alessandro, 1984 (domi- Minor constituents: gastropod and bivalves (as moulds), nant), E. geometrica Bromley & ostracods D’Alessandro, 1984, E. cateniformis Foraminifers: Gypsina sp., Pyrgo sp., agglutinated and other Bromley & D’Alessandro, 1984, E. benthic foraminifers, Orbulina sp. and other planktonic fo- paradoxa Fischer, 1868 raminifers (rare) Mytilaster Facies Major constituents: Mytilaster sp., bryozoans (dominated Community 4: (Cape Arkhangelos Cal- by erect delicate, robust and foliaceous growth-forms) Maeandropolydora isp., Trypanites carenite) Minor constituents: Serpulids, echinoderms, red algae (as isp., Entobia ispp. overgrowth on Mytilaster), gastropods, Mytilus galloprovin- cialis Lamarck, 1819, Clanculus corallinus (Gmelin, 1791), Anomia sp., Arca sp., veneroid and other bivalves Foraminifers: Quinqueloculina sp., Triloculina sp., Spirolocu- lina sp., Pyrgo sp. and other miliolids, Gypsina sp. (locally common) and other benthic as well as fragmented planktonic foraminifers

Serpulid Facies Major constituents: Serpulids Algae microborings (Cape Arkhangelos Cal- Minor constituents: Echinoid spines, bryozoans (dominat- carenite) ed by encrusting growth-forms) Foraminifers: Orbulina sp., Globigerinoides ruber (d’Orbigny, 1839) and other planktonic foraminifers, Cibicides sp., Trilo- culina sp., Spiroloculina sp., agglutinated and other benthic foraminifers Neptune Dyke Facies Major constituents: Bivalves Maeandropolydora isp., Entobia (Cape Arkhangelos Cal- Minor constituents: Bryozoans (encrusting and erect rigid ispp. carenite) growth-forms)

nesis is dominated by intense lithifi cation by early St. Paul’s Bay Limestone seem to be in life position marine isopachous bladed spar and rare syntaxial (Fig. 4.9A). overgrowth cements as well as early dissolution of aragonitic components. Contacts Th e St. Paul’s Bay Limestone overlies the Lin- 4.5.2 St. Paul’s Bay Limestone dos Limestone or discordantly the Kolymbia Limestone. Th e top is developed as a hardground Field appearance and lithology showing Th alassinoides paradoxicus (Woodward, Th e occurrence of the ’white coral community’, 1830) burrows overprinted by Entobia ispp., sub- dominated by Lophelia pertusa (abundant, Fig. sequently fi lled with Mytilaster Facies (F2) of Cape 4.9C), Madrepora oculata (rare), Desmophyllum Arkhangelos Calcarenite. Th e hardground and cristagalli (rare, Fig. 4.9B) and Dendrophyllia cor- burrow surfaces are strongly Fe/Mn-impregnated. nigera (rare), is indicative for the St. Paul’s Bay Limestone, outcropping only in localities 4 and Facies 6. At locality 4 the St. Paul’s Bay Limestone shows Components > 2 mm are dominated by the azoo- a wedge-shaped geometry, while at locality 6 it is xanthellate corals of the ’white coral community’. developed as an approximately 30 cm thick layer Brachiopods (locally common, Fig. 4.9B, Table 4.1) in a Lindos Limestone depression. In locality 4 the and large oysters complete the macrofossil assemb- St. Paul’s Bay Limestone consists of a fl oatstone lage (Fig. 4.9A). Th e brachiopods and oysters occur with a complex fabric, consisting of sediment zo- dominantly at the base of St. Paul’s Bay Limestone. nes that can be distinguished by their discontinu- Th e St. Paul’s Bay Limestone (Fig. 4.7) shows a ity surfaces. While most components > 2 mm are complex fl oatstone fabric with diff erent sediment preserved as fragments, the oysters at the base of zones separated by discontinuity surfaces. All zo- Chapter 4 — Sedimentary systems related to submarine cliff faces 25 nes consist of allochthonous fl oat- or wackestones. ga as well as serpulids and bryozoans rarely occur Th ey can be distinguished by their deviate macro- encrusted on L. pertusa. Serpulids and bryozo- fossil content, by the intensity of the iron-mangane- ans with erect, delicate growth-forms occur also se impregnation and by the state of lithifi cation of as fragments in the matrix. Red-algal clasts occur their discontinuity surfaces. Th e wackestone matri- rarely. Crustacean fragments are common (Table ces of all sediment zones are rich in planktonic fora- 4.1). minifers and micro-lithoclasts of unknown origin Th e St. Paul’s Bay Limestone shows vugs that (Fig. 4.9C). Benthic foraminifers and ostracods are are commonly associated with L. pertusa clasts. also present. Cibicides sp. and Hyrrokkin sarcopha- Th e vugs are fi lled with allochthonous wackesto-

Fig. 4.8. Kolymbia Limestone. A: Breccia of Lindos Limestone clasts with up to 80 cm in diameter, interpreted as rockfall (locality 4). B: Lindos Limestone clast bored with Entobia gigantea (a) and Entobia ovula (b, locality 3). C: Kolymbia Limestone packstone with Lindos Limestone clasts (a), red algal clasts (b), echinoid (c), gastropods (d), Elphidium sp. (e, locality 3). 26 Chapter 4 — Sedimentary systems related to submarine cliff faces

Fig. 4.9. St. Paul’s Bay Limestone. A: Base of St. Paul’s Bay Limestone, rich in encrusting oysters. Note the overlying Cape Arkhangelos Calcarenite (Mytilaster Facies) at top right of the photo. Also as fi ll in Th alassinoides paradoxicus occurring on top of St. Paul’s Bay Limestone (arrowheads, locality 4). B: Desmophyllum cristagalli and large terebratulid brachiopod in wackestone matrix (locality 4). C: Lophelia pertusa in wackestone matrix rich in planktonic foraminifers (locality 4).

ne commonly covered by a complex stratigraphy observed. Th e walls of the remaining porespace at of internal sediments and isopachous bladed spar. the top of the vug as well as the interparticle pores Th e internal sediments show typically an inverse of the peloid grainstone are lined with isopachous gradation from a nearly fossil-free mudstone, gra- bladed spar. ding into a peloid grainstone. Multiple generati- Molluscs, corals and other primary aragonitic ons of these inverse graded vug fi llings are rarely organisms are still preserved in their original ara- Chapter 4 — Sedimentary systems related to submarine cliff faces 27 gonitic mineralogy. Dissolution is restricted exclu- Conspicuous are the centimetre-sized vugs of sively to the centres of calcifi cation of corals (Tit- unknown origin in St. Paul’s Bay Limestone, com- schack & Freiwald 2005). monly associated with Lophelia pertusa clasts. However, when compared with modern analogues Bioerosion in the NE-Atlantic, small burrows and certain or- Typically, the Lindos Limestone surfaces, covered ganic components (for example horn corals, spon- by St. Paul’s Bay Limestone, show the trace fossil ges, etc.) that leave vugs aft er their decay, are pos- community 1, which is overprinted by Entobia geo- sible precursors (Freiwald 2002). metrica and Trypanites isp. (2-3 mm wide; defi ned Trace fossil community 2 is unusual in that spon- as community 2; Table 4.1). In trace fossil com- ge borings are reduced in abundance and Trypa- munity 2, Trypanites postdates Entobia. In some nites is locally abundant. Th is is in great contrast places trace fossil community 1 is missing and tra- to the bioerosion communities in still aphotic con- ce fossil community 2 occurs alone. Bioclasts are ditions reported by Bromley & Asgaard (1993) in commonly extensively bored with Entobia ispp. Pliocene rockground elsewhere on Rhodes. Th e and Saccomorpha isp. microborings. Orthogonum environmental parameters responsible for this im- isp. microborings occur rarely. poverishment may be related to low oxygen pressure. Interpretation Th e occurrence of Th alassinoides paradoxicus at Th e St. Paul’s Bay Limestone is characterised by the top of the St. Paul’s Bay Limestone, a trace fossil the ’white coral community’, which indicates a wa- that is commonly associated with fi rm substrate at ter depth deeper than 300 m in the Mediterranean depositional hiatuses prior to hardground develop- Sea (Zibrowius 1987). Th is is supported by the do- ment (Bromley 1967, 1975), is taken as evidence for minance of planktonic foraminifers in the mud- to a long period of condensed sedimentation. During wackestone matrix typical for shallow bathyal de- this period, the burrows remained open and their posits. Further support is provided by the aphotic walls were mineralized and bioeroded, later to be Saccomorpha clava / Orthogonum lineare – Ichno- fi lled with the initial sediments of the younger My- coenosis in the bioclasts (Glaub 1999). Th e occur- tilaster Facies belonging to the Cape Arkhangelos rence of Hyalinea balthica indicates a Pleistocene Calcarenite. age (Partridge 1997). Th e facies distribution is linked to fault sys- 4.5.3 Cape Arkhangelos Calcarenite tems and palaeocliff s comparable to the Kolymbia Th e Cape Arkhangelos Calcarenite can be sub- Limestone. For the St. Paul’s Bay Limestone in the divided into four facies: the Bryozoan-Brachiopod Lindos Limestone depression at locality 6, a parau- Facies (F1), the Mytilaster Facies (F2), the Serpulid tochthonous deposition is proposed, because of the Facies (F3) and the Neptunian Dyke Facies (F4). elevated position on top of the Lindos Limestone At St. Paul’s Bay F1 overlies Lindos Bay Clay and cliff and the sheet-like geometry. Th is is in con- St. Paul’s Bay Limestone. F2 is comparable with the trast to locality 4, where deposition via debris falls facies description of Hanken et al. (1996) for the is likely because of the following features: the steep Cape Arkhangelos Calcarenite. F1 to F4 crop out at slope angle of the Lindos Limestone cliff (> 30°), locality 5, clearly illustrating their age-relationship the low horizontal transport distances (< 20 m), (Fig. 4.6). the wedge-shaped geometry, the lack of grading, the complex fabric, indicating multiple resedimen- Bryozoan-Brachiopod Facies (F1; Figs. 4.7, 4.10) tation events, the variability in fragmentation and Field appearance and lithology — Th e Bryozoan- bioerosion, and the occurrence of constituents of Brachiopod Facies is a rudstone, rarely a grainsto- the photic zone. Th ese features indicate gravita- ne, rich in bryozoans and articulated brachiopods tional transport along a steep palaeorelief over a (Fig. 4.10B). It occurs as the basal facies and has vertical interval of at least 150 to 200 m. Th is is in a maximum thickness of 3 m at locality 5. In all accordance with Titschack & Freiwald (2005) stu- other localities the Bryozoan-Brachiopod Facies is dy on the St. Paul’s Bay Limestone. absent. Its beds show varying thicknesses between Th e reduced dissolution of aragonite in compa- 10 and 20 cm (Fig. 4.10A). rison to the Kolymbia Limestone is interpreted as Contacts —Th e Bryozoan-Brachiopod Facies di- the consequence of a low primary permeability rectly overlies Lindos Limestone and is itself over- caused by the mud- to wackestone matrix. lain by Mytilaster Facies (F2). A neptunian dyke 28 Chapter 4 — Sedimentary systems related to submarine cliff faces penetrates through F2 and F1 in locality 5 and is red algae, and micro-rhodoliths, are commonly refi lled with Neptunian Dyke Facies (F4). cognised. Facies (Fig. 4.7)— Th e bryozoan assemblage is In each bed the matrix consists of a basal grains- dominated by erect, robust to delicate growth- tone layer rich in micro-lithoclasts and benthic forms, whereas foliaceous and encrusting bryozo- foraminifers, grading upward into an iron-pig- ans are generally rare (Fig. 4.10C). Th e brachiopod mented wackestone. Planktonic foraminifers and assemblage is dominated by Argyrotheca spp., Me- ostracods occur rarely. gerlia truncata and Terebratulina retusa. Echinoid No aragonite is preserved. Moulds of gastropods spines and fragments of red algae, rarely geniculate or other originally aragonitic organisms are rare.

Fig. 4.10. Cape Arkhangelos Calcarenite, Bryozoan-Brachiopod Facies (F1). A: Alteration of unlithifi ed and lithifi ed layers (locality 5). B: Sediment washed out of unlithifi ed layer with erect rigid, robust bryozoans (a), fenestrate bryozoans (b) and the brachiopods Terebratulina retusa (c) (locality 5). C: Pack- to grainstone dominated by erect, rigid bryozoans (a) and brachiopods (b). Vugs show rims of isopachous bladed spar (locality 5). Chapter 4 — Sedimentary systems related to submarine cliff faces 29

Fig. 4.11. Palimpsest bioerosion ichnofabrics on Lindos Limestone surface beneath the Bryozoan-Brachiopod Facies of Cape Arkhangelos Calcarenite (SW end of locality 5). A: a: Entobia cateniformis, b: E. ovula. B: a: E. ovula, b: E. paradoxa, c: eroded bases (anterior ends) of Gastrochaenolites torpedo. Th is trace fossil assemblage is interpreted as the trace fossil community 1 overprinted by trace fossil community 3 (see Tab. 4.1).

Lithifi cation is dominated by isopachous bladed the Bryozoan-Brachiopod Facies of at least 80 to spar, which is restricted to intraparticle and in- 120 m is suggested. terparticle pores. Rarely echinoid fragments show In view of the within-bed massive occurrence, syntaxial overgrowths. the quite good sorting, the wedge-like depositional Bioerosion — Lindos Limestone surfaces covered geometry and the Lindos Limestone relief (around by Bryozoan-Brachiopod Facies today are poorly 27°) and no visible impregnation of components, it visible. However, before road-widening in winter is not possible to determine whether the Bryozoan- 1996-7, large areas of these surfaces were exposed, Brachiopod Facies was deposited via a grainfl ow displaying a palimpsest sculpture of two bioerosi- or a debris-fall process (Einsele 2000; see also Fig. onal communities (Fig. 4.11). Trace fossil commu- 4.15). Th e grading from grain- to wackestone ma- nity 1 is represented by the very bases only of large trix of each bed is interpreted as background sedi- Gastrochaenolites torpedo. Overprinted on these is mentation sieved into the grainstone layers. Becau- community 3, which consists of a dominance of se of the redeposition of the Bryozoan-Brachiopod sponge borings (Table 4.1). Facies, the Zata Ridge is suggested as production Interpretation — Th e Bryozoan-Brachiopod area in 80 to 120 m water depth. Th us it appears Facies represents the dominant facies of Cape that fi nal deposition took place in a palaeo-water Arkhangelos Calcarenite in the region of Lindos. depth of > 190 - 230 m due to the present-day al- Further north in St. Paul’s Bay it can reach a thick- titude diff erence of 110 m between Zata Ridge and ness of 7 m. the road cutting. Comparable sediments in the Mediterranean Sea Th e palimpsest bioerosion ichnofabric on the are known from the Rhône delta at 40 to 50 m and Lindos Limestone pavement now overlain by Bry- below approximately 100 m water depth (Lagaaij ozoan-Brachiopod Facies of the Cape Arkhange- & Gautier 1965) and from the Eocene of the N los Calcarenite indicates bioerosion community 1 Aquitaine Basin (France) interpreted as deposited overprinted by 3. Th is suggests replacement of a between 30 and 100 m water depth (Labracherie very shallow-water community by one of deeper 1973). Th e brachiopod assemblage allows a bet- water (Bromley & Asgaard 1993). Only the basal ter water depth estimation. Terebratulina rutusa is parts of G.s torpedo (community 1) have survived known from 3 – 1500 m but most common bet- (Fig. 4.11), demonstrating that a thickness of some ween 100 and 500 m (Curry 1982). In the Medi- 10 cm of limestone has been removed by the work terranean it is known from 100 – 450 m (Logan of community 3. Community 1 may be conside- 1979; Gaetani & Sacca 1984). Megerlia truncata red to represent remains of Kolymbia Limestone shows a slightly shallower occurrence between 10 bioerosion. Nothing indicative of St. Paul’s Bay and 400 m (Logan 1979). Argyrotheca spp. is well- Limestone bioerosion is preserved at this site, and known from water depths < 100 m (max. 150 m; community 3 has probably obliterated that phase. Logan 1979). Th erefore, a palaeo-water depth for Th at which remains today represents early Cape 30 Chapter 4 — Sedimentary systems related to submarine cliff faces

Arkhangelos Calcarenite bioerosion, smothered occur commonly. Bryozoans are also common in and thereby preserved by the deposition of the variable amounts. Th ey are dominated by erect, Bryozoan-Brachiopod Facies sediments. rigid, delicate as well as robust, and foliaceous Dissolution is enhanced when compared with growth-forms, whereas encrusting growth-forms the St. Paul’s Bay Limestone. All primary arago- rarely occur. Serpulids are common locally. Echi- nitic shells are dissolved and few are preserved as noderms, red algae (as overgrowth on Mytilaster), moulds. Th is is possibly due to the open pore space gastropods and other bivalves are rare (Table 4.1). combined with stronger pore-water circulation Th e matrix shows a complex texture and can be enhancing dissolution of aragonite and facilitating subdivided into three successive sediment genera- the precipitation of isopachous bladed spar. tions. Th e fi rst basal sediment generation consists of a mud- to wackestone poor in foraminifers and Mytilaster Facies (F2) other skeletal clasts. Th e foraminiferal assemblage Field appearance and lithology — Th e Mytilaster is composed of benthic and fragmented planktonic Facies occurs in localities 1, 2, 4 and 5 as well as on foraminifers (Table 4.1). Th e contact to the second the fi rst terrace at locality 6. At localities 1 and 2 it sediment generation is gradational. In contrast to occurs in the downslope extension of micrograbens the fi rst, the second and third sediment genera- as lens-shaped lithosomes with thicknesses of 1.5 tions grade inversely from a nearly fossil-free mud- m and 2 m (Fig. 4.4). At locality 4, Mytilaster Fa- stone into a peloid grainstone showing an increase cies is preserved as a sedimentary prism overlying in peloid sizes to the top. Th e second and third se- Kolymbia Limestone and St. Paul’s Bay Limestone diment generations are separated by an isopachous attached to Lindos Limestone (Fig. 4.5). At this lo- bladed spar and diff er by the exclusive occurrence cality, the basal part of the Mytilaster Facies shows of faecal pellets (∅ ∼ 0.6 mm) at the base of the reworked clasts of St. Paul’s Bay Limestone. At lo- third sediment generation. Th e third sediment ge- cality 5 it succeeds the Bryozoan-Brachiopod Fa- neration is also followed by an isopachous bladed cies with a thickness of 1.5 m (Fig. 4.6). At locality spar (Fig. 4.12C). 6 the Mytilaster Facies fi lls a depression in the Lin- Th e distribution of the matrix sediment genera- dos Limestone surface. Th e preservational stage of tions varies vertically and from locality to locality. the Mytilaster Facies is peculiar with an abundant Locality 1 is dominated by the fi rst, while at loca- concave-up orientation of the shells (Fig. 4.12B). lity 2 the second and third sediment generations Contacts — Th e Mytilaster Facies succeeds Lin- predominate. Generally, the lower parts of the out- dos Limestone (localities 1, 2), Kolymbia Lime- crops are richer in the fi rst sediment generation. stone (locality 4), St. Paul’s Bay Limestone (locality Conspicuous is the selective dissolution of the in- 4) and Bryozoan-Brachiopod Facies of Cape Ark- ner, aragonite shell layer of Mytilaster, whereas the hangelos Calcarenite (locality 5). outer, calcite layer is preserved. Th e contacts are complex. At locality 4, the My- Bioerosion — Kolymbia Limestone surfaces over- tilaster Facies succeeds the hardground on top of lain by Mytilaster Facies are hardgrounds and show St. Paul’s Bay Limestone, fi lling the Th alassinoides locally intense bioerosion by trace fossil commu- paradoxicus burrows (Fig. 4.9A). Furthermore, it nity 4 (Table 4.1) with winding, millimetre-wide directly overlies Kolymbia Limestone, where the Maeandropolydora isp. accompanied more rarely contact shows intense bioerosion dominated by by Trypanites, 2-3 mm wide, Entobia ispp. are un- Trypanites isp. Th is contact is partly developed as common. a microstylolite. At locality 5, the Serpulid Facies Interpretation — Th e genus Mytilaster is known succeeds the Mytilaster Facies but the contact is today from the mediolittoral and upper infralitto- not exposed. At localities 1 and 5, neptunian dykes ral zones (0 - ∼50 m), settling on hard substrates penetrate the Mytilaster Facies showing Fe/Mn- and rocky coasts in the Mediterranean Sea (Poppe impregnated surfaces and are fi lled with the Nep- & Goto 1993; Consolado Macedo et al. 1999). Th e tunian Dyke Facies (F4). gastropod Clanculus corallinus is known from com- Facies — Th e Mytilaster Facies is a fl oat- to parable water depths (10 to 60 m; Rubio & Rolán rudstone having a wacke- to grainstone matrix 2002). Th e weak fragmentation and occurrence of characterised by the dominance of weakly frag- articulated Mytilaster shells at locality 6 point to a mented shells of the bivalve Mytilaster sp. (genus redeposition of living mussels over a short trans- according to Hanken et al. 1996; Figs. 4.7, 4.12A, port distance from their living area into a deeper 4.12B). At locality 6, articulated and juvenile shells environment below permanent wave agitation Chapter 4 — Sedimentary systems related to submarine cliff faces 31

(> 20 m). Further transport downslope via debris Th erefore, the top of Zata Ridge is suggested as falls to localities 1, 2, 4 and 5 is suggested, on ac- the potential production area in the mediolittoral count of the short transport distance, the wedge- to upper infralittoral zone (production area 1; Fig. shaped geometry, the steep inclination (> 27°) of 4.16). If this hypothesis is correct, then fi nal de- the palaeorelief and the inverse stacking pattern of position would have taken place in a palaeo-wa- Mytilaster shells (concave-side up). ter depth of 110 – 170 m, corresponding to today’s

Fig. 4.12. Cape Arkhangelos Calcarenite, Mytilaster Facies (F2). A: Mytilaster rudstone with inverse stacking pattern of the shells (locality 2). B: Rudstone dominated by Mytilaster shells with wackestone matrix. Erect rigid bryozoans are also common. Note the inverse stacking pattern of the Mytilaster shells (locality 2). C: Rudstone of Mytilaster shells with inverse stacking pattern. Matrix sediment is restricted to fi llings in the depressions of concave-up shells (a) followed by two generations of internal sediments (b and c) that grade from a mudstone into a peloid grainstone (locality 2). Sediment generation b and c are separated by an isopachous bladed spar. On the base of sediment generation c fecal pellets occur with diameters of approximately 0.6 mm (d). 32 Chapter 4 — Sedimentary systems related to submarine cliff faces

110 m altitude diff erence between localities 1 – 5 serpulid tubes, bioclasts and echinoid spines, toge- and the top of Zata Ridge plus the depth distributi- ther with encrusting and minor amounts of erect on of Mytilaster and Clanculus corallinus (0 – 60 m; rigid bryozoans. Th e matrix is dominated by faecal Fig. 4.16). pellets, planktonic and benthic foraminifers (Table Th e impoverished bioerosion community 4, with 4.1). Th e degree of fragmention of serpulid tubes much reduced endolithic sponge diversity and do- is variable. Th e tubes are largely fi lled with matrix minated by worm borings, indicates some environ- or show only small geopetal voids. Many geopetal mental limiting factor. Today, frequent temporary structures in the serpulids are oriented in diff erent dusting of rock surfaces with sediment is known directions. to inhibit endolithic sponges more seriously than Th e matrix of the serpulid rudstone consists of polychaete worms, and this may be considered a allochthonous mudstone or inversely graded sedi- possible cause for the low endolith diversity bene- ments similar to the middle and upper sediment ath the Mytilaster Facies. generations of the Mytilaster Facies. Isopachous bladed spar is common in intraparticle pores of Serpulid Facies (F3) bioclasts and occurs subsequently to the middle Field appearance and lithology — Th e Serpulid and upper sediment generations. Facies (Figs. 4.7, 4.13) represents the youngest fa- Bioerosion — No macrobioerosion was observed cies of the Cape Arkhangelos Calcarenite in this in the skeletal constituents, although microbioero- region. It is only developed in locality 5, having a sion of the serpulid tubes by algae is seen in thin thickness of approximately 20 cm (Fig. 4.6). Th is sections. Exposures of the contact of this facies unit is laterally zoned in the proximal autochtho- with the Lindos Limestone were too poor to reveal nous serpulid framestone and the distal parauto- evidence of bioerosion. chthonous serpulid rudstone. Interpretation — Favourable conditions for ser- Contacts — Th e Serpulid Facies overlies directly pulid mass occurrence are decrease in competition the Mytilaster Facies. Th e contact is unclear becau- or predation, increased food supply, and probab- se it is not accessible for closer examination. ly larval retention (Ten Hove 1979). According to Facies — Serpulid Framestone: Th e serpulid that author and Ten Hove & Van den Hurk (1993), framestone consists of densely aggregated serpu- serpulid mass occurrences in the Mediterranean lid tubes. Only a few tubes are fi lled with geopetal Sea are restricted in most cases to water depth in- mud- to wackestone. Th e remaining intra- as well tervals of 2 - 30 m, mostly 2 - 15 m. as interparticle pores are walled with thick isopa- Th e photic microborings and the intense ce- chous bladed spar (Fig. 4.13A). mentation by isopachous bladed spar in the ser- Serpulid Rudstone: Th e serpulid rudstone (Fig. pulid framestone, suggesting an active pumping of 4.13B) is dominated by more or less fragmented seawater through the sediment, most likely due to

Fig. 4.13. Cape Arkhangelos Calcarenite, Serpulid Facies (F3). A: Framestone of serpulid tubes. Allochthonous wackestone matrix is restricted to the inner tubes. Note the intense lithifi cation by isopachous bladed spar (locality 5). B: Rudstone of serpulid tubes, showing an enhanced fragmentation of the serpulid tubes and an allochthonous wackestone matrix (locality 5). Chapter 4 — Sedimentary systems related to submarine cliff faces 33 wave agitation, support a site of deposition above bioclasts comparable to the middle and upper sedi- wave base (< 20 m). ment generation of the Mytilaster Facies; however, Th e poor bryozoan assemblage of the serpulid a diff erentiation into chronological generations rudstone indicates a palaeo-water depth around as for the Mytilaster or the Serpulid Facies was 30 m or less (for comparison see Studencki 1988). not possible. Organic clasts, faecal pellets and Lin- However, the neighbouring occurrence of the ser- dos Limestone clasts occur rarely. Bivalves are lo- pulid framestone and rudstone facies at the same cally common. Bryozoans are generally rare and lithological and stratigraphic level at locality 5 sug- dominated by encrusting and erect, rigid growth- gests a parautochthonous deposition of the serpu- forms. Foraminifers are especially rare in the Nep- lid rudstone and therefore a similar palaeodepth tunian Dyke Facies. Isopachous bladed spar occurs for both subfacies of < 30 m, most likely < 15 m only subordinately. water depth. Bioerosion — Th e neptunian dyke-wall surfaces have diminished bioerosion biodiversity and ab- Neptunian Dyke Facies (F4) undance, consisting of local patches of Maean- Field appearance and lithology — Th e Neptuni- dropolydora isp. similar to that in community 4. an Dyke Facies occurs in neptunian dykes running Few, small Entobia ispp. occur also. Th e amount through the Mytilaster Facies at locality 1 (Fig. and diversity of neptunian dyke-wall bioerosion 4.14A) and through Mytilaster Facies and Bryo- no doubt vary according to the distance within the zoan-Brachiopod Facies at locality 5 (Fig. 4.6). It neptunian dyke from the sea fl oor. is unclear if the neptunian dyke in locality 5 cuts Interpretation — Th e Neptunian Dyke Facies through overlying Mytilaster Facies or the Serpulid postdates the deposition of the Mytilaster Facies Facies, because a detailed examination of this part but predates the complete lithifi cation of Mytilaster of the locality is not possible. Facies. Th erefore, it is interpreted as synsedimen- Contacts — Th e neptunian dyke surfaces are Fe/ tary to the Mytilaster Facies or deposited shortly Mn-impregnated and rarely show bioerosion. aft er the Mytilaster Facies. Facies — Th e Neptunian Dyke Facies is a rudstone dominated by clasts classifi ed as Mytilaster 4.6 Discussion Facies because of their similarities in their faunal Th e facies herein defi ned for the Plio-Pleistocene association (Fig. 4.7). deposits of Rhodes provide many characteristics Th ese Mytilaster Facies clasts show a vertical of the Heterozoan Association characterising non- transition from an in situ breccia (Fig. 4.14B) to an tropical carbonates (James & Clarke 1997) by the intraformational breccia containing rounded fi rm- dominance of heterotrophic organisms and the ground clasts, grading into a weakly transported lack of non-skeletal particles such as ooids etc. breccia. Th e matrix between the clasts is composed (Lees & Buller 1972). Non-tropical carbonates have of mudstones and peloid grainstones with common been examined closely on open-ramp systems in

Fig. 4.14. Cape Arkhangelos Calcarenite, Neptunian Dyke Facies (F4). A: Neptunian dyke in Mytilaster Facies. Note the Fe/ Mn-impregnation of the wall-surfaces (locality 1). B: Breccia with rudstone texture rich in clasts of Mytilaster Facies. Note the intraformational character in this photo (locality 1). 34 Chapter 4 — Sedimentary systems related to submarine cliff faces

Australia, New Zealand (Nelson 1988b; Boreen & be correlated with the cycle described by Hanken James 1995; James et al. 2004) and in Miocene ba- et al. (1996) and Hansen (1999) in more extensive sins in Spain (Brachert et al. 2001; Sànchez-Alma- sedimentary basins for the Rhodes Formation. zo et al. 2001) and Italy (Vecsei & Sanders 1999). In contrast, proximal settings related to submarine 4.6.1 Depositional processes cliff s, which are widespread in the modern Medi- Depositional processes related to rocky shores, terranean Sea, are rarely mentioned in the fossil re- submarine steep slopes or cliff s are rarely descri- cord (Johnson 1988, 1992; Evans & Clayton 1998; bed and most of the literature concentrates on Betzler et al. 2000; Hofrichter 2001) possibly on siliciclastic-dominated coarse-grained, sandy or account of the destruction of basin margins during gravely sand delta environments (Semeniuk & uplift . Johnson 1985; Nemec 1990; Mulder & Alexander Environments linked to steep topographies show 2001; Drzewiecki & Simó 2002; Felton 2002). Th e reduced sediment thicknesses, patchy outcrop pat- depositional processes in proximal environments tern in sedimentary prisms, lateral discontinuity of chiefl y depend on the palaeorelief, providing small facies and/or marker horizons, and an enhanced local accommodation loci (metres to hundreds presence of microhabitats and other biocoenoses of metres in scale), and on the available sediment when compared to open basins. Th e patchy distri- (material, grain size, grain sorting). Criteria for bution complicates the correlation with the basin diff erent gravitationally-driven transport mecha- deposits. Th is is, however, needed for stratigraphic nisms are shown in Fig. 4.15 and discussed below control and palaeoenvironmental interpretations. for the Lindos-Pefk os Road Cutting. Th erefore, the integration of several sedimentary prisms in these proximal settings is necessary in Grain ﬂ ow order to reconstruct long-term sedimentary trends Grain fl ows consist of pure sand, characterised by and for correlation with their basinal counterparts their frictional strength because of the role of grain (Figs. 4.2, 4.3). interactions in maintaining the dispersion against Th e Lindos-Pefk os Road Cutting provides a good gravity. Th is strength is refl ected in the relatively example for the reconstruction of a large-scale steep slope angles, generally > 20°, required for the transgressive-regressive sea-level cycle, which can maintenance of steady grain fl ows of uniformly si-

Fig. 4.15. Defi nition and characteristics of proximal depositional processes (sketches modifi ed aft er Nemec 1990). Chapter 4 — Sedimentary systems related to submarine cliff faces 35 zed particles. Th erefore, grain fl ows usually travel can be camoufl aged because of density diff erences only short distances and cover limited areas (Lowe of bioclasts, so that diff erent grain sizes may show 1979; Einsele 1991). similar hydrodynamic properties. Alternatively, Grain-fl ow deposits in marine environments the shape of skeletal components can cause sedi- containing shell debris should show a distinctive mentary textures indicative for sedimentary pro- stacking pattern of shells in random to convex-side cesses. Inverse stacking pattern (concave-side up up position. However, in the case of grains with ir- position) of bivalve shells (see Mytilaster Facies) is regular shapes this important information is pos- suggested here as a potential new criterion for fall- sibly lost. like gravitational transport in carbonate environ- At Lindos-Pefk os Road Cutting the Bryozoan- ments. In contrast to shells transported by fl ows Brachiopod Facies of the Cape Arkhangelos Calca- or currents, showing a predominately convex-side renite represents a candidate for a grain-fl ow depo- up position, shells transported by falling, bouncing sit, because of the lack of matrix, the good sorting and sliding would preferably show an inverse sta- and the rather low inclination of slopes (around cking pattern. 20°). In view of the dominance of bryozoan frag- Alternative models for inverse stacking patterns ments, that are very irregular in shape, as a major are published by Seilacher (1984) and Brett & Sei- sediment constituent, possible primary stacking lacher (1991) suggesting that inverse stacking pat- patterns or sedimentary structures are lost. Th ere- terns are due to resuspension of shells by a seismic fore, no conclusive characterisation is possible. event, and by Emery (1968) and Wilson (1986) who suggested the overturning of shells by the activities Rock falls of burrowing crustaceans. In view of the latter ar- Rock fall is defi ned as individual pieces of gra- guments, inverse stacking patterns alone are not vel- to boulder-sized lithifi ed rocks (hostrock of characteristic for debris falls, but when combined the palaeorelief) becoming dislodged and trans- with a low transport distance, a wedge-shaped geo- ported downslope. Rock-fall deposits form a clast- metry and a steep palaeorelief they could present supported, matrix-lean talus cone at the base of the a powerful criterion for diff erentiating fl ow- from slope (Nemec 1990; Drzewiecki & Simó 2002).Th e fall-like transport processes. Th erefore, the Myti- identifi cation of rock falls in submarine environ- laster Facies is interpreted as a debris-fall deposit. ments is easy because of their similarities to sub- For the St. Paul’s Bay Limestone the occur- aerial rock falls (Nemec 1990). rence of fi ne matrix, indicative of cohesive pres- Th e Kolymbia Limestone with its wedge-shaped sure as the transport mechanism (Fig. 4.15), sug- geometry, the dominance of angular Lindos Lime- gests debris-fl ow transport. In accordance with stone clasts in diff erent sizes and the dominantly Titschack & Freiwald (2005), a debris-fall gravita- clast-supporting texture suggest classifi cation as a tional transport for the St. Paul’s Bay Limestone is rock-fall deposit. Th e exclusively marine bioero- suggested, because of steep slope angles (> 27°) sion and matrix point to a submarine redeposition of Lindos Limestone cliff s in the vicinity of the event. outcrop, low lateral transport distances (< 20 m), the wedge-shaped geometry, the lack of gra- Debris fall ding, the complex fabric including multiple sedi- Debris fall is defi ned as downslope movement ment zones distinguished by their state of lithifi - of typically coarse sand to gravel-sized dispersed cation, geopetal structures pointing in diff erent debris, with freely moving clasts responding to the directions, indicating multiple resedimentation downslope pull of gravity and a minor contribu- events, the variability in fragmentation and bi- tion from clast collision. No mass-fl ow mobility as oerosion, and the occurrence of intraformatio- in debris fl ows occurs. Debris-fall deposits form nal hardgrounds, which suggest long omission coarse, clast-supported bodies at the base of slopes. intervals. Since the fi ne matrix of the St. Paul’s Bay Inverse grading is common, and coarse clasts may Limestone was in a state of lithifi cation during travel farther into the basin (Nemec 1990; Drze- redeposition, it could not support a fl ow mecha- wiecki & Simó 2002). According to Nemec (1990) nism. However, it remains to be tested whether or debris falls dominate on slopes where the slope not fi ne matrix sediment is a sensitive criterion for angle exceeds at least 27°. the diff erentiation of fall- and fl ow-like gravitation In contrast to siliciclastic environments, in car- transport in bathyal as in shallow-water environ- bonate environments lateral and vertical gradation ments. 36 Chapter 4 — Sedimentary systems related to submarine cliff faces

4.6.2 Bioerosion provides small-scale accommodation loci. Th e Th e depositional model correlates well with the Lindos Limestone cliff s, when they were submer- distribution of bioerosion trace fossils. Four dis- ged as submarine environments, are proposed as tinctive communities are defi ned. production areas (Fig. 4.16). Community 1 is associated with the Kolymbia Limestone and has an initial shallow-water phase Kolymbia Limestone (Fig. 4.17A) dominated by Gastrochaenolites torpedo and Ento- Th e marine sedimentation starts with the sub- bia goniodes. Th is is followed, with increasing wa- mergence of the steep Lindos Limestone palaeo- ter depth, by loss of G. torpedo and dominance by relief below sea level, resulting in the intense the sponge borings Entobia ovula, E. goniodes, E. bioerosion of the Lindos Limestone cliff s and the magna and E. gigantea. deposition of the shallow-marine Kolymbia Li- Community 2 is associated with the St. Paul’s mestone. Th e shallow-marine, high-energy envi- Bay Limestone and is dominated by Trypanites and ronment sediment wedges, dominated by Lindos a low diversity and low abundance of sponge bo- Limestone boulders, were deposited via rock falls rings. Th e environmental factor reducing sponge at the foot of cliff s, against fault planes or in micro- dominance is not understood. grabens. Th e large interparticle pores were fi lled Community 3 is associated with the Bryozoan- by a marine pack- to grainstone matrix rich in Brachiopod Facies of the Cape Arkhangelos Cal- bioclasts (mainly red algal) from a shallow-water carenite, and is dominated by Entobia ovula, and environment (above wave base < 20 m). Th e fi rst patchy occurrence of E. geometrica, E. cateniformis terrace (locality 6) is suggested as a potential sour- and E. paradoxa. In this case, the characteristic ce area. Th e trace fossil assemblage of the Lindos sponge borings of community 1, i.e., E. goniodes, Limestone clasts including G. torpedo and E. gonio- E. magna and E. gigantea are apparently missing. des points to fi nal deposition in a shallow-marine Community 4 is similar to community 2 but in- environment. cludes a distinctive Maeandropolydora isp. Evidence for a deepening-upward succession Th us it appears that bioerosion community 1 is in the Kolymbia Limestone is not observed at the normally overprinted by community 3, which in- Lindos-Pefk os Road Cutting, but the succession of dicates an increase in water depth in a similar fa- the bioerosion communities document the deepe- shion to Plio-Pleistocene bioerosion communities ning of the Lindos Limestone surfaces. Furthermo- of northern Rhodes (Bromley & Asgaard 1993). re, the phenomenon is well described from nearby Bioerosion community 2, representing the deepest localities in the Kolymbia Limestone (Bromley & water, is impoverished, especially with regard to Asgaard 1993; Hanken et al. 1996). Entobia, leaving Trypanites to dominate the ichnofabric. Likewise, bioerosion community 4 also is St. Paul’s Bay Limestone (Fig. 4.17B) impoverished in a similar manner, underlying the Th e ongoing transgression led to the submer- shallow-water Mytilaster Facies. gence into the aphotic, shallow bathyal zone Th ese impoverished communities both show un- (> 300 m, Zibrowius 1987). Th is is in accordance inhibited polychaete bioerosion but much reduced with the study by Moissette & Spjeldnæs (1995) sponge colonisation. Th e limiting factor today that on the bryozoans of the Rhodes Formation, sug- commonly causes this result is intermittent and gesting a palaeo-water depth around 300 to 500 m frequent sedimentation. In a bypass situation, al- during maximum transgression. While the top of ternate temporary deposition and re-exposure of Zata Mountain remained in the photic zone (as the hard substrate might cause the selective coloni- evidenced by the contemporaneous import of red sation indicated by bioerosion communities 2 and algal clasts), thickets of the ’white coral community‘ 4. developed on the available hard substrates, mainly submarine cliff s of Lindos Limestone on the slopes 4.6.3 Depositional Model of Zata Mountain (production areas 1 and 2, Figs. Th e depositional model for the Lindos-Pefk os 4.3, 4.16). Th e St. Paul’s Bay Limestone was depo- Road Cutting is mainly aff ected by (1) the large- sited at the foot of submarine cliff s, in depressions scale tectonically-driven transgressive-regressive in the Lindos Limestone surfaces and in basement cycle, and by (2) the steep palaeotopography. Th e neptunian dykes (Titschack & Freiwald 2005). De- Lindos Limestone, with its highly diff erentiated position in depressions in the Lindos Limestone palaeorelief divided into micrograben systems, surfaces on the fi rst terrace is interpreted as par- Chapter 4 — Sedimentary systems related to submarine cliff faces 37

Fig. 4.16. A: Reconstruction of the palaeo-production areas for the deposits of the Lindos-Pefk os Road Cutting based on the cross-section of the Lindos-Pefk os Road Cutting out of Fig. 4.3C. Th e potential production areas, transport processes below wave base or storm wave base are highlighted. Note during deposition of the St. Paul’s Bay Limestone and the Bryozoan-Brachi- opod Facies (F1) of the Cape Arkhangelos Calcarenite production areas 1 and 2 were active. During deposition of the Mytilaster Facies (F2) only production area 1 in the mediolittoral or upper infralittoral was active. B: Estimated position of the sea fl oor relative to the sea level during deposition (not in scale). Shading shows the trend of a deposit to possibly deeper or shallower conditions. autochthonous, whereas deposits at the foot of altitude diff erence of 110 m from Zata Ridge to submarine cliff s and in basement neptunian dykes the road cutting, the fi nal deposition depth is con- are interpreted as debris-fall deposits. Th e resedi- sidered to correspond to a palaeo-water depth of mentation events were potentially triggered by the > 190 - 230 m. A clear diff erentiation whether the collapse of Lophelia-thickets, owing to the intense transport process was a debris fall or a grain fl ow is bioerosion comparable to observations in modern not possible for the Bryozoan-Brachiopod Facies, Lophelia-thickets in the NE-Atlantic (Freiwald & but the fact that the overlying Mytilaster Facies was Wilson 1998; Beuck & Freiwald 2005). Earthqua- deposited via debris falls (indicated by the inverse kes as additional triggers cannot be excluded, espe- stacking pattern of the bivalve shells) suggests that cially in such a tectonically active region. deposition via debris fall also was responsible for the Bryozoan-Brachiopod Facies. Cape Arkhangelos Calcarenite Mytilaster Facies — Th e Mytilaster Facies (F2; Th e Cape Arkhangelos Calcarenite documents Fig. 4.17C) shows a diff erent picture. Because of the regressive phase of the Rhodes Formation with the modern depth-range of Mytilaster in the Medi- its shallowing-upward trend. It is documented by terranean Sea at < 50 m, the top of the Zata Ridge is the palaeodepth interpretation of the Bryozoan- proposed as the most likely production area to be Brachiopod Facies (F1, > 190 – 230 m), the Myti- active in the mediolittoral and upper infralittoral laster Facies (F2, 110 – 170 m at the road cutting; zones (production area 1, Fig. 4.16; Poppe & Goto Fig. 4.17C), and the Serpulid Facies (< 30 m). 1993; Consolado Macedo et al. 1999). Th e wedge- Bryozoan-Brachiopod Facies — Th e Bryozoan- like deposits at localities 1, 2, 4 and 5 are possibly Brachiopod Facies (F1) represents the basal and the result of gravitationally transported matrix- deepest facies of the Cape Arkhangelos Calcare- poor shell sands from the fi rst terrace (locality nite. Th e more elevated parts of Lindos Limestone 6), destabilised by seismic or storm events, and cliff s of Zata Ridge are suggested as production transported downslope over cliff faces or graben areas in a water depth of 80 – 120 m (production shoulders via debris falls. Th e fi nal deposition as areas 1 and 2, Fig. 4.16). Because of the modern debris-fall deposits in downslope extension of mi- 38 Chapter 4 — Sedimentary systems related to submarine cliff faces

Fig. 4.17. Depositional model for 3 time slices (not scaled). A: Th e late Pliocene Kolymbia Limestone. B: Th e early Pleistocene St. Paul’s Bay Limestone and C: Th e Pleistocene Cape Arkhangelos calcarenite (Mytilaster Facies). Chapter 4 — Sedimentary systems related to submarine cliff faces 39 crograbens and at the foot of submarine cliff faces Arkhangelos Calcarenite), as well as possible took place below wave base (wave energy being grain fl ows. too weak to turn shells into the stable convex-up position; Emery 1968). Th erefore, the road cutting • Shell inverse stacking pattern (concave-side up) should have been located at a palaeo-water depth is proposed as a potential proxy for debris-fall of 110 to 170 m during the deposition of the Myti- gravitational transport. laster Facies (F2). Serpulid Facies — Th e Serpulid Facies (F3) is • Th e bioerosion trace fossils occurring in base- subdivided into an autochthonous and parautoch- ment rockgrounds and boulders, in hardgrounds thounous facies. Th e autochthonous serpulid fra- and in skeletal debris, occur in four communi- mestone is interpreted as an analogue to modern ties that correspond well with the bathymetric serpulid build-ups on rocky shores in water depths changes indicated by the sediment facies. < 15 m in the Mediterranean Sea (Ten Hove 1979; Ten Hove & Van den Hurk 1993). Th e serpulid rudstone is interpreted as a parautochthonous reworked variant of the framestone subfacies. Neptunian Dyke Facies — Th e Neptunian Dyke Facies (F5) developed most likely syndepositio- nally or shortly aft er deposition of the Mytilaster Facies (F2).

All facies at the Lindos-Pefk os Road Cutting are dominated by gravitationally transported deposits. A possible trigger for these depositional events as well as for the synsedimentary neptunian dykes could be earthquakes. Th is interpretation is reaso- nable because of the active horst-graben-systems in the region of Lindos and because of the proximity of the Hellenic Arc. However, the proof for seismic events in the fossil record is diffi cult (Seila- cher 1984, 1991; Shiki et al. 2000).

4.7 Conclusions • Th e deposition of temperate carbonates at Lin- dos-Pefk os Road Cutting is connected with complex palaeorelief. Accommodation loci are restricted to micrograbens and their downslope extension, to the foot of steep submarine cliff s, to depressions in the Lindos Limestone surfaces, and to basement neptunian dykes.

• In such a proximal depositional setting, like the Lindos-Pefk os Road Cutting, the integration of several small-scale outcrops is necessary to reconstruct the stratigraphy and the relative sea- level history.

• At the Lindos-Pefk os Road Cutting deposits have resulted predominately from rock falls (Kolymbia Limestone), debris falls (St. Paul’s Bay Limestone, and the Bryozoan-Brachio- pod Facies and Mytilaster Facies of the Cape

5 Sedimentary systems on submarine highs – Facies, sequence stratigraphy and diagenesis of a Late Pleistocene mixed siliciclastic-carbonate warm-temperate red algal reef (Coralligène) on Rhodes, Greece: correlation with global sea-level ﬂ uctuations

5.1 Introduction Studies on the diagenesis of cool-water carbonates are also limited but cover the environmental Sequence stratigraphy is an eff ective method to spectrum from phreatic to vadose, early marine help to rationalise the evolution of sedimentary or meteoric to deep burial (Hood & Nelson 1996; successions through time. It has become an essen- Melim et al. 2002; James et al. 2005; Dix & Nelson tial tool in sedimentology during the last few deca- 2006). Generally, the early marine diagenesis of des (e.g., Vail et al. 1977; Van Wagoner et al. 1988; cool-water carbonates is considered to be domina- Cross & Lessenger 1998), particular in the study ted by dissolution, especially of aragonitic or high of siliciclastic and tropical carbonate sedimentary magnesium calcite particles, due to lower tempe- systems. Studies of cool-water carbonates are more ratures, a higher CO2 content and therefore a de- limited and oft en compared with sequence-stra- creased level in carbonate saturation of the ocean tigraphic models of siliciclastic shelves (Nelson water (Alexandersson 1974, 1979; Nelson 1988b; 1988a; Betzler et al. 1995, 1997b; Feary & James Smith & Nelson 2003). Further the dominant calci- 1995; Brachert et al. 1996; Fornos & Ahr 1997). tic mineralogy of many cool-water carbonates em- However, Pomar (1995, 2001) pointed out that Ce- phasises that lithifi cation mostly takes place under nozoic temperate carbonates in the Mediterranean burial conditions (Nelson et al. 1988; Nicolaides & Sea show some departure from standard sequence- Wallace 1997; Nelson & James 2000). Studies on stratigraphic models. Further he suggested that the meteoric diagenesis of cool-water carbonates are controls of the depositional profi le and facies dis- rare (Nelson et al. 2003). tribution are related to the type of carbonate sedi- Diagenetic stabilisation of the aragonite or high- ment being produced, the production loci and the magnesium calcite metastable phases to low-ma- redistribution processes. Th us, sequence-strati- gnesium calcite take place via two mechanisms: graphic interpretations should consider these fac- (1) partial or complete shell dissolution and subse- tors when deciphering the genesis of sedimentary quent calcite spar precipitation, and/or (2) a fi ne- systems. Consequently, standard sequence-strati- scale recrystallisation process in which relics of graphic models, like those for tropical carbonates the primary ultrastructure are preserved as ghost or siliciclastic shelves, should be viewed as end structures in the precipitated calcite spar (Bathurst members of a suite of diff erent sedimentological 1975; Maliva et al. 2000). Th e latter process is fi rst systems. described by Sorby (1879) who named it ‘mole- Modern autochthonous red algal structures are cular change’ Later, it was termed neomorphism well known from the world ocean in tropical as (Folk 1965), paramorphic replacement (Friedman well as in cool-water environments (Minnery 1990 1964), in situ replacement (Bathurst 1975), inver- and references therein; Davies et al. 2004). Th e mo- sion (Folk 1965), in situ conversion or polymor- dern Mediterranean Sea provides diverse red algal phic transformation (see Sandberg et al. 1973). In constructions that are grouped into the intertidal this study the term neomorphism is used. facies trottoir and the deeper shelf facies à praline Th e present study documents a temperate mixed and facies du plateau (platform coralligène) ran- siliciclastic-carbonate occurrence of Late Quater- ging from 20 to 160 m water depth (Coralligène; nary age from Rhodes, Greece, that records an Pérès & Picard 1964; Laubier 1966; Di Geronimo overall regressional trend from a large coralligène- et al. 2002). Comparable fossil counterparts are type red algal reef to aeolian dune sands. Deposi- described, for example, from the Late Pleistocene tional cycles or sequences, as well as cycle hierar- of Sicily (Italy; Kershaw 2000), the Eocene to Mi- chy, have been analysed according to the concept ocene of Malta (Davies 1976; Pedley 1978, 1979; of accommodation space versus sediment supply Bosence 1983) and the Eocene of Italy (Bassi 1998; (A/S ratio), as summarised by Cross & Lessenger Nebelsick & Bassi 2000; Nebelsick et al. 2000) and (1998), Homewood et al. (1999) and Homewood Austria (Rasser 2000; Rasser & Piller 2004). & Eberli (2000). Th is genetic sequence-stratigra- 42 Chapter 5 — Sedimentary systems on submarine highs phic approach was utilised because of: (1) the lack diterranean Basin from the Aegean Sea (Fig. 5.1A). of typical seismic geometries (e.g., onlap, downlap, Th e Hellenic Arc is the suture on which the Afri- toplap) in outcrops, making it diffi cult to identify can plate is subducted below the Anatolian-Aegean distinctive stratal surfaces such as sequence boun- microplate. Th erefore, tectonically driven vertical daries and maximum fl ooding surfaces; and (2) the movements up to several hundred metres are anti- capability to this link genetically the sequence stra- cipated on Rhodes (Hanken et al. 1996; Titschack tigraphy between shallow marine and terrestrial & Freiwald 2005; see also chapter 4). Mutti et al. sedimentary settings. Successful interpretation re- (1970) gave a detailed geological overview with a quires the integration of tropical carbonate as well geological map of the island. Th e stratigraphy of as siliciclastic shelf sequence-stratigraphic models. the Plio-Pleistocene temperate carbonate deposits Finally, the diagentic environment is evaluated on the island, widespread along the northeastern by the characteristics of neomorphic altered bi- coastal stretch (Fig. 5.1B), has been reviewed by valve shells, their comparability in ultrastructure Hanken et al. (1996) and is summarised in Figure alteration to tropical environments, and their oxy- 5.2. gen and carbon stable isotope signature. Further- Th e Late Pleistocene deposits described in this more, the neomorphic alteration is dated. Usually, paper occur at Plimiri, in the southeast of the is- the age of diagenetic events is reconstructed from land (Fig. 5.1B). A reconnaissance geological fabric and cement relationships, which are correla- report of the section was given by Nelson et al. ted with the sedimentary evolution of the studied (2001). Comparable facies types in the north have lithological succession or sedimentary basin. Ab- been assigned to the Lindos Acropolis Formation solute dating of cements with radiometric methods by Hanken et al. (1996). Subsequently, Hansen is problematic, due to the following problems: (1) (2001) argued that the Lindos Acropolis Forma- Cement precipitated from pore water could poten- tion should be included into the regressive upper tially adopt the reservoir age of the pore water. (2) part (Cape Arkhangelos Calcarenite) of the older Cements are oft en formed as thin calcite crusts, Rhodes Formation (Upper Pliocene to Pleisto- which are diffi cult to sample and which do not pro- cene). Nelson et al. (2001) suggested to erect new vide enough material to ensure reliable dating. (3) formations, the ‘Plimiri Algal Limestone’ and ‘Post Neomorphic calcite, if present, provides enough Plimiri units’, for the Late Pleistocene deposits at calcite but possibly was recrystallised in a variable Plimiri. However, until there is better age control closed system with respect to the radioactive ele- and correlation amongst all the Plio-Pleistocene ments. Herein, the Electron Spin Resonance (ESR) deposits on Rhodes, the establishment of a formal dating method is used as potential new method to lithostratigraphic framework at Plimiri is prematu- date neomorphic diagenesis in bivalve shells. Du- re (see also chapter 3.4). In the meantime, the Han- ring the past two decades ESR dating has evolved ken et al. (1996) scheme is retained herein, noting, into a well-established method for dating mollusc where appropriate, the formation names and units shells (Ikeya and Ohmura 1981; Schellmann and defi ned by Nelson et al. (2001) in brackets. Radtke 1999, 2000; Molodkov and Bolikhovskaya 2002). ESR dating is based on the accumulation of 5.3 Locality radiation-induced centres or defects in the carbo- Th e Plimiri outcrop (Fig. 5.3) occupies an east- nate crystal lattice of the mollusc shell. Adopting facing coastal cliff of a promontory on the south- the age of the previous primary aragonite, as pos- eastern side of the island of Rhodes, north of the sible for radiometric dating methods, is not pos- village Plimiri (Figs. 5.1B, 5.1C). Th e cliff face is sible with ESR because radiation-induced centres about 450 m long, with its top approximately 25 to or defects will be eliminated during the neomor- 30 m above sea level. While the promontory itself phic recrystallisation process. Th e obtained ages is dominated by Plio-Pleistocene temperate car- from dating the primary aragonitic as well as ne- bonates, the bays to the north and south contain omorphosed calcitic are used to link the sequence mainly siliciclastic deposits or basement rocks of stratigraphic interpretation to global climate and Tertiary fl ysch with interbedded limestones. sea-level fl uctuations. 5.4 Methods 5.2 Geological setting In 2002 the well-exposed part (about 270 m) of Th e island of Rhodes lies at the eastern margin of the Plimiri outcrop was mapped in detail with the the Hellenic Arc, which separates the eastern Me- focus on lateral and vertical variations in sediment Chapter 5 — Sedimentary systems on submarine highs 43

Fig. 5.1. A: Tectonic overview of the eastern Hellenic Arc with the island of Rhodes in box B. FZ: Fault Zone. B: Map of Rhodes Island with its Plio-Pleistocene deposits. Th e present study area is located on the southeast coast of the island at Plimiri (see box; map modifi ed aft er Mutti et al. 1970). C: Topographic map of the Plimiri area. Th e outcrop is provided by the coastal cliff directly north of Plimiri. D: Map of the Plimiri coastal cliff . Th e positions of logged sections (S1 to S5) are highlighted. 44 Chapter 5 — Sedimentary systems on submarine highs

with Feigl’s solution to diff er aragonite and calcite (Warne 1962). From all samples, thin sections were prepared for the investigation of ultrastructure using a petrographic Zeiss axiophob microscope and a Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM; CamScan 4. Serie; 15 KV). One sample was used for high-resolution stable isotope analysis. Oxygen and carbon stable isotopes were measured with a Kiel III online carbonate preparation line connected to a Th ermoFinnigan 252 masspectrometer at the Institute of Geology, University of Erlangen-Nuremberg. All values are reported in per mil relative to V-PDB by assigning a δ13C value of +1.95‰ and a δ18O value of -2.20‰ Fig. 5.2. Stratigraphy of the Plio-Pleistocene deposits on to NBS19. Th e reproducibility was checked by re- Rhodes (modifi ed aft er Hanken et al., 1996). HL: Haraki plicate analysis of laboratory standards and was Limestone; SPBL: St. Paul’s Bay Limestone; WBBB: Windmill found to be better than ±0.02 for δ13C and ±0.05 Bay Boulder Bed; GAB: Gialos Algal Biolithite. Note the large- for δ18O (1σ). scale transgressive-regressive sea-level cycle, inferred to have Five samples of thick-shelled S. gaederopus were been tectonically driven. further selected for Electron Spin Resonance (ESR) composition, facies and organism associations, as dating. All shells are only partly neomorphosed well as on prominent sedimentary surfaces. Five with an inner primary aragonitic and an outer vertical sections (S1 to S5; Fig. 5.1D) were logged neomorphosed part. Two samples from each shell and sampled in detail. Altogether 83 samples were were taken for dating: a fi rst sample from the inner taken (53 rock samples, 30 fossil samples). 81 thin primary aragonite and a second sample from the sections were analysed. Th e sampled fossils were outer neomorphic calcite spar. During sampling, taxonomically identifi ed. Red algae were identifi ed the mineralogy was checked with Feigl’s solution. in thin sections to genera level by Prof. Dr. M.W. ESR dating was performed at the Geographical In- Rasser and by Dr. M. Brandano. stitute, University Cologne (Germany) by Prof. Dr. 20 samples of the bivalve Spondylus gaederopus Ulrich Radtke following the method described by were sawed and polished. Surfaces were stained Schellmann & Radtke (2000).

Fig. 5.3. Outcrop of the central part of the Plimiri coastal cliff . Th e red algal reef (CF) is underlain by Plio-Pleistocene sediments of the Rhodes Formation (Fig. 5.2). Location of section S1 and S2 are shown in Figure 5.1D. Person (circled) for scale. CF: Coral- ligène Facies; MF: Maerl Facies; SCF: Mixed Siliciclastic-Carbonate Facies. Chapter 5 — Sedimentary systems on submarine highs 45

Th e reliability of the method depends on (1) the les, recognised here by the erection of fi ve lithoty- length of the time interval between the death of pes (Units A – E) in Figure 5.4 and in Table 5.1. the organism and the Uranium uptake by its shell, Unit A, the Basal Conglomerate, is the basal bed (2) subsequent Uranium migration, and (3) mi- of the Coralligène Facies with a thickness of about xing of primary aragonite and neomorphic calcite 10 to 20 cm. It is only observed in the southern spar in the samples. Schellmann & Radtke (1997) part of the section (section S1 and S2; Figs. 5.3, have shown that early Holocene shells already ex- 5.4), being covered by talus debris further north. hibit typical values regarding Uranium uptake, Unit B, the Pebble-rich Framework, is restricted thus reducing the uncertainty introduced by this to the lower part of the Coralligène Facies and is parameter. Uranium migration, however, remains especially prominent in the southern part of the an unsolved problem in ESR dating of molluscs section (S1 and S2 in Fig. 5.4) where the lower part (Schellmann & Radtke 2000). Similarly, mixing of of the Coralligène Facies is not covered by talus de- the aragonite and calcite phases may systematically bris. Its thickness is highly variable, but can be up alter the ESR ages as it would shift primary arago- to 3 m. nite ages to younger and neomorphic calcite ages Unit C, the Framework with Sediment Pockets, to older ages than expected. grades laterally and vertically into Units B and D. Its thickness is variable, but can reach up to 4.5 m. 5.5 Results Unit D, the Dense Framework, is exclusively developed in the upper part of the Coralligène Facies 5.5.1 Coralligène Facies (CF) and is laterally continuous through the whole sec- Field occurrence tion with a thickness of up to 5 m. Units C and D are the dominant ones in the Coralligène Facies. Th e Coralligène Facies (Plimiri Algal Limestone Unit E, the Neptunian Dykes, occur predomi- Units 18 – 22 of Nelson et al. 2001) is an autoch- nantly in the southern part of the section between thonous structure dominated by crustose red algae section S1 and S3 (Figs. 5.3, 5.4). Many of them are with a lateral extension of 450 m and a thickness of restricted to the lower part of the Coralligène Facies up to 9 m (270 m mapped in detail and presented and are “healed” at their tops by the lateral spread herein). Variable amount of siliciclastica produce of red algal growths. Neptunian dykes reaching to- facies heterogeneity and diff erent framework sty- wards the base of the Coralligène Facies oft en bend

Fig.5.4. Key. 46 Chapter 5 — Sedimentary systems on submarine highs

Contacts over in a subhorizontal direction between Units A and B. Th e dykes occasionally intersect to leave the Th e Basal Conglomerate (Unit A) succeeds an Coralligène Facies as discrete blocks. Rarely nep- erosive angular unconformity upon the Pliocene to tunian dykes intersect the Coralligène Facies from Early Pleistocene deposits of the Rhodes Formation the top. (Fig. 5.5A; Kolymbia Limestone and Lindos Bay

Fig. 5.4. Facies map of the Plimiri coastal cliff including lithological and faunal details at each of the fi ve logged sections (S1 to S5; Fig. 5.1D). Lower part of the fi gure shows the sequence-stratigraphic interpretation of the outcrop. RF: Rhodes Formation; Chapter 5 — Sedimentary systems on submarine highs 47

Clay of Hanken et al. 1996; Fig. 5.2). Th e Lindos work), C (Framework with Sediment Pockets) and Bay Clay dips about 15° NE. Th e top of the Basal D (Dense Framework) are gradational. Th e upper Conglomerate is encrusted by red algae from the contact of Unit D with the overlying Maerl Facies is Pebble-rich Framework (Unit B). sharp and developed as a hardground, sculptured All contacts between Units B (Pebble-rich Frame- by bivalve borings of the ichnospecies Gastrochae-

MF: Maerl Facies; SCF: Siliciclastic-Carbonate Mixed Facies; ASF: Aeolian Sand Facies. In vertical sections: m: mud; fs: fi ne sand; cs: coarse sand; fg: fi ne gravel; cg: coarse gravel. 48 Chapter 5 — Sedimentary systems on submarine highs , , Co- , Anomia , Spondylus Flexopect- Aequipect- , , , isp. penetrate isp. Anomia ephip- Anomia Chlamys multi- Chlamys , sp., sp., isp. occur rarely. isp. Chlamys multistriata Chlamys C. , , Lithophaga lithophaga Lithophaga , sp., bivalves, echinoderms bivalves, sp., alassinoides Pecten jacobaeus Pecten are enriched in these enriched dykes. are Th , Cladocora caespitosa Bichordites Aequipecten opercularis Aequipecten , Patella , Haliotis tuberculata lamellosa tuberculata Haliotis , serpulids and bryozoans. , serpulids and Bolma rugosa Bolma , , Chlamys pesfelis Chlamys gaederopus , , serpulids, bryozoans. , serpulids, bryozoans and regular sea ur- regular and , serpulids, bryozoans Luria lurida , Bolma rugosa Bolma Spondylus gaederopus, Lima lima Spondylus gaederopus, Pecten maximus Pecten gaederopus, Spondylus Pecten jacobaeusPecten , Spondylus gaederopus Spondylus Homalopoma sanguineum melobesioid algae, Bolma rugosa Bolma , , , . sp., serpulids, dendroid and encrusting bryozoans. and serpulids, dendroid . sp., , serpulids, bryozoans, regular sea urchins. regular , serpulids, bryozoans, Bolma rugosa Bolma C , spp., spp., spp., spp., spp. spp., spp., spp., Spondylus Anomia ephippium Anomia Pecten jacobaeus Pecten , Bolma rugosa Bolma , , and C. pesfelis Lima lima , , exuosus Lithophyllum gaederopus en opercularis the facies from the top. the facies from pium Columbella rustica Columbella Lithophyllum striata rustica lumbella and benthic foraminifers. benthic and the genera traces of Crustacean burrow Lithophyllum ephippium chins. Lithophyllum Echinoid burrow traces of the genus the genus traces of burrow Echinoid Upper valves from valves Upper Conus mediterraneus Conus en fl C. pesfelis C. pesfelis Lithophyllum lled pockets pockets lled . lled by either coarse sand or gravel. or sand coarse either by lled a matrix grading from packestone at the base into the base into at packestone from grading a matrix erentiated: ll predominates in neptunian dykes penetrating the Coral- penetrating dykes in neptunian ll predominates ll predominates in neptunian dykes in the lower part of the of part in the lower dykes in neptunian ll predominates ne to medium sand consisting of a mixture of quartz grains, base- grains, quartz of a mixture of consisting sand medium ne to base- grains, quartz of a mixture of consisting sand medium ne to is infi is infi is e upper portion of the Plimiri portioncoastal of cliff e upper stabilising encrusting and a loose e crustose algae form network red diff ll types are grainstone at the top. In the upper part basement pebbles encrusted by red algae red pebbles encrusted part basement by the upper In the top. at grainstone discocyclinid fo- reworked and limestone alveolinid Paleogene reworked and com- Corals are occur. bryozoans and in layers enriched rhodoliths raminifers, base. its at mon Coralligène Facies and consists of a mixture of red algal clasts and quartz grains, grains, quartz and algal clasts red of a mixture of consists and Facies Coralligène texture. sand a medium with and well-sorted (2) Th (1) Th trix. with sizes up to 20 cm. Pockets are fi are 20 cm. Pockets to sizes up with salt and foraminiferal wackestone pebbles) and coralligène-type lithoclast peb- lithoclast coralligène-type pebbles) and wackestone foraminiferal salt and matrix. in a grainstone bles ligène Facies from the top and consists of the succeeding Maerl Facies. Maerl the succeeding of consists and the top from Facies ligène ment clasts and reworked red algal clasts. Rhizoliths are more or less absent but but less absent or more are Rhizoliths algal clasts. red reworked and clasts ment 35° is common. to up dips with cross-bedding up of diametres with rhizolites Large algal clasts. red reworked and clasts ment texture. the sediment dominate in length several decimetres 6 cm and to its occur at several to centimetres up of diametres with rhodoliths and clasts base. above). Th above). pebbles. the dominating ickness Lithology Palaeontology - infi Two up to 5 m5 to up ma- packstone to a wacke- with a dense framework Crustose algae form red up to 4.5 m sediment-fi by intersected a dense network Crustose algae form red 0.1 – 0.2 m0.2 – 0.1 metamorphosed ba- pebbles (quartz, basement well-rounded of Conglomerate ca. 0.2 m basement Reworked grains. quartz and algal clasts red by dominated Packstone up to 3 m3 to up pebbles (see basement 50 % of to crustose up algae with of red Framework th of palaeontology lithology and ickness, Th Upper unitUpper 1 m to up fi Well-sorted Lower unitLower 2.5 m to up fi Well-sorted Neptunian Dyke Neptunian E) (Unit Dense Framework Framework Dense D) (Unit Sedi- with Framework Pockets ment C) (Unit Basal Conglomerate Basal Conglomerate A) (Unit Pebble-rich Framework Framework Pebble-rich B) (Unit Maerl Facies (MF) Facies Maerl 2 m to up with rudstone clast algal Red Coralligène Facies (CF) Facies Coralligène 9 m to up Aeolian Sand Facies (ASF) Facies Sand Aeolian 2.5 m to up Siliciclastic-Carbon- Mixed (SCF) Facies ate Facies Th Table 5.1. Table Chapter 5 — Sedimentary systems on submarine highs 49

Fig. 5.5. Coralligène Facies: A, B: Basal Conglomerate (Unit A) with basement clasts (b) and red algal framework clasts (r) overlying directly an angular unconformity developed on top of the Plio-Pleistocene deposits of the Rhodes Formation (in this case the Kolymbia Limestone). C, D: Lower part of the Pebble-rich Framework (Unit B) consists of a loose red algal framework dominated by siliciclastic pebbles. Outcrop as well as thin section observations show clearly the autochthonous framework character of this facies. E, F: Upper part of the Pebble-rich Framework (Unit B) with a dense red algal framework in a siliciclastic pebble-rich matrix that has a much higher content of crustose red algae than the lower part. G, H: Framework with Sediment Pockets (Unit C) in which the sediment pockets are several centimetres across and fi lled by siliciclastic sand and gravel. Coin diameter is 2.5 cm. 50 Chapter 5 — Sedimentary systems on submarine highs nolites lapidicus (Fig. 5.6A; Kelly & Bromley 1984). type lithoclasts (Fig. 5.5B), 0.5 to 4 cm in size. Th e Contacts between the Neptunian Dykes (Unit E) basement pebbles consist of quartz, metamor- and all other units of the Coralligène Facies are al- phosed basalt (Fig. 5.5B) and lithifi ed foraminferal ways sharp. wackestone. Rhodoliths, up to 8 cm across, are common. Serpulids oft en encrust these rhodoliths. Lithology Bivalves, gastropods, serpulids and bryozoans are Th e Basal Conglomerate (Unit A) consists of scarce and patchily distributed (Table 5.1). Th e well-rounded basement pebbles and coralligène- matrix is a medium to coarse sand consisting of

Fig. 5.6. Coralligène Facies: A, B: Dense Framework (Unit D) with packstone matrix. C: Lower valve of Spondylus gaederopus in life position attached to the dense red algal framework. D: Th e bivalve boring trace Gastrochaenolites lapidicus preserved as boring infi ll on top of the Coralligène Facies, indicating the hardground nature of this surface. E, F: Close-up of Neptunian Dyke (Unit E) sediment infi ll consisting of cross-bedded, well-sorted mixed siliciclastic-carbonate sand rich in quartz grains and red algal clasts. Coin diameter is 2.5 cm. Chapter 5 — Sedimentary systems on submarine highs 51 red algal fragments, basement clasts, quartz grains, ded (Fig. 5.6E) and is almost never bioturbated. bryozoans and benthic foraminifers (dominantly Rarely the echinoid burrow Bichordites isp. is ob- miliolids). served. Th e second sediment predominates in nep- Crustose red algae of the Pebble-rich Framework tunian dykes that intersect the Coralligène Facies (Unit B) encrust the top of the Basal Conglome- from the top. It consists of the succeeding Maerl rate. Th roughout the Coralligène Facies the red Facies, a grain- to rudstone dominated by red algal algal assemblage is dominated by Lithophyllum fragments. Upper valves from Spondylus gaedero- spp. Th e Pebble-rich Framework is characterised pus are especially enriched in these dykes. Sedi- by crustose red algal growth forms and highly va- mentary structures are absent. riable amounts of basement pebbles that form up Th e Coralligène Facies from Unit A to Unit D to 50 % of the rock (Fig. 5.5C). Th e crustose red shows a trend from an irregular framework do- algae construct a loose network that baffl es and minated by a high input of coarse siliciclastic se- stabilises the basement pebbles (Fig. 5.5D). Where diment to a dense red algal framework with a fi ne Unit B grades into Unit D (Dense Framework), a siliciclastic matrix. Th is qualitative observation is decrease in basement pebbles and a more regular quantitatively verifi ed in Figure 5.7 by the fi ning- growth of the crustose red algae is observed (Figs. upward trend of the siliciclastic matrix and the up- 5.5E, 5.5F). Serpulids are common, and bivalves, ward increase in carbonate content. gastropods, bryozoans and regular echinoids occur rarely (Table 5.1). Primary ultrastructure and stable isotope Th e Pebble-rich Framework (Unit B) grades la- signature of Spondylus gaederopus terally into the Framework with Sediment Pockets Th e primary ultrustructure of S. gaederopus is (Unit C) which is characterised by a network of herein described in detail because it is necessary dense crustose red algae framework intersected by for understanding the ultrastructural alteration sediment-fi lled pockets up to 20 cm in size (Figs. during neomorphism, as well as for the interpreta- 5.5G, 5.5H). Th e infi lling sediment varies from tion of the stable isotope signature, both data sets coarse sand to gravel and includes scattered fossils. are obtained from shells of this species. Unaltered Serpulids, as well as Anomia ephippium and Bolma shell of S. gaederopus consists of two mineralogies, rugosa, are locally common. Other bivalves (Table an outer, approximately 0.4 – 0.8 cm thick, calcitic 5.1), as well as dendroid and encrusting bryozoans, layer sculptured by growth rings and spines (Fig. are generally rare. 8A; see also Fig. 5.9E for its ultrastructure), and Units B and C grade vertically into the Dense an inner aragonitic layer. Th e outer calcitic layer Framework (Unit D), which is characterised by a shows a more or less uniform thickness from the dense crustose red algal framework with a wacke- hinge to the margin of the shell. Th e contact face to packstone matrix (Figs. 5.6A, 5.6B). Th e crus- to the inner aragonitic layer is sawtooth-shaped tose red algae show a regular growth that stabili- (Fig. 5.8A). Th e inner aragonitic layer of the shell ses the matrix sediment. Th e wacke- to packstone is subdivided into fi rst and second order laminae. matrix consists dominantly of a fi ne to medium Th e fi rst order laminae are approximately 0.5 mm siliciclastic sand in a micritic matrix. Th e fossil thick and show an angle between 20 and 40° to assemblage is dominated by the bivalve Spondylus the contact face to the outer calcitic layer causing gaederopus, which is mostly preserved with its ba- its sawtooth-shape (Figs. 5.8A, 5.9A). Th e second sal right valve in live position (Fig. 5.6C), attached order laminae are perpendicular oriented to the to the framework. Th e bivalves Lima lima, Chla- fi rst order laminae with a second order laminae mys multistriata and C. pesfelis, as well as Bolma diameter of 60 to 90 μm. Th ey are constructed of rugosa, are common. Other gastropods (Table 5.1) two bundles of aragonite needles. Each bundle is and regular echinoids occur rarely. Serpulids and approximately 30 to 50 μm wide. Th e aragonite bryozoans are locally common. needles from the two bundles are oriented in an Th e Neptunian Dykes (Unit E), intersecting all angle of 65° to needles of the other bundle (Fig. other lithologies of the Coralligène Facies, are fi lled 5.9F). Th ese two bundles build the cross-lamellar with two diff erent sediments. Th e fi rst predomina- texture, typical for many molluscs, which is also tes in neptunian dykes in the lower part of the Co- visible under the microscope (Fig. 5.9B). ralligène Facies. It consists of well-sorted medium Stable isotope values from the primary shell of S. sand composed of red algal clasts and quartz grains gaederopus (shell no. 2 in Table 5.2) plot into two (Figs. 5.6E, 5.6F). Th e infi ll is typically cross-bed- distinct clusters. Values of the outer calcite layer 52 Chapter 5 — Sedimentary systems on submarine highs

Fig. 5.7. Composite column of the Plimiri outcrop showing trends in the grain-size distribution of the siliciclastic fraction and the carbonate content, and interpreted transgressive-regressive cycles at diff erent scales. Note that the Coralligène Facies shows a fi ning upward trend in the grain sizes of the siliciclastic fraction and an increase in carbonate content. In contrast, the Maerl Facies shows a coarsening upward trend and a decrease in carbonate content. Key to symboles in Figure 4. RF: Rhodes Forma- tion; UA to UD are the lithologic units in the Coralligène Facies (see Table 5.1); SCF: Mixed Siliciclastic-Carbonate Facies. scatter around 0 ‰ ± 1.5 ‰ for δ18O and δ13C. In centre of the shell (Fig. 5.8B). Th e recrystallised contrast, values of the inner aragonite layer vary neomorphic calcite spar consists of crystals bet- between 1.2 and 2.7 ‰ for δ18O and between 0.7 ween approximately 100 μm and 7 mm in size, and and 2.8 ‰ for δ13C (Fig. 5.10). show ghost structures of the fi rst and second order laminae of the primary aragonitic ultrastructure Diagenesis (Figs. 5.9C, 5.9D). Generally, crystal size increases Cements are rarely observed and, if present, re- from the rim to the centre of the shell. In few cases stricted to conceptacles and singular cells of red the crystal boundaries follow the interfaces of fi rst algae. Neomorphic recrystallised S. gaederopus order laminae. Th e contact between the relic ara- shells oft en show relic primary aragonite in the gonite and the recrystallised neomorphic calcite Chapter 5 — Sedimentary systems on submarine highs 53

ging from –5.7 to –7.3 ‰ are restricted to a denser neomorphic calcite spar (dnCc in Fig. 5.10). Age ESR dating was performed on the lower valves of Spondylus gaederopus from the Coralligène Fa- cies. ESR dating from primary aragonite of the inner shell layer of three shells, which were sampled in life position (out of Unit D; No. 1–3 in Ta- ble 5.2), gave ages between upper Marine Isotope Stage (MIS) 6 and lower MIS 5 (138-96 ka). One transported shell (out of Unit E; No. 4 in Table 5.2) occurred in a neptunian dyke in the lower part of the Coralligène Facies and gave an age in MIS 7 (228 ka). Samples for the ESR dating of the neomorphic calcite spar were obtained from the same shells as for ESR dating of the primary aragonite. All ESR dates of the neomorphic calcite spar have younger ages than the primary aragonite of the same shell Fig. 5.8. Lower valves of Spondylus gaederopus stained with and their dates range from MIS 3 to 5d (No. 1 – Feigl’s solution. A: Valve is well preserved with an outer calcit- 4). ic layer (Cc) and a thick inner aragonitic layer (Ar). B: Valve is dominated by recrystallised neomorphic calcite (nCc). Arago- Palaeoenvironmental interpretation nite (Ar) is only preserved as relics in the central part of the shell (Cc: primary calcite of the outer shell layer). Hofrichter (2001) diff erentiates three coralligène types: (1) the pre-coralligène, a loose red algal framework in shallow water rich in non-calcifying spar exhibits diff erent shapes. Recrystallisation is red and green algae; (2) the coralligène occurring enhanced along the interfaces of fi rst order lami- on rocky substrates; and (3) the platform coral- nae causing smooth reaction surfaces where par- ligène occurring on detrital coastal sediments. allel and sawtooth-shaped reaction surfaces where Principally, coralligène deposits occur in water perpendicular to the interfaces. SEM examinations depths ranging from 20 to 160 m in the modern showed that at the reaction surface the recrystal- Mediterranean Sea (Pérès & Picard 1964; Bosence lised neomorphic calcite spar interfi ngers with the 1985). Th eir distribution depends on the availab- cross-laminar texture of the second order laminae. le substrate type (basement rock or coarse detrital Single aragonitic needles as well as aragonitic need- material) and on the light penetration. Th e Co- le bushes are preserved as inclusions in the recrys- ralligène Facies at Plimiri equates to the platform tallised neomorphic calcite spar still showing the coralligène (type 3) because the red algal frame- orientation of the primary cross-laminar texture work starts growth on the Basal Conglomera- (Figs. 5.9G, 5.9H). With increasing distance from te (Unit A of Coralligène Facies). Th e lower part the reaction surface the aragonite inclusions de- of the Coralligène Facies, with its loose red algal crease but voids are present in the former position framework, has attributes typical of the pre-coral- of the inclusions. Th e voids still show the former ligène described by Hofrichter (2001) and seems to orientation of the aragonite needles of the cross- be comparable to the Recent red algal framework laminar texture (Fig. 5.9G). Further away from the from Lindos (Rhodes) described by Laborel (1961) reaction surface only few voids remain and a pre- in a water depth between 20 and 40 m. Transition ferable orientation cannot be noticed anymore. In- into a type 2 coralligène inland from the coastal stead, clear crystal boundaries of the recrystallised exposure at Plimiri cannot be excluded for the Co- neomorphic calcite spar are visible (Fig. 5.9I). ralligène Facies given the close proximity of out- Th e neomorphic calcite spar exhibits values bet- crops of Tertiary basement rocks in the hinterland. ween –3.0 ‰ and -4.1 ‰ for δ18O and between Lithophyllum as dominant framework builder was –2.7 ‰ and –7.3 ‰ for δ13C. Conspicuous is the also observed by Sartoretto et al. (1996) in living high variability of the δ13C values. Light values ran- coralligène below 20 m in the western Mediterra- 54 Chapter 5 — Sedimentary systems on submarine highs

Fig. 5.9. A-D: Transmitted light microscope pictures of the ultrastructure of Spondylus gaederopus. E-I: Coloured SEM pictures of the ultrastructure of Spondylus gaederopus. Primary aragonite: green. Primary calcite: blue. Neomorphic calcite spar: red. A: Overview of the ultrastructure of a S. gaederopus shell with its outer calcite layer (Cc) and its inner aragonite layer (Ar). Th e inner aragonite layer shows laminae (1st order laminae). B: Close-up of picture A, again with the contact of the outer calcite layer (Cc) to the inner aragonite layer (Ar). Th e 2nd order laminae of the inner aragonite layer are visible, which are oriented Chapter 5 — Sedimentary systems on submarine highs 55

Table 5.2. Electron Spin Resonance (ESR) dates from Spondylus gaederopus. No. Probe preservation Lab- DE U-int U-ext Th -ext K-ext Do Age status number (Gy) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (%) (?Gy/a) (ka) 1 Pal-3-62-Ar in situ K-4485 96.26±8.81 2.47±0.03 0.47±0.03 0.85±0.05 0.07±0.01 797±64 120.70±14.40 1 Pal-3-62-Cc „ K-4486 48.92±7.53 1.08±0.03 „ „ „ 431±29 113.50±19.10 2 Pal-2-47-Ar in situ K-4487 101.04±8.05 2.24±0.04 0.34±0.02 0.57±0.03 0.04±0.01 733±59 137.87±15.60 2 Pal-2-47-Cc „ K-4488 16.73±4.83 1.16±0.04 „ „ „ 342±24 48.90±14.50 3 Pal-3-58-Ar in situ K-4489 60.80±5.34 2.20±0.02 0.33±0.02 0.43±0.03 0.06±0.03 635±50 95.60±11.30 3 Pal-3-58-Cc „ K-4490 29.19±3.45 1.35±0.04 „ „ „ 402±30 72.40±10.10 4 SP5-Ar transported K-4491 192.88±7,59 2.15±0.02 0.49±0.04 1.05±0.06 0.14±0.01 846±69 228.20±20.70 4 SP5-Cc „ K-4492 57.21±7.29 2.10±0.02 „ „ „ 650±46 88.10±12.84 5 Pal-4-76-Ar transported K-4483 142.67±8.18 0.82±0.03 0.73±0.04 0.35±0.02 0.06±0.01 457±34 311.20±29.30 5 Pal-4-76-Cc „ K-4484 60.52±5.60 1.02±0.04 „ „ „ 447±29 135.40±15.30 Ar: Aragonitic core of the shell Cc: Outer neomorphic recrystallised cacite rim of the shell DE(Gy): Past radiation dose U-int: Uranium content of the Spondylus gaederopus shell U-ext: Uranium content of the surrounding sediment Th -ext: Th orium content of the surrounding sediment K-ext: Kalium content of the surrounding sediment Do (?Gy/a): Dose rate nean (see also Cebrián & Ballesteros 2004). Th e af- the northern part of the section. Th is hypothesis fi liation of Lithophyllum to the family Lithophylloi- is supported by the facts (1) that the dykes at the deae underlines the temperate carbonate character base bend from a subvertical into a subhorizontal of the Coralligène Facies (Braga & Aguirre 2001). orientation, showing that the red algal reef reacted Th e occurrence of Spondylus gaederopus, Bolma independently from the underlying substrate, and rugosa, Haliotis tuberculata lamellosa and Colum- (2) that many dykes are “healed” at their top which bella rustica point to a water depth most likely not indicates a syndepositional origin associated with exceeding 50 m during maximum fl ooding condi- discrete events. tions (Poppe & Goto 1991). Neptunian dykes are conspicuous in the southern Sequence-stratigraphic interpretation part of the Plimiri coastal cliff but nearly absent Th e vertical transition from a pre-coralligène to further north. It appears that the dykes occur whe- a platform coralligène in the Coralligène Facies, re the red algal reef overlies the calcarenitic Kolym- as well as the fi ning-upward siliciclastic matrix bia Limestone, while dykes are absent where the and increasing carbonate content of the Coral- red algal reef overlies the Lindos Bay Clay (Figs. ligène Facies (Fig. 5.7), suggest a transgressive (in- 5.3, 5.4). If the dykes were initiated by earthquake crease in the A/S ratio) phase during its deposi- activity then the diff erent geophysical properties of tion. Th erefore, the Coralligène Facies is interpre- these substrates (i.e. calcarenite versus clay), may ted as a transgressive hemicycle (T1) of the lowest have caused cracking of the red algal reef where it cycle shown in the lower portion of Figure 5.4. Th e overlies the calcarenite because of little potential base of the Coralligène Facies (Base of T1) is inter- to absorb seismic waves in contrast to the clay in preted to be a sequence boundary because of the perpendicular to the 1st order laminae (compare Fig. 5.9A). C: Overview picture of the neomorphic front between the primary aragonite (Ar) preserved in the central part and neomorphic recrystallised calcite spar (nCc) in the outer part. 1st order laminae of the central part can be traced into the neomorphic calcite spar. D: Close-up of the neomorphic front in picture C. 2nd order laminae can be traced into the neomorphic calcite spar (nCc; Ar: primary aragonite). E: Ultrastructure of the outer calcite layer. F: Ultrastructure of the primary aragonite in the inner layer. Th e picture exhibits a 2nd order laminae showing a cross-laminar structure. G: Close-up of the neomorphic front showing aragonite needles as relics in the neomorphic calcite spar close to the neomorphic front. With increasing distance from the neomorphic front the amount of relic aragonite needles decreases. Remaining voids still show the orientation of the former aragonite needles. H: Close-up of neomorphic calcite spar with high content of relic aragonite needles. Th e orientation of the needles mimics the cross laminar structure. I: Neomorphic calcite spar further away from the reaction front showing crystal boundaries of large neomorphic spar crystals. Voids are common but a former cross-lamellar orientation is not traceable anymore. 56 Chapter 5 — Sedimentary systems on submarine highs C e 13 rst δ C sec- 13 δ Spondylus e central central e O and O and 18 δ O and O and 18 shell. Section 1 δ of the isotope val- the isotope of

e crossplot shows a shows e crossplot rst order laminae, parallelrst order to Fig. 5.10. Fig. values. tions through a through tions gaederopus fi to parallel was sampled while Section laminae order perpendicular to 2 is sampled fi Picture laminae. second order Th position. sample indicates of rim consists darker outer neomorphic calcite spar (nCc) spar calcite dense neomorphic (dnCc) the primary and outer (Cc). Th layer calcite the of consists whitish core layer primary inner aragonite (Ar). Th shift strong ues of the neomorphic calcite lighter to spar Chapter 5 — Sedimentary systems on submarine highs 57 following further arguments: (1) Th e Coralligène rhodolith beds and the basal Maerl fade out with Facies overlies an angular unconformity across se- decreasing total thickness of the Maerl Facies to diments of the Rhodes Formation, Late Pliocene to the south and north of section S3. Early Pleistocene in age, consisting of calcarenites that grade into upper bathyal clays (i.e. a trans- Contacts gressive hemicycle), and (2) the strong change in Th e contact with the underlying Coralligène Fa- facies from upper bathyal clays (Lindos Bay Clay) cies is a hardground. A sharp contact occurs with to the shallow-marine (< 50 m) Coralligène Facies. the overlying Mixed Siliciclastic-Carbonate Facies. Other comparable red algal reefs, which grew during transgressive phases are described by Davies Lithology et al. (2004) from the eastern Australian shelf and Th e Maerl Facies in the central part of the out- by Zecchin et al. (2004) from Calabria (Italy). crop (between 85 m and 230 m; Fig. 5.4) is ma- croscopically dominated by the occurrence of big 5.5.2 Maerl Facies (MF) colonies (several decimetres in size) of the coral Cladocora caespitosa. Th e coral is oft en preserved Field occurrence in life position, typically attached to the hard- Th e Maerl Facies (Plimiri Algal Limestone Unit ground developed on the underlying Coralligène 23 of Nelson et al. 2001) can be traced laterally Facies. Only rarely does C. caespitosa appear high- throughout the entire Plimiri outcrop. Maximum er in the Maerl Facies, either in live position or as thickness of 2 m is at section S3 (Fig. 5.4) where it clasts. Th e surrounding rudstone is dominated by comprises a lower Maerl unit of a red algal rudsto- red algal clasts over 2 mm size (Fig. 5.11), domina- ne with a fi ne matrix, overlain by one, rarely two, ted by fragments of Lithophyllum spp. and rarely of thin (about 20 cm thick) rhodolith beds. Both the melobesioid algae. Th e matrix is packstone (Figs.

Fig. 5.11. A, B: Basal Maerl Facies: Red algal rudstone with a fi ne mud- to wackestone matrix. Sand-sized siliciclastic components are nearly absent. Note in B that bryozoans oft en form the nuclei of the red algal clasts. C, D: Upper Maerl Facies showing no fi ne matrix, but basement pebbles. In D, an Alveolinid limestone clast (a) and a discocyclid foraminifer (d), both reworked from Palaeogene basement rocks in the hinterland. Coin diameter is 2.5 cm. 58 Chapter 5 — Sedimentary systems on submarine highs

5.11A, 5.11B) that grades vertically into grainstone 50 m (Kühlmann et al. 1991; Poppe & Goto 1991; (Figs. 5.11C, 5.11D), rich in red algal material, Kruzic & Pozar-Domac 2003). Th e occurrence small rhodoliths and bryozoans. In the upper part, of Homalopoma sanguineum, Bolma rugosa basement pebbles occur rarely consisting of rewor- and Columbella rustica, also point to an envi- ked Palaeogene Alveolina-Limestone and rewor- ronment shallower than 50 m. A comparable ked discocyclinid foraminifers (Fig. 5.11D) among maerl biocoenosis is described by Laborel et other basement clasts. Th e basement pebbles are al. (1961) from the Gulf of Lion (south coast of partly encrusted by red algae. France) in a water depth of approximately Th is qualitative facies evolution is also quantita- 34 m. tively recognised by a coarsening-upward trend in the grain-size distribution of the siliciclastic frac- Sequence-stratigraphic interpretation tion, as well as by a decrease in carbonate content Th e decrease in carbonate content as well as in the Maerl Facies (Fig. 5.7). the coarsening-upward trend in the siliciclastic Apart from Cladocora caespitosa, the macrofos- fraction point to a decreasing A/S ratio during sil assemblage is dominated by upper left valves of deposition of the Maerl Facies, and so it is in- Spondylus gaederopus, which are locally accumu- terpreted as a regressive (decreasing ratio of lated directly above the hardground at the base accommodation space versus sediment supply) of the Maerl Facies. Th e shells are mainly orien- hemicycle. Consequently, the base of the Ma- ted convex up. Pecten jacobaeus, Chlamys pesfelis, erl Facies (Surface T1/R1; Fig. 5.7) represents a Bolma rugosa, serpulids and bryozoans are locally maximum fl ooding surface. Th is interpretation common, and there are rare occurrences of Ano- is further supported by the dominance of in mia ephippium, Lima lima, Homalopoma sangui- situ Cladocora caespitosa colonies at the base neum, Lithophaga lithophaga, Chlamys sp. and Co- of the Maerl Facies. Today C. caespitosa is one of the lumbella rustica. few zooxanthellate corals in the Mediterranean Sea with a reef-building (hermatypic) potential under Diagenesis suitable environmental conditions (Laborel 1987; Th e diagenesis of the Maerl Facies is identical to Kühlmann et al. 1991). In tropical settings, reef the diagenesis of the Coralligène Facies and there- growth starts typically above maximum fl ooding fore it is referred to the diagenesis chapter of the surfaces (Brett 1995), and like its tropical coun- Coralligène Facies (chapter 5.5.1). terparts C. caespitosa most likely developed upon a maximum fl ooding surface. Also, hardground Age formation atop the underlying Coralligène Facies One transported shell of Spondylus gaederopus, is consistent with a minimum in sediment supply sampled from the basal part of the Maerl Facies, associated with maximum fl ooding conditions. was selected for ESR dating and yielded a primary aragonite age within MIS 9 (311 ka; No. 5 in Table 5.5.3 Mixed Siliciclastic-Carbonate Facies (SCF) 5.2). Th e neomorphic calcite spar provided an age Field occurrence within MIS 6 (135 ka). Th e Mixed Siliciclastic-Carbonate Facies (Plimi- Palaeoenvironmental interpretation ri Algal Limestone Unit 24 of Nelson et al. 2001) is Maerl formation is bound to the presence of about 20 cm thick and restricted to the northern light, nutrients and water movement. Modern part of the section, which is most likely due to mo- maerl environments typically experience mode- dern erosion. It is a bimodal, graded deposit with rate to strong wave and current actions in open, siliciclastic fi ne to medium sand mixed with gra- but still relatively sheltered, settings such as vel-sized skeletal carbonates. Rhodoliths and re- coastal bays and inlets (Bosence 1979). According worked extraclasts occur at its base (Fig. 5.12A). to Pérès & Picard (1964), maerl predominates in water depths between 25 and 40 m. Nebelsick Contacts (1989) suggested water depths shallower than 25 m Th e Mixed Siliciclastic-Carbonate Facies is in most cases. bounded by sharp contacts at the bottom and top Cladocora caespitosa thickets, as well as Spon- accompanied by a strong facies shift from the car- dylus gaederopus, are well known from the Me- bonate-dominated Maerl Facies below and the sili- diterranean Sea in water depths shallower than ciclastic-dominated Aeolian Sand Facies above. Chapter 5 — Sedimentary systems on submarine highs 59

Fig. 5.12. Mixed Siliciclastic-Carbonate Facies with reworked mudstone clasts (m) and rhodoliths (r) at the base. Th e matrix consists of a packstone with abundant quartz grains and red algal clasts (A is polished slab, B is thin section).

Lithology a carbonate-dominated environment in the Maerl Facies below to a mixed siliciclastic-carbonate en- Th e Mixed Siliciclastic-Carbonate Facies con- vironment. sists of a packstone dominated by red algal clasts and quartz grains. Serpulids, gastropods (rarely 5.5.4 Aeolian Sand Facies (ASF) Conus mediterraneus, Luria lurida and Patella sp.), Field occurrence bivalves, echinoderms and benthic foraminifers, as well as basement clasts, occur subordinately (Figs. Th e Aeolian Sand Facies (Post Plimiri Units, Unit 5.12A, 5.12B). Reworked basement clasts and rho- 28, of Nelson et al. 2001) caps the Plimiri section in doliths, several centimetres in size, occur com- its northern part (baseline 75–260 m in Fig. 5.4). It monly at the base. Th e trace fossil Th alassinoides is is subdivided into two units separated by an erosi- common, penetrating the unit from the top. ve unconformity and has a thickness of up to 2.5 m (Fig. 5.13A). Palaeoenvironmental interpretation Th e depositional environment of the Mixed Sili- Contacts ciclastic-Carbonate Facies is diffi cult to interpret. Th e contact with the underlying Mixed Siliciclas- No water-depth indicative sedimentary structures tic-Carbonate Facies, as well as the erosive uncon- are observed. Th e occurrence of Conus mediterra- formity between the lower and upper unit of the neus, Luria lurida and Patella sp. suggest a shallow, Aeolian Sand Facies, is sharp. quiet marine bay environment in water depth shallower than 60 m, and most likely much shallower. Lithology Th e dominant occurrence of Th alassinoides isp., a Th e Aeolian Sand Facies consists exclusively of typical trace fossil on sandy shelves, attests to low weakly cemented well-sorted fi ne to medium sand. sedimentation rates, at least on top of the Mixed Th e sediment is a mixture of quartz grains, base- Siliciclastic-Carbonate Facies. ment clasts and bioclasts dominated by reworked red algal fragments (Fig. 5.13B). Th e lower unit Sequence-stratigraphic interpretation lacks primary sedimentary structures, but includes Th e large basement clasts at the base, as well as conspicuous rhizolite traces up to 6 cm in diameter the strong bioturbation from the top, pointing to and several decimetres long. Th e rhizolites penet- decreased sediment supply most likely under ma- rate the sediment from the capping unconformity ximum fl ooding conditions, suggest a trangressive on top of the lower unit. Above the base a network trend for the deposition of the Mixed Siliciclastic- of horizontal rhizolite traces is developed. Carbonate Facies. Consequently, it is interpreted Th e upper unit sands are strongly cross-bedded, as a transgressive hemicycle and its base (Surface with foresets dipping up to 35°, and rhizolite tra- R1/T2; Fig. 5.7) as a sequence boundary. Further ces are virtually absent (Fig. 5.13A). Th e erosive support for the interpretation as sequence bounda- boundary at the base of the upper unit clearly cuts ry is provided by the strong change in facies from down into the lower unit of the Aeolian Sand Fa- 60 Chapter 5 — Sedimentary systems on submarine highs

Fig. 5.13. Th e Aeolian Sand Facies is a well-sorted medium to fi ne sand consisting predominantly of quartz grains and red algal clasts. It includes a major erosional surface within the facies (arrow). Below this contact no sedimentary structures are observed apart from rhizolites. Above the surface foresets dipping up to 35° are preserved. Rhizolites are nearly absent in this upper horizon (A is outcrop picture, B is thin section). Hammer 30 cm long. cies. Th e top of the upper unit is represented by the mate of glacial intervals in the eastern Mediterra- present-day soil horizon capping the coastal cliff . nean region is most favourable for the development of aeolianites; (2) the coastal platform must have Palaeoenvironmental interpretation been exposed due to a low sea level or tectonic up- In the eastern Mediterranean region aeolianites lift , or both; and (3) nearly no active coastal dune are described from many coastal plain sections settings are developed today on the island. Th ese from Lebanon, Israel, Egypt, Lybia and Tunisia arguments suggest that interglacial intervals are (Clemmensen et al. 1997; Brooke 2001 and refe- not favourable for the development of coastal du- rences therein). Th ese aeolianites formed during nes on Rhodes. However, as pointed out by Sivan both glacial (Paskoff & Sanlaville 1986; Sivan et al. & Porat (2004), there is no straightforward linka- 1999; Engelmann et al. 2001; Frechen et al. 2001; ge between aeolianite, soil formation and climate. Giraudi 2005) and interglacial times in the Quater- According to these authors aeolianites and soils nary (El-Asmar 1994; El-Asmar & Wood 2000). In can form contemporaneously. Th is can possibly be principle, aeolianite formation is favoured during explained by the strong infl uence of microclimatic dry periods and soil formation during wet peri- and local topographic as well as tectonic infl uences ods. According to Vergnaud Grazzini et al. (1986), on the development of coastal aeolianites. Abso- dry periods in western Europe are linked to glacial lute dating of the Aeolian Sand Facies is needed intervals. Th is interpretation is supported by Bar- to provide more conclusive evidence about its ori- Mathews et al. (2000) who identifi ed several peaks gin. in precipitation, all occurring during interglacial periods. Sequence-stratigraphic interpretation Hansen (2001) described aeolian sediments from Lower unit — Aft er the change from a marine the island of Rhodes as common deposits on a to a terrestrial environment a transgressive trend former wave-cut platform level, approximately 25 (rise in A/S ratio; even if only locally) is needed – 35 m above present sea level. He distinguished to deposit and especially to preserve aeolian sand. diff erent dune shapes throughout the island: coas- Th erefore, the lower unit of the Aeolian Sand Fa- tal dunes, echo dunes and dunes having ramp cies is interpreted as forming during a transgressive morphology, and postulated an interglacial age of hemicycle (T3; Fig. 5.7). Consequently, the surface formation. at its base (Surface T2/T3) is interpreted as a se- Th e Aeolian Sand Facies from Plimiri is com- quence boundary. Th e succeeding regressive hemi- parable to the description of Hansen (2001) in its cycle is not represented by sediments but is instead lithology and altitude from 25 to 35 m above sea recorded by the abundant rhizolites pointing to in- level. However, in contrast to Hansen (2001), here- tensive soil development during regression, which in a formation of the Aeolian Sand Facies during may also have played a major role in stabilisation glacial times is suggested because: (1) the drier cli- and preservation of the aeolian sand. Chapter 5 — Sedimentary systems on submarine highs 61

Upper unit — Th e upper unit of the Aeolian Sand independent signals that have been used for their Facies is, like the lower unit, interpreted as associa- environmental as well as sequence-stratigraphic in- ted with a transgressive hemicycle (T4; Fig. 5.7). terpretation. Fining- or coarsening-upward trends Th e erosive surface at its base (Surface T3/T4) re- of the siliciclastic matrix (Fig. 5.7) are regarded as presents a sequence boundary. Th e top of the Ae- analogous to those used in sequence-stratigraphic olian Sand Facies (top of T4) is also interpreted as models for siliciclastic shelves, while the occur- a sequence boundary. Th e succeeding regressive rence of the potentially reef-building coral Clado- hemicycle is represented by the modern soil atop cora caespitosa is interpreted in the same way as in the Plimiri coastal cliff . models for tropical reefs, where coral reef growth starts predominantly on maximum fl ooding sur- 5.6 Discussion faces (herein surface T1/R1 in Figs. 5.4, 5.7; Brett 1995). 5.6.1 Sequence stratigraphy Th ese observations show the sequence-strati- Sequence-stratigraphic interpretations most graphic independency of cool-water carbonates commonly are based on models developed for from tropical carbonates and siliciclastic shelves, siliciclasitc and tropical carbonate shelf to basin especially when taking into account environments systems (e.g., Emery & Myers 1996). Cool-water like sponge mounds, bryozoan mounds, cold-wa- carbonate dominated shelves are believed to re- ter coral mounds or red algal reefs, and maerl or act more or less like siliciclastic shelves (Schlager sea-grass meadows, all widespread in cool-water 2005), for example they tend to lowstand shed- settings, and all capable of adapting to diff ering ding (Nelson et al. 1982; Schlager 2005). However, water depth, and modulating shelf morphology Schlager (2005) highlights some diff erences: (1) (e.g., Freiwald & Roberts 2005). Perhaps, the stan- cool-water carbonate systems lack point sources of dard sequence-stratigraphic models for siliciclastic sediment input from rivers; (2) they have the capa- shelves and tropical carbonates should be viewed bility to build “reefs”, not at sea level but in greater as end members of a suite of sedimentary systems, water depths; and (3) when compared with their embodied by the diversity of cool-water carbona- tropical counterparts, the production of cool-wa- tes. ter carbonates is more or less independent of depth and temperature, where instead current velocity, 5.6.2 Diagenesis preventing burial by fi ne sediment and suffi cient Neomorphism is a well-studied feature in tro- nutrient supply, may be a prime trigger for deep- pical carbonates (Sandberg et al. 1973; Sandberg water production. Pomar (1995, 2001) illustrates 1985; Wardlaw et al. 1978; Sandberg & Hudson for Cenozoic carbonates from the Mediterranean 1983; Maliva 1995; Maliva et al. 2000), reports that the type of carbonate sediment being pro- from cool-water carbonates are, to date, unknown duced, the production loci and the redistribution to the author. Neomorphism can take place in the processes control the depositional profi le and fa- meteoric, shallow-marine or in the burial environ- cies distribution. Th erefore, these factors should be ment (Sandberg & Hudson 1983; Tan & Hudson taken into account when applying sequence-strati- 1974; Hendry et al. 1995; Melim et al. 2002). Th e graphic methods to cool-water carbonates. neomorphic process is driven by the greater solu- Th is study has applied sequence stratigraphy to a bility of aragonite relative to calcite (Maliva et al. warm-temperate coralligène-type red algal reef at 2000). Th is suggests that the responsible pore fl uid Plimiri, Rhodes Island (Figs. 5.4, 5.7). Like tropi- is undersaturated with respect to aragonite but sa- cal reefs, temperate coralligène-type red algal reefs turated with respect to calcite. Hendry et al. (1995) tend to modulate the sea-fl oor topography, but in propose that the undersaturation with respect to contrast to the former they do not build up to sea aragonite must not necessarily pertain the whole level (Bosence 1985). Th erefore, the deposits from rock pore water but could also be limited to mic- the Plimiri coastal cliff could not be described roenvironments developing in a neomorphic front using the standard sequence-stratigraphic models, fl uid as result of the decay of skeletal organic tissu- neither for tropical carbonates, nor for siliciclastic es of the neomorphosed shell. Th erefore, Hendry shelves. Its sequence-stratigraphic interpretation et al. (1995) as well as Pingitore (1976) and others integrates ideas of both standard sequence-strati- suggest a two-water diagenetic system with a solu- graphic models. Th e mixed siliciclastic-carbonate tion fi lm fl uid, serving as slow moving or immobile character of the deposits at Plimiri include some medium of dissolution-reprecipitation, and a rela- 62 Chapter 5 — Sedimentary systems on submarine highs tively fast moving bulk pore water. In accordance the primary aragonitic cross-lamellar ultrastruc- to these authors, neomorphism takes place in a ture (Fig. 5.9F, 5.14A) immediately aft er aragonite closed system if the exchange rate between solu- dissolution (Figs. 5.9C, 5.9D, 5.9G, 5.9H). Th ereby, tion fi lm fl uid and bulk pore water is low; if the ex- relic aragonite needles are incorporated into the change rate is high, neomorphism takes place in an neomorphic calcite spar (Figs. 5.9G, 5.9H, 5.14B). open system. Th erefore, the lower the water/rock As pointed out by Sandberg et al. (1973), these relic ratio is, the more closed the system is (Hendry et aragonite needles are still in their original orientati- al. 1995). on following the cross-lamellar structure of the se- Martin et al. (1986), based on their research on cond order laminae. Furthermore, the voids of for- diff erences in neomorphism of porous skeletons mer aragonite needles also show the former needle such as corals and dense skeletons (i.e. the gastro- orientation (Figs. 5.9G, 5.14C). With increasing pod Strombus gigas; see also Wardlaw et al. 1978), distance to the neomorphic front, the voids are in- highlighted the infl uence of the skeletal porosity creasingly fi lled with calcite spar due to the ongoing on the degree of system openness during neomor- diagenesis (Figs. 5.9I, 5.14D) until the orientation phism. However, Maliva (1998) proposed that a of the voids is not visible anymore. Th e observati- two-water diagenetic systems, in which the pore ons that aragonite relics enclosed by neomorphic fl uid at the neomorphic front is signifi cantly isola- calcite spar are only found close to the neomorphic ted from the bulk pore water occurs but appears to front (50 – 100 μm) and that void density decrea- be relatively uncommon. ses with increasing distance from the neomorphic Th e ultrastructure alteration during the neomor- front suggest that the relic aragonite needles are phic recrystallisation process was inspiringly illus- dissolved aft er enclosure by the neomorphic calci- trated by Sandberg et al. (1973), Sandberg & Hud- te spar. Subsequently, the voids are infi lled by the son (1983) and others. Maliva et al. (2000) pointed precipitation of calcite spar. Th is is in contradic- out that skeletal aragonite neomorphism proceeds tion to Sandberg & Hudson (1983) who concluded along thin solution fi lms in which calcite replaces that aragonite relics, once encased in neomorphic aragonite volume by volume, because of the den- calcite spar, survive, unless the enclosing calcite is sity diff erences between aragonite and calcite and altered or dissolved. to maintain the closeness of the neomorphic cal- Th e described neomorphic calcite spar abuts cite spar to the primary aragonite. According to former skeletal walls of S. gaederopus and may be Pingitore (1976), neomorphism produces distinct therefore classifi ed as “controlled mosaic” following host-cement relationships in the phreatic or vado- Pingitore (1976), which is typical for neomorphic se meteoric environment. Neomorphic calcite spar calcite spar of the vadose zone. But with crystal si- in phreatic zones, produced by a broader advan- zes commonly of up to 7 mm, it diff ers from the cing zone of chalkifi cation (several millimetres), ‘controlled-mosaic’ that normally exhibit crystal transects the former skeletal walls and shows crys- sizes below 100 μm. Th e general increase in crystal tal sizes exceeding 100 μm with crystals commonly size from the rim to the centre of the neomorphic several millimetres in size (cross-cutting mosaic). calcite spar of S. gaederopus may be interpreted as In contrast, neomorphic calcite spar in vadose zo- a vadose diagenesis with probably an increasing nes, produced by thin-fi lm solution fronts, abut phreatic character over time. Th is interpretation former skeletal walls and shows crystal sizes nor- would also explain the lack of cross-cutting mosaic mally below 100 μm (controlled mosaic). Sandberg at the shell rim and the large neomorphic calcite & Hudson (1983) pointed out that the neomorphic crystals close to the reaction front. fabric of the shallow-marine and deeper-burial en- Th e diff erences of the ultrastructure develop- vironment is similar. ment when compared with the results of Sandberg & Hudson (1983) may be caused by diff erent or- Ultrastructural alteration ganisms studied. Diff erences in the ultrastructure Th e observed ultrastructural alteration in Spon- or the organic coating may cause diff erences in the dylus gaederopus shells from primary aragonite to neomorphic alteration process and the ultrastruc- neomorphic calcite spar is comparable to the ob- ture of the resulting neomorphic calcite spar. An- servations of Sandberg et al. (1973) for tropical other possibility would be a diff ering climate where shells. During the fi ne scale dissolution-precipita- the diagenetic alteration took place, tropical versus tion process, neomorphic calcite spar grows into warm-temperate. Further studies in cool-water Chapter 5 — Sedimentary systems on submarine highs 63

carbonates on diff ering organisms are needed to evaluate the infl uences of varying ultrastructures and organic coatings on the neomorphic alteration process. Stable isotope interpretation Martin et al. (1986) suggested a relatively closed pore-water system in respect to oxygen and carbon isotopes for neomorphism in thick dense mollusc shells, such as Strombus gigas. Spondylus gaederopus exhibits a thick and dense aragonitic shell, which might be comparable to Strombus gigas, if not being even thicker. Taking into account the results of Martin et al. (1986) the stable isotope signature of Spondylus gaederopus should refl ect a neomorphic alteration in a closed pore-water system. But this could not be verifi ed. In contrast, the stable isotope signature of the neomorphic alteration in Spondylus gaederopus resembles that of neomorphosed coral skeletons, which, according to Martin et al. (1986), were altered in an open pore- water system. Th is diff erent behaviour of Spondylus gaederopus shells during neomorphism might be caused by (1) diff ering ultrastructures of the organisms, or (2) diff ering climatic conditions (tropical versus warm-temperate), and therefore diff erences in carbonate saturation, or (3) the location of neomorphism (phreatic or vadose). However, the open-water system character of the neomorphism in Plimiri suggests a high water/rock ratio, which could indicate warm-temperate climatic conditions with enhanced rainfall in comparison to the tropics. Further, the stable isotope signal of the neomorphic calcite spar with its depletion in δ18O suggests a meteoric diagenetic environment (Fig. 5.10). Th e depletion in δ13C of up to –7.3 ‰ points to an additional source of isotopically depleted carbon. Note- worthy is the restriction of stronger depleted δ13C

Fig. 5.14. Conceptual diagenetic evolution resembling a transect from the primary aragonite to the fi nal neomorphic calcite spar. A: primary cross-lamellar structure of the second order laminae of the inner shell layer. B: Neomorphic calcite spar with inclusions of primary aragonite needles, still exhibiting the orientation of aragonite needles from the former primary aragonitic cross-lamellar ultrastructure. C: Neomorphic calcite spar rich in voids. Voids represent the former position of aragonite needles and show still their orientation. D: Final neomorphic calcite spar: voids occur rarely and a former preferred orientation following the primary aragonitic cross-lamellar ultrastructure is not anymore traceable. Straight well- developed crystal boundaries occur. 64 Chapter 5 — Sedimentary systems on submarine highs values with –5.7 to –7.3 ‰ to the inner dense neo- the Late Pliocene to present, starts with the depo- morphic calcite spar zone (Fig. 5.10). Comparable sition of the Kolymbia Limestone of the Rhodes values, with respect to δ13C, were recorded from Formation and reaches bathyal depths during its Pleistocene soil carbonates from northern Rhodes maximum fl ooding during the Early Pleistocene by Quade et al. (1994). Th is implies pedogenic CO2 represented by deposition of the Lindos Bay Clay as potential source of the isotopically depleted car- (Fig. 5.2; Hanken et al. 1996). Results presented in δ13 bon. Th e C of pedogenic CO2 depends on the chapter 4 and by Hanken et al. (1996) and others ratio of C4- to C3-plants. Predicted end-member suggest a tectonic origin for this large-scale cycle δ13 carbonate isotopic C values from pure C4- and due to its amplitude and the vicinity of the Hel-

C3-plant decay are about 2.1 and -11.9 ‰, respec- lenic Arc convergent plate boundary (Fig. 5.1A), tively (at 20°C; Jiamao et al. 1997). Th e change in providing the driving force for large vertical move- δ13C from the rim to the inner dense neomorphic ments. Th e deposits described herein are a part of calcite spar of the Spondylus gaederopus shell may the still ongoing regressive hemicycle of this large- be explained by an increased decay of C3-plants scale cycle (Fig. 5.2) and represent by themselves a causing a stronger depletion of the δ13C signal. A medium-scale, nearly symmetric, cycle (Figs. 5.4, change in vegetation from C4- to C3-plants during 5.7, 5.15). Highest cycle resolution is developed in the neomorphic alteration, as indicated by the shift the central part of the section close to S3 in Figu- in the δ13C values (Fig. 5.10), could refl ect a cli- re 5.4 with four small-scale cycles building up the matic change during this interval (Landi et al. 2003 medium-scale cycle. Th e lower small-scale cycle and references therein; Jiamao et al. 1997 and refe- is an asymmetric cycle with a reduced regressive rences therein). hemicycle (R1 in Fig. 5.15). Th e upper three small- scale cycles are exclusively represented by their 5.6.3 Cycle correlation with global sea level transgressive hemicycles (T2, T3, T4 in Fig. 5.15). Th e age model for the Plimiri deposits is based Deposition of T2 took place in a marine environ- on the sequence-stratigraphic interpretation and ment, while T3 and T4 are represented by terrest- ten ESR dates (Table 5.2), summarised in Figure rial aeolian sands. Th e medium-scale cycle maxi- 5.15. Th e obtained ESR-ages give two independent mum fl ooding surface coincides with the lower informations. Th e age of the primary aragonite cycle maximum fl ooding surface (T1/R1 in Figs. of S. gaederopus provides an age when the bival- 5.4, 5.15). A linkage of small-scale cycles at Plimiri ve precipitated the shell which coincides with the to global sea-level fl uctuations has previously been depositional age of the Coralligène Facies for the suggested by Nelson et al. (2001) and is proved for shells sampled in situ. Th e age, obtained from the the upper Plimiri coastal cliff as shown below. neomorphic calcite spar rim of the shells, provi- Th e ESR dates of the primary aragonite of the nos. des the time of diagenesis, specifi cally the time of 1 and 2 S. gaederopus shells in Table 5.2 of about alteration. Both informations are used to link the 140-120 ka suggest that the transgressive hemicy- sequence stratigraphic cycles and hemicycles to cle T1, represented by the Coralligène Facies, re- climate and sea-level fl uctuations. fl ects the major transgression initiating MIS 5 (Fig. Linkage between small-scale cycles and glacial- 5.15). Consequently, the succeeding regressive interglacial climate cycles is seldom straightfor- hemicycle R1, represented by the Maerl Facies, ward (Kindler et al. 1997). A major problem in the is interpreted as forming during the regressional Plimiri outcrop is the occurrence of both marine late MIS 5e to early MIS 5d. Th e young age (about and terrestrial sequences. While in the marine en- 95 ka) of S. gaederopus no. 3 (Table 5.2; Fig. 5.15) vironment sequence boundaries are commonly lin- is possibly due to partial incorporation of neomor- ked to minima in the regional (possibly global) sea phic calcite from the outer shell rim into the samp- level, those in terrestrial environments are much le. more complex because minima in the A/S ratio can Th e ESR dates of the neomorphic altered calcite occur locally (kilometres to 10s of kilometres) due spar of the shells nos. 1 – 3 in Table 5.2 point to a to the local topographic or tectonic and/or climatic meteoric diagenesis (see above) during MIS 4. Th e infl uences (humid versus arid conditions infl uen- relative old age of shell no. 1 is potentially due to cing the vegetation and therefore the availability of incorporation of primary aragonite into the samp- sediment, for example, for aeolian transport). le. Th e deposits at Plimiri show three cycle hierar- Two sea-level highstands during MIS 5e, sugges- chies. Th e large-scale cycle, with a duration from ted by the studies of Sherman et al. (1993), Kindler Chapter 5 — Sedimentary systems on submarine highs 65 et al. (1997) and Kindler & Hearty (1997), cannot these horizons could also represent substages 5a or be proved or excluded for the Plimiri outcrop. Po- 5c as suggested in Figure 5.15. tential horizons recording such a second highstand Th e two primary aragonite ages of the transpor- during MIS 5e could be the rhodolith layers in the ted shells (no. 4 and 5 in Table 5.2) suggest that upper Maerl Facies or even the Mixed Siliciclas- living S. gaederopus occurred during MIS 7 and tic-Carbonate Facies. Without further age control, MIS 9 in the region (Fig. 5.15). Th e appearance of

Fig. 5.15. Composite column of the Plimiri coastal cliff (see Fig. 5.7) with its chronostratigraphic interpretation linked to a relative sea-level curve for the eastern Mediterranean Sea. ESR dates (see also Table 5.2) of the primary aragonite from in situ shells point to a deposition of the coralligène-type red algal reef (Coralligène Facies) during the transgression of MIS 5e and of the Maerl Facies during the regression of MIS 5e to MIS 5d. Two transported Spondylus gaederopus shells give ages of MIS 7 and 9. ESR dates from the neomorphic calcite spar give ages of the diagenetic overprint. Th e transported shell no. 5 was possibly overprinted during MIS 6 (too old age may be due to incorporation of primary calcite into the sample), which would mean before its transport into the red algal reef. All other shells were most likely overprinted during MIS 4. Th e MIS 5 age of shell no. 1 is possibly due to the incorporation of primary aragonite of the inner shell layer. Key to symbols is given in Figure 4. 66 Chapter 5 — Sedimentary systems on submarine highs rounded coralligène-type lithoclasts in the Basal al. 1986; Bar-Mathews et al. 2000). Th erefore, it Conglomerate (Unit A of Coralligène Facies; Fig. is likely that the two transgressive hemicycles T3 5.5B) suggests older occurrences of coralligène- and T4 in the Aeolian Sand Facies were deposited type red algal reefs in the region. Th e transported during glacial periods (MIS 2 and 4) and that the S. gaederopus shells, a dominant constituent of co- rhizolite traces in T3 developed during MIS 3 (Fig. ralligène-type red algal reefs (seen in the Plimiri 5.15). Th e present-day soil on top of T4 of the Ae- outcrop), are likely to have been part of these older olian Sand Facies is consequently interpreted to red algal reefs. Th erefore, such reefs most likely oc- represent MIS 1. Aeolian sand formation during curred during MIS 7 and 9, again during intergla- glacial intervals is further supported by the virtual cial periods. absence of coastal dunes on Rhodes today, an in- Th e ESR dates of the neomorphic calcite spar of terglacial interval (MIS 1). the transported shells nos. 4 and 5 are heterogene- ous. While shell no. 4 yields an age, as the shells in 5.6.4 Accumulation rates live position (no. 1 – 3 in Table 5.2), shell no. 5 pro- Based on the above cycle correlations with global vides a datum at the end of MIS 6. Th e too old age of sea-level changes it is possible to calculate accumu- shell no. 5 may be due to the incorporation of pri- lation rates for the Coralligène and Maerl Facies. mary aragonite into the sample. An alternative ex- For the Coralligène Facies this is 0.67 mm/a (or planation for the age diff erence between shell nos. 10 m in 15 ka), which is in good agreement with 4 and 5 may be the ongoing uplift of Rhodes Island observations of modern coralligène deposits in the during the Late Pleistocene. Older coralligène-type western Mediterranean Sea where accumulation ra- red algal reef deposits, as suggested above, should tes range between 0.006 and 0.83 mm/a (Sartoretto be relative higher in altitude than younger depo- et al. 1996). Th e relatively high accumulation rate sits due to the ongoing uplift of the region. During for the Coralligène Facies, close to the upper limit MIS 6, this could result in a subaerial exposure observed by Sartoretto et al. (1996), is possibly due of the coralligène-type deposits, formed during to the high but episodic input of gravelly detrital MIS 9, and its meteoric diagenesis, hypothesised material, which appears not to have decreased the by the age of the neomorphic calcite spar of shell red algal reef growth but instead provided materi- no. 5 (135 ka). Th e coralligène-type deposits, bu- al which both stabilised and baffl ed the substrate ilt during MIS 7, remained below sea level during and allowed increased accumulation rate of the this interval and its shells experienced no altera- Coralligène Facies. Th is is in opposition to tropi- tion. Subsequently shells of both coralligène-type cal carbonate settings where enhanced siliciclastic deposits were incorporated into the Coralligène input tends to decrease accumulation rates (Emery Facies or Maerl Facies of the Plimiri coastal cliff & Myers 1996). during the transgression of MIS 6/5e and shell no. For the Maerl Facies, the calculated accumula- 4 (living age MIS 7) was neomorphosed with the tion rate is 0.19 mm/a (2.3 m in 12 ka). Th is va- in situ shells of the Coralligène Facies (T1) during lue is slightly less than estimated rates for modern ± MIS 4. Further ESR dates are needed to unravel maerl from the NE Atlantic of 0.5–1.5 mm/a (Bla- the diagenetic history of the transported shells and ke & Maggs 2003; Bosence & Wilson 2003). Th is to prove or disprove a phase of meteoric diagenesis could be due to an overestimation of the time in- in the region during MIS 6. terval available for the accumulation of the Maerl Relating terrestrial deposits, such as coastal du- Facies. For example, the hardground at the base of nes, to climatic conditions is diffi cult, as already the Maerl Facies probably took considerable time emphasised for the palaeoenvironmental inter- to develop, which has not been taken into account pretation of the Aeolian Sand Facies (see above or when calculating an accumulation rate for the Ma- chapter 6). Favourable conditions for aeolianite erl Facies. formation have been suggested by Brooke (2001) for highstand (Brooke 2001) and by McKee & Ward 5.7 Conclusions (1983) for regressive periods, while Yaalon (1967) • Measuring 450 m long by 10 m thickness, the and Sivan & Porat (2004) prefer no straightforward Coralligène Facies at Plimiri on Rhodes Island linkage to global climate or sea-level fl uctuations. represents one of the largest coralligène-type However, in principle, aeolianite formation should red algal reefs so far known from the tempe- be favoured during dry periods, coincident with rate Mediterranean Pleistocene. It is overlain by glacial intervals in Europe (Vergnaud Grazzini et a Maerl Facies up to 2.3 m thick, and in turn Chapter 5 — Sedimentary systems on submarine highs 67

by a Mixed Siliciclastic-Carbonate Facies (0.2 m aragonite and precipitation of calcite aft er thick) and a terrestrial Aeolian Sand Facies up the fi rst enclosure of aragonitic relics. to 2.5 m thick. • Th e neomorphic alteration took place in a me- • A sequence-stratigraphic approach based teoric, potentially vadose environment. An in- on the ratio of accommodation space ver- creasing phreatic character during the ongoing sus sediment supply is used to interpret this diagenesis is likely due to the increase in crystal temperate mixed siliciclastic-carbonate suc- size of neomorphic spar from the rim to the cen- cession at Plimiri. Th is necessitated integrat- tre of the shell. Th e stable isotope signal point to ing aspects of standard sequence-stratigra- an open pore-water system, potentially with a phic models for tropical carbonates and sil- high pore water/rock ratio. Th e partially strong iciclastic shelves, such as the consideration of depletion in 13C with values between –5.7 ‰ growth habitats for the zooxanthellate coral and –7.3 ‰ is potentially due to the enhanced

Cladocora caespitosa on a maximum fl ood- decay of C3 plants during the formation of the ing surface, and the fi ning- or coarsening-up- neomorphic calcite spar. ward trends of siliciclastic material within the • Diff erences to studies of Sandberg & Hudson deposits. It appears that the diversity of tem- (1983), and Martin et al. (1986) referring to the perate carbonate facies can be embodied by us- ultrastructure development or system closeness, ing sequence-stratigraphic models somewhere respectively, may be due to (1) diff erences in between the end-members represented by ultrastructure or to (2) organic coatings of the siliciclastic shelves and tropical shelf carbon- herein studied organism or to (3) the diff erent ates. climate in which the diagenesis took place. • Th ree cycle hierarchies are diff erentiated. Th e • Electron Spin Resonance dating provides a large-scale cycle is interpreted as tectonic in ori- powerful tool for the chronostratigraphic dat- gin and has a duration from the Late Pliocene to ing of diagenetic events. All neomorphic calcite today, with maximum fl ooding during the Early spar ages are younger than their primary arago- Pleistocene. Th e medium-scale cycle has a dura- nitic counterparts and are consistent with the tion from the start of MIS 5 to today (128–0 ka) depositional and chronological model of the with maximum fl ooding most likely during upper Plimiri coastal cliff . Furthermore, the lat- MIS 5e. Th e small-scale cycles are interpreted ter model was improved by identifying and dat- to refl ect the glacial-interglacial fl uctuations in ing a phase of subaerial exposure and meteoric the Late Pleistocene. diagenesis during MIS 4, and possibly MIS 6. • Based on ESR dating and sequence-stratigra- • Similar, but older red algal reefs are likely to phic interpretations the coralligène-type red have existed in the Plimiri region during MIS 7 algal reef (Coralligène Facies) is interpreted as and 9 judging from the occurrences of rounded a transgressive hemicycle deposited during the coralligène-type lithoclasts at the base of the sea-level rise leading into MIS 5e. Th e overlying Coralligène Facies and from the ESR dates of Maerl Facies is interpreted as a regressive hemi- two transported Spondylus gaederopus shells. cycle representing the sea-level fall from MIS 5e Th e age of the meteoric diagenesis (MIS 6) of to 5d. Formation of capping aeolianites is inter- the transported shell from MIS 9 may be due preted to have occurred during the glacial inter- to incorporation of primary aragonite into the vals MIS 4 and MIS 2. sample, or suggest a subaerial exposure and • Th e ultrastructural alteration during the neo- meteoric diagenesis for the older postulated red morphic recrystallisation from aragonite to algal reef in the region during MIS 6. calcite in Spondylus gaederopus from the warm- • Th e estimated accumulation rate for the red al- temperate deposits of Plimiri is comparable gal reef (Coralligène Facies) of 0.67 mm/a is in to its tropical counterparts. Diff erences are: the range of modern coralligène-type deposits, (1) that the encased aragonite relics are only seemingly not infl uenced by siliciclastic input. present close to the reaction front (< 100 μm), For the Maerl Facies an accumulation rate of and (2) that encased aragonite needles as well 0.19 mm/a is estimated. as remaining dissolution voids of former aragonite needles decrease with increasing distance from the reaction front. Th ese obser vations suggest an ongoing dissolution of

6 Subaerial sedimentary systems – Late Quaternary ooid-bearing aeolianites from Rhodes (Greece): sedimentology and facies

6.1 Introduction Th e occurrence of ooids on Rhodes during Coastal aeolian carbonate dune sands are wide- Late Quaternary times is surprising. Ooids are spread in the Quaternary sedimentary record well-known as a dominant sediment component worldwide along carbonate-dominated coasts, in many tropical carbonate settings and are used most extensively between a latitude of 20° - 40° in in the fossil record as proxy for tropical climate both hemispheres (McKee & Ward 1983; Brooke conditions (James 1997). Th e ooid occurrence on 2001). Only a few aeolian limestones are known Rhodes, positioned in a warm-temperate climate from ancient rocks, which may be due to the scar- regime at about 36° N latitude, represents one of the city in the geological record or to miss-identifi ca- few known examples where ooids formed in a non- tion. Th e latter is favoured because of the similari- tropical marine environment during the Phanero- ties in composition to sands of other depositional zoic (Opdyke & Wilkinson 1990). It represents one environments. Furthermore, diagnostic sedimen- of the six northernmost occurrences in the Qua- tary structures may be masked by diagenetic pro- ternary Mediterranean region beside ooids in the cesses (McKee & Ward 1983). lagoon of la Palme, Gulf of Lion, France (Rivière & Th e term ‘aeolianite’ was introduced by Sayles Vernhet 1959), in sediment cores from the Strait of (1931) to describe lithifi ed aeolian dune sands. Otranto between Gargano, Italy, and Greece (Fab- Diff ering defi nitions are used in the literature ricius & Klingele 1970; Fabricius et al. 1970; Hesse and summarised in Le Guern & Davaud (2005). et al. 1971), from the coast of the Peloponnesus by Herein, the term refers to ‘lithifi ed aeolian depos- Neapolis and along the Isthmus of Corinth, Greece its in which carbonate grains constitute more than (Freyberg 1952; Fabricius & Klingele 1970; Richter 50 % of the rock’ (Abegg et al. 2001). According to 1976; Richter & Neuser 1998), and from Cleopatra McKee & Ward (1983), favourable conditions for Beach on Sedir Island, Gökova Bay, Turkey (El- aeolianite formation are a warm climate, good for Sammak & Tucker 2002; see also Fig. 6.1A). an increased carbonate production, and onshore Other ooid occurrences in the Mediterranean re- winds, mobilising beach deposits and building up gion are known from Djerba Island and the Gulf of coastal dunes in the hinterland. It is diffi cult if not Gabes, Tunisia (Fabricius & Berdau 1970; Le Guern impossible to correlate aeolianite formation with & Davaud 2005), from the region west of Tripolis, climate. Aeolianite formation has been dedicated Lybia (Fabricius & Klingele 1970), and from the to glacial, interglacial and transitional intervals coast west of Alexandria, Egypt (Hilmy 1951). Th e (McKee & Ward 1983 and references therein). northern African occurrences coincide with thick In the Mediterranean region, aeolianites are ooid-dominated aeolianites of Quaternary age fur- known from the Valencia region and the Balear- ther inland (Gavish & Friedman 1969; Fabricius & ic Islands of Spain, the Peloponnesus and Chrissi Klingele 1970; Fabricius et al. 1970; Paskoff & San- Island near Crete, both Greece, from the coastal laville 1986). plains of Lebanon, Israel, Egypt, Libya and Tuni- Th is study presents Late Quaternary ooid-bear- sia, and from the Mediterranean coast of Morocco ing aeolianites from a new locality along the south- (Brooke 2001 and references therein; Maroukian western coastal road between Kattavia and Apo- et al. 2000; Le Guern & Davaud 2005). Aeolianite lakkia on Rhodes, Greece, representing the fi rst formation in the Mediterranean took place in both record of Late Quaternary ooliths from this region. glacial (Paskoff & Sanlaville 1986; Sivan et al. 1999; A detailed description of sedimentary features, Engelmann et al. 2001; Frechen et al. 2001; Nielsen grain-size distribution, sorting and a sediment et al. 2004; Giraudi 2005) and interglacial periods component analysis is used for a depositional in- during the Quaternary (El-Asmar 1994; El-Asmar terpretation. Finally, a sequence stratigraphic in- & Wood 2000). Yaalon (1967) and Sivan & Porat terpretation and its correlation to global climate is (2004) pointed out that there is no straightforward discussed. linkage of aeolianite or soil formation to climate or sea-level fl uctuations. 70 Chapter 6 — Subaerial sedimentary systems

Fig. 6.1. A: Map of the Mediterranean Sea showing the Quaternary ooid occurrences. 1: la Palme Lagoon, Aude, France; 2: Strait of Otranto; 3: Isthmus of Corinth; 4: Neapolis, southern Peloponnesus, Greece; 5: Cleopatra Beach, Sedir Island, Turkey; 6: Kat- tavia Road Cutting, Rhodes, Greece; 7: Djerba Island and north of Zarzis, Tunesia; 8: coast west of Tripoli, Lybia; 9: coast west of Alexandria, Egypt. B: Map of Rhodes. Position of the Kattavia road cutting is indicated by a star. Grey circles point to other aeolianite occurrences on Rhodes (compiled from Hansen 2001 and own observations). C: Topographic map of the outcrop area. Chapter 6 — Subaerial sedimentary systems 71

6.2 Geological setting Results from grain-size measurements in thin Th e geology of Rhodes is aff ected by the vici- sections are not comparable with grain size analy- nity of the Hellenic Arc, where the African plate sis by sieving (Friedman 1958; Harrell & Eriks- is subducted below the European plate. Th e back- son 1979; Burger & Skala 1973; Füchtbauer 1988; bone of the island is provided by overthrust moun- Tucker 1988; Johnson 1994 as well as the discus- tains of the alpine belt. Th e post-alpine geological sion and reply of Johnson 1994 by Friedman and history is documented by Palaeogene fl ysch, and Johnson 1996). Generally thin-section grain-size Neogene, as well as Quaternary, freshwater and distribution will show a systematic shift to smaller marine deposits. Detailed compilations of the geo- mean grain sizes and to a higher standard devia- logy of Rhodes have been published by Mutti et tion when compared with sieving analyses. Several al. (1970), Meulenkamp et al. (1972) and for the of the above mentioned authors developed equa- Late Neogene and Quaternary deposits by Hanken tions to calculate from thin section data a grain- et al. (1996). Coastal aeolianites on Rhodes were size distribution comparable to sieving analyses fi rst mentioned by Hansen (2001) and Nelson et al. of unlithifi ed sediments (e.g., Harrell & Eriksson (2001) as common features on a wave-cut platform 1979). Th ese equations are based on the assump- level, approximately 25 - 35 m above present sea tion of a spherical grain shape with no preferred level. Th e known aeolianite localities are indicated orientation and neglect diff ering grain composi- in Figure 6.1B. According to these authors the aeo- tion with diff ering densities. Th ese assumptions lianites represent the youngest deposits overlying make an application to natural sediments diffi cult, the Mesozoic to Late Pleistocene rocks and depo- especially when the sediments consist of a mix- sits. Hansen (2001) distinguished throughout the ture of biogenic carbonates and siliciclastic consti- island diff erent dune shapes: coastal dunes, echo tuents. Th erefore, a recalculation of the herein pre- dunes and ramp morphology dunes and suggested sented thin section data with the above mentioned an interglacial formation. In contrast, Titschack et equations was not performed. al. (submitted a, submitted b) suggested aeolianite No dating is undertaken because all considered formation during glacial periods for the two aeo- methods (14C, 230Th /U, electron spin resonance and lianite units from Plimiri, a deposition most likely thermoluminescence) would provide mixed ages, during Marine Isotope Stage (MIS) 2 and MIS 4. which are diffi cult to interpret. Carbonate ages would yield a mixture of the precipitation ages of 6.3 Methods the calcite and aragonite, i.e. a mixture of the ooid Th e Kattavia road cutting was logged along formation age (aragonite) and the meteoric dia- 230 m of the road cutting near the southwestern genesis (calcite spar cement). Th e common occur- point on the coastal road from Kattavia to Apolak- rence of quartz would also allow the dating with kia (Figs. 6.1C, 6.2). Altogether, 49 rock samples thermoluminescence, but the occurrence of quartz and dip measurements from 64 positions (one to grains as ooid core and loose grains also would refi ve per data-point) were taken. Th e dip measure- sult in mixed ages of the age of the quartz enclo- ments were analysed with the Stereonet version sure by the ooid coatings and the real deposition 6.3.2 X soft ware developed by R.W. Allmendinger. age of the quartz at Kattavia Road Cutting. Furthermore, the aeolianite contains numerous mammal footprints, of which 74 were measured 6.4 Results and described in detail by Milàn et al. (in press). Th e aeolianite from the Kattavia Road Cutting Facies and diagenesis were analysed in 49 thin sec- crops out along the southwestern coastal road tions. Aragonite and calcite were distinguished by between Kattavia and Apolakkia with a length of staining with Feigl’s solution (Warne 1962). Grain 230 m and a maximum height of 8 m (Fig. 6.1C, sizes and components were quantitatively evalua- 2). It is deposited on a slope dipping with 5° to the ted in thin sections with the aid of the AnalySIS southwest (Fig. 6.1C), provided by the underlying soft ware package and were generally based on the Tertiary Kattavia Flysch, the local basement rock evaluation of at least 100 sediment particles. Grain (see also Mutti et al. 1970). No wave-cut platform sizes were measured in φ (Phi). Th e calculation of level as mentioned by Hansen (2001) is developed the mean grain size and of the standard deviation in this part of the island, possibly because the Kat- is based on the grain measurements of the maximal tavia Flysch degrades during erosion to loose sand grain diameter in the φ-scale. Standard deviation is forming a ramp relief in contrast to the other base- used as proxy for the degree of sorting. ment rocks on the island and/or the lack of Plio- 72 Chapter 6 — Subaerial sedimentary systems : Sketch of the outcrop the outcrop of : Sketch B amples are indicated. are amples sedimentary not and structures. machines building road of the scratches surface represent the outcrop on e textures : Photomosaic of the Kattavia Road cutting. Th Road cutting. the Kattavia of : Photomosaic Fig. 6.2. A Fig. showing the three major lithological units. Position of rock samples, bedding plane measurements, trace fossils and gastropod s gastropod and trace fossils measurements, bedding plane samples, rock of Position units. lithological major the three showing Chapter 6 — Subaerial sedimentary systems 73

6.4.1 Unit A Pleistocene carbonate deposits, which partly form the platform level. Field appearance However, the Kattavia aeolianite occurs in an altitude interval between 18 and 40 m above sea level Unit A represents a thick palaeosol with a reddish that is comparable to the dune sands described by colour and a thickness of 0.5 m (Fig. 6.4). Rhizolite Hansen (2001), and exhibits a sheet-like morpho- traces and shells of land snails are common. Cali- logy with bedding planes more or less subparallel che crusts are rare but commonly developed on top. to the underlying basement topography, dipping Unit A is only developed in the northwestern lower southwestward (Fig. 6.3). part of the section between 130 and 200 m (Figs. Th e aeolianite is subdivided into three units by 6.2, 6.5). Th e basal part is not exposed. No bedding reddish soil horizons rich in rhizolite traces and planes or other primary sedimentary structures are shell remains of land snails (Fig. 6.2). Its sediment preserved. diff ers signifi cantly in its composition from all other aeolianite occurrences known from the island by Facies the presence of ooids as the dominant sediment Unit A consists of a packstone, with components constituent, which are absent in all the other aeo- belonging to the fi ne sand fraction (mean grain lianites. size of 2.38 φ) that are moderately well sorted, having a standard deviation of 0.65 (Figs. 6.5, 6.6,

Fig. 6.3. Stereonet projection of the poles of bedding planes showing a dominant dip in a southwestern direction at up to 39°. No signifi cant diff erences occur between Unit A and B.

Fig. 6.4. Unit A: A: Contact Unit A/B. Unit A has a reddish colour, is rich in rhizolites and land snails (diameter of coin: 2.5 cm). B: Unit A consists of a packstone (thin section, plane polarised light). Marine components are rare and aragonite, especially from ooid coatings, is completely dissolved (arrow; pore space: blue). 74 Chapter 6 — Subaerial sedimentary systems

Table 6.1). Th e sediment is highly dominated by whole outcrop with 11 %. Th e mean thickness of terrestrial components (75%) with quartz grains, the ooid coating is 94 μm. Th e marine components limestone clasts, opaque clasts and magmatic (4 %) are dominated by red algae, molluscs and lithoclasts. It exhibits the lowest ooid content of the foraminiferan clasts. Th e micritic matrix is partly

Fig. 6.5. A: Plot of the grain sizes of all analysed samples. Unit B shows a slight decrease in grain size from the lower northwestern to the upper southeastern end of its distribution. Unit C exhibits four grain-size cycles. Cycles 1 to 3 show coarsening upward trends while cycle 4 seems to be a symmetrical cycle showing a fi ning upward trend at the base and a coarsening upward trend at the top. B: Plot of the standard deviation relative to φ as proxy dataset for the sorting. In Unit B the sorting increases (lower values) from bottom to top and from the lower northwestern to the upper southeastern end of the unit. In Unit C the Chapter 6 — Subaerial sedimentary systems 75 clotted, especially around rhizolites. Land snails Xerocrassa cretica (A. Férussac, 1821) (Fig. 6.7). occur commonly, including the species Mastus tur- Aragonitic components, especially the aragonitic gidus (Kobelt, 1877), Zonites festai Pollonera, 1916, coatings of ooidal grains, are poorly or not pre- Xeropicta sp. nov. species (Hausdorf, in prep.) and served. In many cases, the ooid coating is only pre-

sorting coincides with the grain size pattern regarding decrease in sorting with increasing grain size. C: Plot of the ooid content of all analysed samples. Unit B shows no interpretable pattern, while in Unit C the ooid content seems to decrease with increasing grain size. D: Plot of the thickness of ooid coatings. Th e thickness of the ooid coating seems to increase with increasing grain size. Samples that do not follow the grain-size pattern in A are highlighted with a black rim. 76 Chapter 6 — Subaerial sedimentary systems

Fig. 6.6. A: Grain size and sorting of all samples, sorted by units. B: Plot of the thickness of ooid coating. Th e good correlation of the thickness (r2=0.87) measured from the maximum and minimum grain size diameter point to a regular coating in agitated water. Unit C shows the highest variability in thickness.

Table 6.1. Quantitative data of the Units A and B of the Kattavia aeolianite.

Components

Sample

number maximal grain diameter minimal grain diameter ooid coating thickness along maximal diameter ooid coating thickness along minimal diameter Ooid Marine Ter- rest. Rest Unit A 1 2.38 0.65 94.06 81.68 11.11 3.54 74.75 10.61 Unit B 2 1.71 0.44 144.56 122.65 77.52 7.77 10.86 3.88 3 1.96 0.45 111.44 98.09 57.42 6.45 35.20 1.94 4 1.83 0.53 117.37 109.59 69.28 5.22 24.18 1.31 5 1.93 0.50 118.24 102.91 73.37 8.28 17.16 1.18 6 1.67 0.45 105.83 107.95 81.97 6.56 9.02 2.46 7 1.67 0.40 114.72 104.74 77.14 4.99 15.72 2.14 8 1.81 0.44 111.00 96.81 82.78 0.66 13.91 2.65 9 2.06 0.58 114.44 99.27 57.71 3.99 33.71 4.57 10 1.83 0.49 114.89 106.07 79.22 3.90 14.94 1.95 11 1.95 0.53 121.5 109.19 55.06 5.06 34.80 5.06 12 2.32 0.50 112.62 96.00 50.74 6.89 36.95 5.42 13 2.03 0.42 95.00 79.75 34.10 8.09 48.56 9.25 14 1.85 0.36 123.16 105.82 84.00 4.00 10.29 1.71 15 1.90 0.46 94.62 88.00 72.05 3.72 21.74 2.48 16 1.95 0.38 105.42 95.12 67.70 6.21 22.36 3.73 17 1.95 0.48 101.84 99.12 68.46 2.01 23.48 6.04 18 2.15 0.58 94.27 85.56 59.21 3.29 30.26 7.24 Average value 1.92 0.47 111.82 100.39 67.51 5.12 23.71 3.71 Percent 67.48 5.12 23.70 3.70 Chapter 6 — Subaerial sedimentary systems 77 served as a mould. No cements are observed (Fig. ment beds are rarely preserved, but show a thick- 6.4B). ness of approximately 2 cm and can be traced for several metres (Fig. 6.8A). Th eir bedding planes 6.4.2 Unit B dip west-southwest at up to 14° (Fig. 6.3). Mammal footprints are rare in this unit, but 13 were found Field appearance dispersed through the unit (Fig. 6.2, Milàn et al. in Unit B is about 3.5 m thick and also restricted to press). Th e top of the unit is developed as a palae- the lower northwestern part of the section between osol 0.5 m thick with a reddish colour and rich in 100 and 230 m (Figs. 6.2, 6.5, 6.8). Distinct sedi- rhizolites and shells of land snails. Caliche crusts

Fig. 6.7. Land snails from the palaeosols horizons (scale: 1 cm; scale bar bottom right: A – E; scale bar bottom left : F): A: Mastus turgidus. B: Xerocrassa cretica. C: Monacha syriaca. D: Eopolita protensa. Ea: adult shell of Zonites festai. Ej: juvenile shell of Zonites festai. F: Xeropicta sp. nov. 78 Chapter 6 — Subaerial sedimentary systems

Fig. 6.8. Unit B: A: Outcrop picture of Unit B showing beds approximately 2 cm thick that can be traced for several metres (hammer: 30 cm); B: Ooid grainstone with patchily distributed interparticle cement. Th e aragonitic coating is nearly completely dissolved. Ooid cores consist of marine bioclasts and abundant quartz grains. C: Top of Unit B developed as soil horizon. Note that the soil intrudes fi ssures down to 1m below the top of Unit B. D: Ooid grainstone with red algal clast and meniscus cement. Aragonite is nearly completely dissolved. Arrow points to a second phase of cementation following aragonite dissolution. E: Caliche crusts on top and in the soil horizon of Unit B. F: Packstone of soil horizon. G: Rhizolite in soil horizon on top of Unit B. H: Caliche crust consisting of brown wackestone with roots (arrow) from top of Unit B. Chapter 6 — Subaerial sedimentary systems 79 occur frequently in this upper horizon. Some parts in the southeastern part of the section between 0 of the unit are intersected by fi ssures from the top, and 110 m (Figs. 6.2, 6.5). Bedding planes are com- penetrating down to one metre and being fi lled monly preserved in the lower part of the unit (cy- with reddish soil sediments from the upper part of cles 1 and 2 in Fig. 6.5), dipping to the southwest Unit B (Fig. 6.8E). with up to 39° (Fig. 6.3). Several beds can be traced for several metres and exhibit a more or less uni- Facies form thickness below 2 cm (Fig. 6.9A). Unit B consists of a grainstone, which grades Where bedding is preserved, footprints are of- into a packstone in the palaeosol on top. Its grain ten visible. Altogether, 61 mammal footprints were size varies between fi ne and medium sand with a found and described from this unit (Fig. 6.10; re- mean grain size of 1.92 φ, and is well sorted with sults on the size measurements are published by a standard deviation of 0.47 (Figs. 6.5, 6.6; Table Milàn et al. in press). Caliche crusts, rhizolites and 6.1). No vertical sorting eff ect is observed, but a a reddish colour are restricted to the uppermost slight decrease in grain size occurs upslope to- part of the unit, close to the present land surface. wards the northwest. In some samples, elongated clasts exhibit a preferred orientation parallel to the Facies bedding plane (Fig. 6.8D). Unit C is subdivided into 4 sedimentary cycles Unit B shows a higher content of ooids, when by its grain-size, grain-sorting, ooid content and compared with Unit A, with contents between thickness of ooid coating distribution pattern (Fig. 34 and 84 % (mean 68 %; Fig. 6.5, Table 6.1). Th e 6.5). Th e general trends in each subunit are: (1) a mean thickness of the ooid coating on the core coarsening upward trend (Fig. 6.5A); (2) a decrease varies between 95 and 125 μm. Terrestrial com- in the sorting (Fig. 6.5B); (3) a decreasing ooid ponents (24 %) are dominated by quartz grains, content combined with a less pronounced increase undiff erentiated lithoclasts, and limestone clasts. in terrestrial components (Fig. 6.5C); and (4) an Opaque mineral clasts and magmatic lithoclasts increase in ooid coating thickness (Fig. 6.5D). Th e occur rarely. Marine components (5 %) are domi- grain size is medium sand averaging 1.64 φ and is nated by red algal clasts, whereas fragments of moderately to well sorted with a standard deviation molluscs, foraminifers, bryozoans, echinoderms ranging between 0.39 and 0.66 (mean 0.49; Figs. and serpulids occur in minor concentrations. Th e 6.5, 6.6; Table 6.2). Th e ooid content of Unit C var- packstone matrix in the palaeosol at the top of Unit ies between 37 % and 81 % (mean 65 %). Th e ooid B is partly clotted. Land snail shells are restricted to coating thickness varies between 94 and 161 μm. the palaeosol and contain the species Mastus tur- Th e terrestrial components (22 %) are dominated gidus, Zonites festai, Eopolita protensa (A. Férussac, by lithoclasts, quartz grains, limestone lithoclasts 1821), Xeropicta sp. nov., Xerocrassa cretica and and rare organic clasts. Th e marine components Monacha syriaca (Ehrenberg, 1831) (Fig. 6.7). (9 %) comprise red algae, bioclasts, molluscs and Th e preservation of aragonitic components is foraminiferan fragments; serpulids occur rarely. variable. In the lower grainstone regions of Unit B Th e foraminiferan assemblage is rich in fragments the ooids are poorly preserved but primary arago- of the genus Elphidium, and miliolids also are com- nite is still present. Dissolution of the ooids follows mon. Single beds can show an inverse gradation selected horizons of the coatings. Meniscus spar and/or a preferred orientation of elongated clasts cements occur commonly in the pore space with parallel to the bedding plane (Fig. 6.9E). a heterogenic distribution causing a weak lithifi - Th e diagenetic fabric exhibits an intense disso- cation. In the upper packstone regions, primary lution of the aragonitic ooid coating as well as of aragonitic components are completely dissolved aragonitic cores of ooids. Aragonite dissolution in and ooids or bioclasts were only detected by their ooid coatings follows selected bands (Fig. 6.9D, remaining moulds. In the packstone of the upper 9E). Ooids are oft en only preserved as moulds but palaeosol horizon, visible cements are absent. are clearly identifi able by their sculpture traced by the interparticle cement (Fig. 6.9F). Th e lithifi ca- 6.4.3 Unit C tion is dominated by patchily distributed spar cement (Fig. 6.9C). Th e cements can be subdivided Field appearance into a dominant interparticle meniscus cement Unit C represents the most prominent unit in the (Fig. 6.9D) and a very rare intraparticle cement, fi eld with a thickness of at least 8 m. It crops out which fi lls dissolution voids in the aragonitic ooid 80 Chapter 6 — Subaerial sedimentary systems

Fig. 6.9. Unit C: A: Outcrop picture of the basal cycle of Unit A showing approximately 2 cm thick beds that can be traced for several metres. Most trace fossils occur in this part of the section (see also Fig. 6.2); B: Ooid grainstone showing elongated bioclasts revealing a preferred orientation parallel to the bedding planes. C: Ooid grainstone with patchily distributed meniscus cement. Th e aragonitic ooid coating is partly dissolved. D: Close-up of C highlighting the meniscus cements. Conspicuous is the dissolution of selected intervals in the aragonitic coating of ooids. Aragonite dissolution postdates meniscus cement precipita- Chapter 6 — Subaerial sedimentary systems 81

Fig. 6.10. A, B: Mammal tracks exposed in vertical section from the basal cycle of Unit C. Th e preservation of the tracks, in- volving plastic sediment fl ow, suggest a damp sediment, improving the quality of preservation. Th is observation points to a wet aeolian system during deposition. coatings (Fig. 6.9E). Th e top of Unit C exhibits a lights the sheet-like morphology of the aeolianite. reddish packstone layer comparable to Unit A and Prevailing winds infl uencing the island today are tops of Unit B with a thick caliche crust on top. Th e the strong north-northeast Meltémi and the north caliche crust shows a succession from bottom to Boréas winds in summer. During spring the island top starting with a grainstone at the base, which is is partly infl uenced by the south Schirokko wind well-lithifi ed by interparticle cements. Aragonitic (Graf 2004). Th erefore, the southwestern dip of the components are completely dissolved, which leaves bedding planes may be explained as caused by (1) a mouldic porosity (Fig. 6.9F). Th is horizon is suc- the fact that the orientation of bedding planes may ceeded by an interval of brown micrite where all follow the underlying topography, (2) that the aeo- calcitic and aragonitic components are dissolved lianite formation took place during the south Schi- (Figs. 6.9G, 6.9H). Th e micrite commonly exhibits rokko wind activity, pointing to a deposition dur- a clotted texture with residual quartz grains sparse- ing spring-time or (3) to enhanced southern wind ly distributed. Th e surface of the caliche crust is activity at times of deposition, potentially linked to slightly iron-manganese impregnated. a diff erent climate.

6.5 Interpretation and discussion 6.5.1 Sequence stratigraphy Th e aeolian deposits from the Kattavia Road Generally, the accumulation of aeolian dune sys- Cutting exhibit distinct features for their genetic tems can be expressed in the ratio of accommo- interpretation. A terrestrial aeolian origin of the dation space versus sediment supply (A/S ratio) deposits is clearly demonstrated by (1) the regular according to the genetic sequence-stratigraphic bed thickness of less than 2 cm; (2) bedding plane approach of Cross & Lessenger (1998), Homewood dips of up to 39° and their lateral continuity (Figs. et al. (1999) and Homewood & Eberli (2000). 6.3, 6.8A, 6.9A); (3) the uniform grain size of fi ne Th ereby, the accommodation space in aeolian set- to medium sand (Fig. 6.6); (4) the moderate to tings depends on the local topography and on the good sorting (Figs. 6.5, 6.6); (5) the occurrence of velocity and direction of the wind. Th e sediment mammal tracks (Fig. 6.10) and of palaeosol hori- supply, relying also on the wind velocity and its zons (Figs. 6.4A, 6.8C, 6.8E, 6.8G, 6.9G, 6.9H) rich transport capacity, additionally depends on the in shell remains of land snails (Fig. 6.7). sediment availability, which is infl uenced by the Th e dip direction of the bedding planes (Fig. source rocks, vegetation cover, and sea level (see 6.3), more or less parallel to the underlying to- also Clemmensen et al. 2001). Th e factors vege- pography of the basement rocks (Fig. 6.1C), high- tation, wind velocities and directions, as well as

tion. E: Ooid grainstone with quartz (q) as cores and fragments of molluscs (m) and bryozoans (b) as bioclasts, showing a preferred orientation parallel to the bedding plane. Grainstone is stabilised by meniscus cement. Aft er dissolution of the aragonite a second phase of cementation took place (arrow). F – H: Succession through a thick caliche crust on top of Unit C. At the base (F) aragonitic components are completely dissolved. Th e ooid grainstone is dominated by a mouldic porosity. Further up (G) also the remaining calcite spar of the interparticle cement is also dissolved. On top a brown micrite remains with partly a clotted texture and some remnant quartz grains. Th e top (H) is slightly iron-manganese impregnated. 82 Chapter 6 — Subaerial sedimentary systems

Table 6.2. Quantitative data of the Unit C of the Kattavia aeolianite.

Components

Sample

number maximal grain diameter minimal grain diameter ooid coating thickness along maximal diameter ooid coating thickness along minimal diameter Ooid Marine Terrest. Rest Unit C 19 1.82 0.49 106.06 96.33 73.76 7.09 17.74 1.42 20 1.64 0.50 106.14 106.16 74.11 8.04 14.29 3.57 21 1.67 0.44 143.70 124.05 67.42 11.37 18.94 2.27 22 1.50 0.50 121.14 101.98 56.20 9.92 28.93 4.96 23 1.84 0.58 94.31 72.90 58.28 7.28 25.83 8.61 24 1.64 0.45 110.88 108.18 47.06 10.59 32.93 9.41 25 1.71 0.57 131.52 115.71 73.02 2.38 19.85 4.76 26 1.88 0.39 127.35 109.29 73.02 3.96 23.02 0.00 27 1.65 0.48 136.63 116.95 68.93 8.73 22.32 0.00 28 1.34 0.41 136.04 132.75 80.68 6.83 10.23 2.27 29 1.71 0.46 137.39 126.75 64.00 5.60 24.00 6.40 30 1.32 0.59 122.36 114.69 36.84 18.79 39.86 4.51 31 1.68 0.52 97.66 88.54 73.50 5.12 20.51 0.85 32 1.56 0.49 149.26 134.73 69.70 10.10 16.16 4.04 33 1.55 0.66 115.35 101.09 55.24 14.28 26.67 3.81 34 1.61 0.44 144.39 135.22 81.30 5.69 11.38 1.63 35 1.80 0.43 116.03 109.65 73.38 3.90 21.43 1.30 36 1.85 0.43 103.56 96.62 62.26 14.47 21.39 1.89 37 1.61 0.52 128.25 112.02 62.75 13.72 17.64 5.88 38 1.59 0.47 125.15 120.87 47.71 9.18 42.20 0.92 39 1.46 0.56 135.18 109.46 52.75 15.39 29.67 2.20 40 1.53 0.47 130.52 111.95 78.81 5.09 15.26 0.85 41 1.32 0.51 160.66 150.64 64.71 11.77 22.35 1.18 42 1.83 0.52 119.65 108.90 65.73 7.70 21.68 4.90 43 1.93 0.54 124.55 107.63 61.18 2.63 34.87 1.32 44 1.58 0.48 131.22 123.37 68.27 10.57 20.19 0.96 45 1.55 0.54 161.17 135.08 56.25 10.41 27.08 6.25 46 1.72 0.46 107.51 100.67 68.15 6.66 21.49 3.70 47 1.71 0.48 110.73 104.85 70.00 12.31 16.93 0.77 48 1.56 0.43 123.32 110.66 66.32 16.84 13.69 3.16 49 1.55 0.39 141.24 130.35 77.14 10.47 10.47 1.90 50 1.61 0.50 145.18 128.61 65.45 8.19 23.64 2.73 Average value 1.64 0.49 126.38 113.96 65.44 9.22 22.27 3.08 Percent 65.43 9.22 22.27 3.08 sediment availability are more or less directly or systems. Preservation of aeolian dune systems is indirectly linked to climate. Th e wind velocity and partly linked to the factors already mentioned in direction, and the sediment availability can also be the paragraph above but subsidence, the minera- heavily infl uenced by the local topography and the logy of the dune deposits, and the kind of aeolian locally outcropping basement rocks. system developed, also play key roles. Havholm & Besides the deposition of aeolian sediments, rely- Kocurek (1994), Reading (1996) and Kocurek et al. ing on the A/S ratio, their preservation represents (2001) diff erentiate three aeolian systems: (1) the an essential factor for the fossilisation of aeolian dry, (2) the wet, and (3) the stabilised aeolian sys- Chapter 6 — Subaerial sedimentary systems 83 tem. Th e dry aeolian system (1) is defi ned by the ooids may be due to (1) the dissolution of arago- position of the water table and its capillary fringes nitic constituents during soil formation, (2) less below the depositional surface, so that they have no favourable conditions for ooid formation prior eff ect on the substrate and its stabilisation, and the to deposition of Unit A indicated by a thin mean whole sediment is potentially available for aeolian ooid coating thickness (Fig. 6.5; Table 6.1), or (3) transport. In contrast, in the wet aeolian system ooid bypass caused by enhanced wind velocities. (2) the water table and its capillary fringes are at Th e low relief of the top of the soil horizon (su- or close to the depositional surface, so that deposi- per surface), more or less parallel to the underly- tion, bypass, and erosion are not only controlled ing basement, is possibly caused by erosion down by the aerodynamic confi gurations but also by the to the water table prior to soil formation. Th e fi ne dampness of the substrate. Th e wet aeolian system matrix sediment in the soil horizons most likely can be considered as a special case of the stabilised represents aeolian import of Sahara dust, a com- aeolian systems (3) if moisture is regarded as sta- mon feature in Mediterranean soils and palaeosols bilising agent. Beside moisture, vegetation, cemen- (Yaalon 1997 and references therein). Stabilisation tation, lag surfaces, mud drapes, and other features and preservation of Unit A was secured by cover- can function as stabilising agents (Havholm & Ko- age with vegetation and a weak early lithifi cation of curek 1994). Cementation relies essentially on the a fi ne cement stabilising the micritic matrix, possi- mineralogy of the aeolian deposits and is especially bly linked to soil formation. Th e land snail assem- important as a stabilising agent in carbonate-rich blage is adapted to dry habitats with a loose vegeta- coastal dune settings. Super (bounding) surfaces tion cover and some shadow providing structures mark the end of aeolian accumulation and defi ne like bushes, small trees or rocks. Mastus turgidus aeolian sequences (Havholm & Kocurek 1994). inhabits the islands of the Dodecanese archipelago. Generally, they are developed as defl ation or soil Zonites festai is only known from Rhodes. Today horizons. both species are very common on this island. Th ey Th e three developed units (Units A – C) at the survive dry periods by digging into the soil. Xe- Kattavia Road Cutting are interpreted as aeolian rocrassa cretica is widely distributed in the eastern sequences bounded by super surfaces. Th e super Mediterranean region and on Rhodes one of the surfaces are developed as palaeosol horizons veri- most common gastropods. It inhabits preferably fi ed by their red colour (Figs. 6.4A, 6.8C, 6.8E), the coastal areas (Heller 1976; Paget 1976; Riedel 1992; decalcifi cation (Figs. 6.9F, 6.9G), the import or pre- Fechter & Falkner 1990; Frank 1997). Th e biol- cipitation of a fi ne matrix (Figs. 6.9G, 6.9H), and ogy of the hitherto undescribed Xeropicta species the occurrence of rhizolites (Fig. 6.8G), abundant is poorly known; it seems to occur exclusively on land snails and caliche crusts (Figs. 6.8E, 6.8F). Rhodes (Rähle personal communication). In Figure 6.11, these sedimentological features Unit B, besides the slight decrease in grain size are transferred to environmental parameters such upslope (Fig. 6.5), shows no clear sedimentary pat- as topography, vegetation, wind velocity and sedi- tern. Th e scarcity of bedding planes may be due to ment source. All parameters together defi ne the the destruction of primary sedimentary features A/S ratio at Kattavia Road Cutting. Trends in the during soil formation. Th e frequent occurrence grain size point to changes in wind velocity, the of tetrapod tracks, a common feature in aeolian- vegetation is indicated by rhizolites, the sediment ites, points to a wet aeolian system where sediment source is reconstructed by the component analyses dampness favoured preservation of the tracks and the dampness of the aeolian system is indi- (Fornós et al. 2002 and references therein). In the cated by the abundance of mammal tracks. Th ese tracks, the shaft is well preserved, indicating wet or features together give information on the preserva- damp substrate rather than dry (cf. Loope 2006). Th e tion potential of the sediment unit (e.g., dry versus higher relief of the upper boundary of the palaeo- wet aeolian system). Th e infl uence of the topo- sol horizon of Unit B is interpreted as a super sur- graphy is diffi cult to evaluate. Beside the ongoing face where defl ation did not proceed to the water erosion, indicated in Figure 6.11, major changes in table. However, its stabilisation by a palaeosol and topography should be refl ected in changes of the caliche crusts (Figs. 6.8C, 6.8E, 6.8G, 6.8H) sug- dune morphology and symmetry, which were not gests that the capillary fringes of the ground water observed. may have been close to the sediment surface. Th e Unit A exhibits the thickest soil horizon, the up- land snail assemblage points to similar conditions per boundary having low relief. Th e low content in as in Unit A, but it includes two additional species: 84 Chapter 6 — Subaerial sedimentary systems

Eopolita protensa and Monacha syriaca. Both are Unit C represents the thickest aeolian unit at Kat- widespread in the eastern Mediterranean region tavia Road Cutting and so far known from Rhodes. and today very frequent on Rhodes. Like the spe- Th e four developed grain-size cycles are more or cies mentioned above they survive dry seasons by less copied by trends in the sorting, ooid abundance digging into the ground. and ooid coating thickness (Fig. 6.5). Th ey gener-

Fig. 6.11. Composite column of the Kattavia Road Cutting showing the cyclic pattern and the infl uencing factors during deposition. Vegetation is inferred from the occurrence of rhizolites, wind from the grain size and sediment source from the component analyses. Chapter 6 — Subaerial sedimentary systems 85 ally exhibit a coarsening upward in grain size, a de- (Wilson 1973). According to Pye (1983), aeolian creasing upward degree of sorting and ooid content coastal dune systems may even be active under hu- and an increasing upward ooid coating thickness. mid conditions when sand supply is high and the Th e decreasing upward ooid content may be due to wind energy is strong, both factors may be the case the complete export of ooids from the source area, for Tsampika Beach today. However, an increase and/or to a by pass situation at the Kattavia Road in aridity on Rhodes during glacial intervals in Cutting due to increased wind velocities, which is any case will increase the amount of active coastal also indicated by the coarsening upward and de- dune settings, most likely including the Kattavia creasing sortation trend upward. Th erefore, the in- Road Cutting dune setting. ternal cyclicity in Unit C is interpreted to be caused Further support for a glacial formation of the by a change in wind velocities and/or by a stepwise aeolian sequences is provided by the herein pre- lowering of the sea-level, giving stepwise access to sented facies results: (1) according to Opdyke & ooid deposits for aeolian transport. Th e top of Unit Wilkinson (1990), aragonitic ooid formation is C is covered by the recent thin soil horizon with limited by a surface seawater saturation of at least Ω a thick caliche crust and is interpreted as a super arag = 3.8. Th e modern Mediterranean Sea exhi- Ω surface (Figs. 6.9F, 6.9G, 6.9H). bits an aragonite super saturation of arag = 2.8 with slightly enhanced values in the eastern Medi- 6.5.2 Palaeoenvironment Ω terranean but clearly below arag = 3.8 (Millero et All aeolianite occurrences, besides the Kattavia al. 1979). Th is highlights the absence of aragonitic aeolianite, are located on the east coast of Rhodes ooid formation in the present Mediterranean Sea on a wave-cut platform 25 to 35 m above sea level and suggests conspicuous local climatic conditions (Fig. 6.1B; Hansen 2001). Th is suggests at least for during aragonitic ooid formation on the northern the east-coast occurrences a simultaneous forma- coasts of the Mediterranean Sea (Fig. 6.1A). How- tion. At least at Cape Plimiri and in Lindos Bay, ae- ever, climatically optimum, interglacial, conditions olianites occur above the Late Pleistocene marine should be the most favourable intervals for ooid deposits (Marine Isotope Stage 5) and are subdi- formation; (2) during the interglacial, more hu- vided in two aeolian sequences separated by a su- mid conditions prevailed, making a stabilisation of per surface developed as defl ation horizon and/or aeolian systems by cementation and soil formation rhizolite horizon (chapter 5.5.4; own observations). more likely; (3) the maximum ooid percentage at Hansen (2001) suggested an interglacial formation the base of the four small-scale cycles in Unit C of these aeolianites. In contrast, results from chap- is potentially caused by the interglacial formation ter 5 and from this study suggest a formation of of ooids, their subsequent subaerial exposure due the aeolianites during glacial intervals due to (1) to the glacial sea-level drop so that the ooids were a rather cold and arid climate during glacial inter- available for aeolian transport during glacial intervals (Mommersteeg et al. 1995; Dong et al. 1996; vals, especially during the start of glacial intervals. Schmiedl & Hemleben 1998; Rossignol-Strick & Conclusively, we suggest the following deposi- Paterne 1999); (2) soil formation during most like- tional model for the Kattavia Road Cutting. Ooid ly more humid interglacial intervals as suggested formation took place during climatic optimum by Frechen et al. (2001), Bar-Matthews et al. (1999, conditions (interglacial) on the shallow south- 2000) and Nielsen et al. (2004); (3) the fossil mol- western shelf of Rhodes while simultaneously on lusc assemblages from the two palaeosols (Units A land, substrates were stabilised by soil formation and B of the Kattavia aeolianite), which are very in a more or less humid climate, possibly compa- similar to the present ones and refl ect interglacial rable to today’s climate. During glacial intervals, a conditions; and (4) a predominance of inactive more arid climate prevailed, vegetation cover was aeolian systems on the island today, an interglacial reduced, favouring the formation of aeolianites. interval. Today, besides two ramp dunes at Tsampi- Simultaneously, the lowering of the sea level dur- ka Beach, all dune systems on Rhodes are inactive ing glacial intervals subaerially exposed the island and more or less covered by vegetation. Th is may shelves and thereby released the ooid-bearing shelf be due to an annual rainfall of 600 to 800 mm per sediments, which had accumulated during the pri- year on the island (Quade et al. 1994). In many or interglacial, to aeolian transport processes. Th e present-day deserts the 150 mm annual rainfall comparable level of altitude to the other aeolianite isoline (isohyet) marks the division between active occurrences on Rhodes on top of Late Pleistocene aeolian systems and those stabilised by vegetation sediments also suggests for the Kattavia aeolianite 86 Chapter 6 — Subaerial sedimentary systems a Late Pleistocene date of formation during glacial on Cleopatra Beach, which possibly is more likely intervals, possibly Marine Isotope Stage (MIS) 2 than their human transport from Egypt. and 4 for Unit C (MIS 3 was a weak interglacial with potentially no ooid formation), MIS 6 for Unit 6.6 Conclusions B and MIS 8 for Unit A, hence ooid formation may • Th e ooid-bearing aeolian dune sands at Kattavia have taken place in MIS 5, 7, and 9 respectively. Road Cutting, southwest Rhodes, exhibiting a low angle sheet like morphology, represent one 6.5.3 Ooid formation in the Mediterranean of the most northern ooid occurrences during Th e Mediterranean represents one of the few the Quaternary, as well as for the whole Phan- known examples where ooids formed in a non- erozoic. Ooid formation is interpreted to have tropical environment with some of the highest-lat- taken place during climatically optimum condi- itude ooid occurrences in the Quaternary, as well tions such as interglacials periods. as in the whole Phanerozoic (Opdyke & Wilkinson • Th ree aeolian sequences bound by super sur- 1990; Fig. 6.1A; see introduction). Of particular in- faces are diff erentiated. Th e super surfaces are terest, their occurrence may indicate that further developed as soil horizons. Each of the aeolian environmental factors besides climatic optimum sequences contain ooids, which suggests three conditions during interglacials are needed for their intervals of ooid formation. formation, especially for the north Mediterranean • Aeolianite formation is suggested to have taken occurrences. Special environmental conditions can place during glacial intervals for the following be expected for the occurrence of ooids in the Pelo- reasons: (1) ooid formation most likely took ponnesus (Greece) and Turkish localities, which place under climatically optimum conditions, are positioned at the end of narrow gulfs, and in and thus in interglacials on the island shelf. France, where the ooids are restricted to a lagoon, During glacial lowstands, the island shelf was which is today separated from the open sea. Both subaerially exposed and ooids were available environmental situations potentially possessed a for aeolian transport; (2) glacial intervals in the locally enhanced supersaturation caused by a re- Mediterranean area were more arid than inter- stricted water body. Th e occurrences on Rhodes as glacials, suggesting an aeolianite formation dur- well as the Strait of Otranto occurrence represent ing glacials and soil formation during intergla- the only examples where ooids occur in an open cials; (3) there are nearly no active dune systems coastal setting with an unrestricted connection on Rhodes today. to the water bodies from the Aegean and Adrian • A simultaneous aeolianite formation with the Seas, respectively, and are therefore outstanding. other aeolianite occurrences on the east coast of Th e interpretation by El-Sammak & Tucker (2002) Rhodes is likely, because their occurrence is at that the ooids of Cleopatra Beach in Turkey were comparable altitude levels, but must be proven shipped from the coast west of Alexandria, Egypt by absolute dating. A Late Pleistocene age is by the roman leader Markus Antonius to create a suggested. beach for his beloved Cleopatra, may not necessarily be true. Th ese authors highlighted the comparability of ooids from both areas, Turkey and Egypt, the hydrogeographic conditions in Gökova Bay, which are not favourable for ooid formation today, and the absence of ooid beaches in the region. However, as shown above, there are rare ooid occurrences in the northern Mediterranean under diff erent hydrodynamic conditions, all exceptional occurrences within their region. Th e Rhodes ooids show a comparable facies to the ooids from Cleo- patra Beach described by El-Sammak & Tucker (2002). Th eir depositional evolution suggests their formation in the region during at least three distinct intervals in the Late Pleistocene. Th ese results suggest that ooid formation may have occurred 7 Discussion

Th e three key studies presented above high- may exist due to the position of seaways in speci- light typical sedimentary systems related to highly fi c climatic realms, preventing the open faunal ex- structured and narrow island shelves in the warm- change (see also Taviani 2002; Oliverio & Taviani temperate biogeographic province in the marginal 2003). Th is may highly infl uence the occurrence of sea setting of the eastern Mediterranean Basin. carbonate factories, their biocoenoses, accumula- Being aware that multiple further sedimentary sys- tion rates, depth distribution, sedimentary body tems exist in such a complex setting, the studied symmetries and diagenetic potential. examples allow some general considerations to be drawn. Th e discussions and conclusions of the key 7.1 Sedimentary systems study chapters 4, 5 and 6 are not repeated below In general, sedimentary systems are controlled but discussed in a more general sense. by the ratio of available accommodation space and Th e Plio-Pleistocene deposits of Rhodes repre- sediment supply (A/S ratio). Th is ratio controls sent a unique sedimentary setting dominantly in- where, how much, and how fast sediment is depo- fl uenced by the variable relief of the tectonically sited and therefore also controls the symmetry of structured shelf of the island. Sedimentary systems sedimentary bodies. Hence, it is important to have in highly structured shelf settings are rarely descri- both factors in mind when interpreting the rock bed in the rock record until today (Johnson 1982; record (e.g., Emery & Meyers 1996; Cross & Les- 1988), especially from deep-water environments. senger 1998; Homewood et al. 1999; Homewood & Examples are known from the Cretaceous of Ire- Eberli 2000; Coe 2003; Schlager 2005). land (Evans & Clayton 1998) from the Miocene to In marine open shelf systems, accommodation Recent of New Zealand (Kamp & Nelson 1987; Dix space is generally controlled by sea level (Vail et & Nelson 2004), the Miocene of Spain (Barrier et al. 1977; Coe 2003; Schlager 2005). In contrast, al 1991; Betzler et al. 2000) and Crete (Reuter et al. sediment supply depends on weather a siliciclas- 2006), and from the Plio-Pleistocene of the Strait tic, mixed siliciclastic-carbonate, tropical or non- of Messina, Italy (e.g., Barrier 1984). Comparable tropical carbonate environment is established. In sedimentary settings should be a common feature siliciclastic environments the amount of sediment along convergent plate boundaries and post-glacial supplied to locations in the basin is a function of areas (fj ords) throughout the rock record. Espe- both the general rate of sediment supply to the cially during intervals of supercontinent formati- basin (controlled by physiogeography, tectonic on, such as the formation of Pangaea in the Per- and climate) and the proximity of sediment entry mian, tectonically structured shelf settings should points to the basin (mouth of the river; Emery & have been a common feature, due to the predomi- Meyers 1996). In all other environments, sediment nance of convergent plate boundaries surrounding is additionally (mixed siliciclastic-carbonate envi- the supercontinent (see reconstructions of Scotese; ronments) or exclusively (poor carbonate environ- http://www.scotese.com). Phases of superconti- ments) provided by in situ growth or production of nent formation were also intervals of glaciations, carbonate material (Schlager 2005) and therefore which suggests the presence of cool-water carbo- are subjected to biologically processes, which are nates in settings comparable to the Plio-Pleisto- dependent on multiple factors (see chapter 2). Th e cene deposits from Rhodes. Furthermore, fj ord main diff erence between tropical and non-tropical systems should also be common in high latitudes carbonates is the restriction of carbonate produc- during these intervals. However, so far no study tion centres to water depths < 50 m in the tropical documenting these environments is known to the realm, while in cool-water environments carbona- author. te production extends down to hundreds of metres A further peculiarity of the Plio-Pleistocene depo- water depth (Pomar et al. 2004; Schlager 2005). sits of Rhodes is the position of the island in a margi- Subaerial sedimentary systems are controlled by nal sea. Marginal seas exhibit important diff erences their base level, represented by the level along an to open ocean settings. Th e oceanography may equilibrium profi le below which sediment will be show diff erent characteristics, such as antiestuarine deposited and above which sediment will be ero- circulation, reduced tides, lack of large ocean swells, ded (Coe 2003). Th e base level depends on a tecto- which may result in shallow wave bases and storm nically governed topography and on the sea level, wave bases. Furthermore, biogeographic barriers as well as on wind velocity and direction, trans- 88 Chapter 7 — Discussion port capacity and sediment availability in aeolian and cliff s which provide substrates for organism systems (Clemmensen et al. 2001). In steep slope settlement (Fig. 7.1 (2), (7); see also Betzler et al. settings, the accommodation space will be domi- 2000; Titschack & Freiwald 2005). Th ey react with nantly controlled by the stable slope angle of the their skeletal associations on sea-level variations sediment deposited. An additional important fac- and other environmental parameters and control tor in aeolian systems is, beside their deposition, how fast the accommodation space will be used up their preservation, which among others relies on (depending on growth rate of organisms). the subsidence, mineral composition of the depo- Th e accommodation space of carbonate factories sited sediment, kind of aeolian system (dry, wet related to steep submarine cliff s, as examined in or stabilised) and the position of the water table the fi rst key study (chapter 4; Fig. 7.1 (1), (3), (5), (Havholm & Kocurek 1994; Reading 1996; Kocu- (6), (7)) is, analogue to subaerial systems, rather rek et al. 2001). controlled by the stable slope angle of the sediment Highly structured island shelves show many dif- deposited than by sea level. Th ereby, the steep sub- ferences to open shelf settings (see Table 7.1). In marine relief of the basement rocks controls whe- contrast to open shelf settings, the infl uences of ri- re carbonate factories can develop and where and ver runoff , evaporation and wind may have a great how much sediment can be deposited. Redeposi- infl uence in selected microbasins while neighbou- tion represents an essential process in these sedi- ring microbasins keep unaff ected. Th e accommo- mentary systems by controlling the sedimentary dation space of the developed sedimentary systems body symmetries and the basin fi ll up. Th ereby, re- is not necessarily controlled by sea level and also deposition may be caused by storms, earthquakes depends on the developed carbonate factory and or just collapse of biogenic structures due to bio- the position of the carbonate factory in the basin. erosion (Freiwald & Wilson 1998). Th e redeposi- Carbonate factories on tectonically structured shel- tion results in the deposition of submarine wedges ves are abundantly restricted to submarine highs along the foot of the fl anks along the basin margin

Table 7.1. Comparison of cool-water carbonates from open shelf and structured island shelf settings. Open shelf setting Structured island shelf settings Bathymetric gradient Low (generally < 5°) High (up to 90°) Carbonate factory distribution Scattered on the shelf, depending on Dominantly linked to submarine substrate and oceanography (food highs, which provide substrates for supply) organism settlement; depends also on oceanography Sediment body symmetries Distally-steepened ramp, homoclinal Submarine wedge, distally-steepened ramp ramp Facies variability Low Moderate to high Lateral facies change Gradational Gradational to abrupt (dependent on microbasin size) Trigger of redeposition events Currents, waves, tides, internal waves, Gravity, earthquakes, currents, waves, storms tides, internal waves, storms Sedimentary processes Turbidites, debris fl ows, slumps Rock falls, debris falls, grain fl ows, debris fl ows Transport distances Tenth of metres to several kilometres Abundantly below hundred metres Autochthonous structures Mounds scattered on the shelf, especially No mounds, carbonate fabrics are in outer shelf position related to submarine highs, subsequent occur autochthonous structured (e.g., red algal reefs) on submarine highs Involved organisms Corals, bryozoans, sponges, red algaes Corals, bryozoans, sponges, red algaes, oysters, serpulids Lithifi cation Low Locally moderate to high Siliciclastic input By river, wind and ice, eff ecting larger By river, wind and ice, river input eff ects areas only microbasins with deltas, regional strong eff ect

Data for open shelves is compiled from Nelson (1988b), Rao (1996), James & Clarke (1997) and Schlager (2005). Chapter 7 — Discussion 89 lled lled fi partly ey are s. Th s. a mixture of consist ey dominantly : Red algal reefs (Coralligène) develop on sub- on develop (Coralligène) : Red algal reefs 8 occur (not described herein but known from Lardos Lardos from occur known described (not but herein facies caused the development of submarine wedges at the foot of of the foot at wedges submarine of the development facies caused : Carbonate factories develop predominately on the basement, which the basement, on predominately develop factories : Carbonate 7 : Prograding carbonate ramps commonly dominated by bryozoans (Cape Arkhangelos Arkhangelos (Cape bryozoans by dominated commonly ramps carbonate : Prograding 6 : Neptunian dykes occur commonly subparallel to the steep basement cliff basement the steep to subparallel occur dykes commonly : Neptunian 5 : Locally high siliciclastic import by river deltas river : Locally by high import siliciclastic s provided the substrate for cold-water coral settlement. settlement. coral cold-water for the substrate s provided 4 : Aeolian dune sands develop on coastal plains during glacial intervals. during Th coastal plains on develop sands dune : Aeolian faces. 9 Clay). (Lindos Bay clays bathyal shallow by e basin is dominated : Th 1 Palaeoenvironmental reconstruction of the Rhodes Rhodes the of reconstruction Palaeoenvironmental : Deep submarine cliff : Deep submarine cliff the steep along events redepositional : Frequent valley (pers. observation). Plio-Pleistocenewith sediments. bivalves. and bryozoans corals, e.g., of, the settlement for substrate provides marine highs. ooids. of dominantly consists aeolianite the Kattavia 5), only (chapter grains quartz and bioclasts of Calcarenite; described in detail by Hansen 1999). described Hansen by in detail Calcarenite; Island shelf with several depositional settings and production centres shelf with several centres depositional settingsIsland and production indicated. 2 3 Fig. 7.1. Fig. submarine cliff submarine 90 Chapter 7 — Discussion

7.2 Skeletal associations and (Fig. 7.1 (3)) or in neptunian dykes (Fig. 7.1 (5)). Th e developed redepositional processes depend palaeoenvironment on (1) the palaeorelief and (2) the sediment, espe- Th e facies variability of the Rhodes deposits (see cially the availability of fi ne matrix sediment (see chapter 4-6, as well as Hanken et al. 1996 and Han- chapter 4 and Fig. 4.15). Rock falls, debris falls, sen 2001 and others) is highly diverse. Th is refl ects debris fl ows and grain fl ows occur commonly. the complex and highly structured submarine pa- Comparable redepositional processes are descri- laeorelief of the depositional environment, which bed from siliciclastic steep delta slope settings provided multiple niches for diff erent biocoenoses (Nemec 1990; Einsele 2000; Mulder & Alexander expressed by the skeletal associations of the depo- 2001; Titschack & Freiwald 2005 and references in sits (Hofrichter 2001; Fig. 7.1). Th e complex relief these publica-tions; see also chapter 4.6.1 and Fig. with more or less restricted microbasins favours a 4.15). high environmental variability within small geo- In contrast, the accommodation space of car- graphical areas. Microbasins may be subject to lo- bonate factories related to submarine highs (Fig. cal factors, such as river runoff , or possibly evapo- 7.1 (8)), as examined in the second key study ration, if no rivers discharge into the microbasin. (chapter 5), shows abundantly an in situ carbona- Climatic interpretations based on skeletal as- te accumulation, which is rather controlled by sea sociations solely are not always straightforward. level comparable to marine sedimentary systems Th eir distribution relies not only on temperature, of open shelves (Vail et al. 1977; Coe 2003; Schla- but also on, e.g., salinity, nutrient loading, turbi- ger 2005). However, in the herein studied warm- dity, upwelling and water energy (see chapter 2.2), temperate red algal reef the mixed siliciclastic- as well as on local palaeogeographical and evo- carbonate character and the warm-temperate bio- lutionary factors (Pomar 2001; Mutti & Hallock coenoses have a strong eff ect on the sedimentary 2003). Especially marginal seas may be aff ected by system and its symmetries. While tropical reefs biogeographic barriers and the development of have the potential to grow up to sea and deve- endemic faunas. Th ese factors are highlighted in lop predominantly during sea-level high stands the modern Mediterranean Sea by the absence of (on mfs; Brett 1995), the studied mixed silicic- tropical faunal elements in the eastern Mediterra- lastic-carbonate warm-temperate red algal reef nean even though major environmental parame- (Fig. 5.15) has only the potential to build a positive ters such as temperature and salinity suggest their relief and to modify adjacent sedimentary environ- presence (see chapter 2.5, 6; Taviani 2002; Oliverio ments, as well as developed during a transgressive & Taviani 2003). phase (below the mfs, see Figs. 5.4, 5.15). Th ere- Th e skeletal associations described from the fore, this sedimentary system should be seen as se- Plio-Pleistocene deposits of Rhodes are classifi ed parate one to be placed between the end-member as Heterozoan association or C factory and suggest sedimentary systems of tropical carbonate and a warm-temperate climatic realm (chapter 4, 5; siliciclastic shelf settings (see also Pomar 1995, e.g., Hanken et al. 1996; Hansen 1999; Titschack & 2001). Freiwald 2005). But the presence of ooid deposits Th e aeolian system (Fig. 7.1 (9)), focus of the on Rhodes during the late Pleistocene, presented in third key study (chapter 6), corresponds with other chapter 6, point to the existence of tropical or tro- coastal aeolian settings worldwide (McKee & Ward pic-temperate transitional intervals (compare with 1983; Brooke 2001). Its composition dominated Reuter et al. 2006) in the eastern Mediterranean by ooids represent a particularity (Opdyke & Wil- region, most likely during interglacials. Th e lack of kinson 1990), which is used for its palaeoenvi- tropical faunal elements in the eastern Mediterra- ronmental and climatic interpretation. In aeolian nean Sea during the Plio-Pleistocene may be exp- systems it is important to keep in mind, beside the lained by its palaeogeographic evolution. During A/S ratio, which depends on the local topogra- the Messinian salinity crises in the upper Miocene phy, wind velocity and climate, the preservation tropical fauna, such as reef-building corals, present potential of the aeolian deposits, which principal- in the pre-Messinian Miocene Mediterranean (Po- ly depends on the kind of aeolian system develo- mar et al. 2004; Reuter et al. 2006), got extinct. Af- ped (dry, wet or stabilised aeolian system) and the ter re-established normal marine conditions (about position of the water table, both modifying the 5.33 Ma years ago; McKenzie 1999), faunal immi- position of base level (see above; Kocurek et al. gration was only possible through the Strait of Gi- 2001). braltar and the western Mediterranean Basin. But Chapter 7 — Discussion 91 the warm-temperate character of both the western the sedimentary environment. Th ereby, lithifi ca- Mediterranean Basin and the adjacent Atlantic, tion by dominantly epitaxial cements seems to be even during interglacials, hindered the migration most eff ective in micrite-poor, well-sorted inner to of tropical fauna into the eastern Mediterranean mid ramp strata. A conclusion, which may be ap- even though the climatic conditions there are, and plied to the lithifi cation of the Mytilaster and Ser- repeatedly were, favourable (Taviani 2002; Olive- pulid Facies of the Cape Arkhangelos Calcarenite rio & Taviani 2003). Th erefore, palaeogeographical (chaper 4.5.3), but not for the lithifi cation of the St. and evolutionary factors should be kept in mind in Paul’s Bay Limestone (chapter 4.5.2). Furthermore, marginal sea environments where the exchange of the lithifi cation process suggested by Dix & Nelson water masses to the open ocean oft en is confi ned (2006) could also be excluded for the St. Paul’s Bay to narrow gateways such as the Strait of Gibraltar. Limestone by the perfect preservation of aragonitic Biogeographic barriers may cause the presence of components. Th is confi rms the fi rst results of Neu- biocoenoses (skeletal associations) beyond their weiler, who suggests a matrix lithifi cation by orga- normal environmental, climatic and water depth nomineralisation for the St. Paul’s Bay Limestone. boundaries. Meteoric diagenesis on Rhodes is predominantly represented by aragonite dissolution and sub- 7.3 Diagenesis of cool-water carbonates sequent lithifi cation of miniscus cement spar ce- Early diagenesis of cool-water carbonates is be- mentation (chapter 6) or neomorphic altera-tion lieved to be destructive (see chapter 2.4) and, if of bivalve shells (chapter 5.5.1). Th ereby, the neo- constructive, the lithifi cation is triggered by ara- morphism of Spondylus gaederopus shells is com- gonite dissolution (James et al. 2005). Th e key parable to its tropical counterparts (Sandberg et al. studies on Rhodes present several examples for a 1973), only the open system character is surprising constructive early diagenesis in a marine (chap- (see chapter 5.6.2), which may point to the infl u- ter 4) and meteoric environment (chapter 5). Es- ence of the diff erent climatic realm under which pecially the constructive early marine diagenesis the diagenesis took place. of the St. Paul’s Bay Limestone (chapter 4.5.2; see Th e diagenesis from the Plio-Pleistocene depo- also Titschack & Freiwald 2005), showing minimal sits of Rhodes and the results of, e.g., Knoerich & dissolution of aragonitic constituents but intense Mutti (2003), Dix & Nelson (2006) and Neuweiler lithifi cation, point to additional processes, beside (personal communication) suggest at least three physicochemical processes, to be involved in the diff erent processes of an early marine constructi- lithifi cation process. According to Neuweiler (per- ve diagenesis in cool-water carbonates: (1) lithifi - sonal communication), fi rst results suggest organo- cation of aragonite-rich fi ne-grained sediment by mineralisation processes, comparable to processes aragonite dissolution and subsequent calcite pre- active in mud mounds (Neuweiler et al. 2000, cipitation (Dix & Nelson 2006); (2) lithifi cation 2003), to be responsible for the matrix lithifi cati- of coarse sediments controlled by their primary on of the St. Paul’s Bay Limestone. In contrast, the sediment composition and the hydrodynamics of intense lithifi cation by isopachous bladed spar and their sedimentary environment (Knoerich & Mutti the complete dissolution of aragonite in the Myti- 2003); and (3) a matrix lithifi cation by organomi- laster and Serpulid Facies of the Cape Arkhangelos neralisation processes (Neuweiler personal com- Calcarenite (chapter 4.5.3), point to an early mari- munication). Furthermore, for the lithifi cation of ne cementation most likely caused by physicoche- Mediterranean occurrences the specifi c oceano- mical processes combined with the dissolution of graphic conditions of this marginal sea should be aragonitic constituents. Th e occurrence of two dif- taken into account. Th e evaluation of the relevan- ferent marine lithifi ca-tion processes – even in one ce of diff erent lithifi cation processes in cool-water outcrop (Lindos-Pefk os Road Cutting) – suggests carbonates should be the focus of future research. multiple controls for a constructive diagenesis of cool-water carbonates. Dix & Nelson (2006) found evidence that aragonite dissolution-driven lithifi cation is more eff ective in fi ne-grained than in coarse-grained cool- water carbonates. Knoerich & Mutti (2003) argued that the lithifi cation is triggered by the primary sediment composition and the hydrodynamics of

8 Conclusions

• Th e cool-water carbonates from Rhodes studied sits on the island, suggesting frequent tropical herein were deposited on a highly structured is- conditions during this interval. Most likely, the land shelf within a steep palaeorelief provided specifi c palaeogeographic confi guration of the by NW-SE oriented micrograben systems. Th e Mediterranean Basin hindered an invasion of complex palaeorelief of the basement rocks pro- tropical elements by the permanent warm-tem- vided substrates and diverse ecological niches perate climatic conditions in the western Medi- for manifold biocoenoses (skeletal associa- terranean Basin and adjacent Atlantic. tions). • Early marine diagenesis in cool-water carbo- • Sedimentary systems related to highly struc- nates is subject to multiple parameters and tured shelves show, compared to open shelf processes, such as temperature, carbonate satua-

sedimentary systems, an increased facies vari- tion of the seawater and pore water; pCO2, hy- ability and facies patchiness, diff erent redepo- drodynamics, aragonite dissolution, physico- sitional processes and accommodation spaces chemical and organomineralisation processes, rather controlled by the relief than by sea level as well as possible further parameters and proc- or by both. esses, which are not addressed herein. Th e • Th e basement rock relief controlled where, how, studies presented herein suggest two diff erent how much and how fast sediment was depos- controls for the early marine lithifi cation of two ited. Th ereby, accommodation space of carbon- facies in one outcrop and therefore highlight ate systems related to the fl anks of submarine the complexity and variability of a constructive highs was controlled by the slope angle of the early marine diagenesis in cool-water carbo- deposits, while in the autochthonous carbonate nates. Th eir detailed description and evaluation system on top of a submarine high the accom- should be subject of future research. modation space was controlled by sea level. In the subaerial environment, coastal aeolian systems developed. Th eir distribution, morphology and preservation depend also highly on the developed topography. • Carbonate factories developed on the fl anks and tops of submarine highs. While on the tops of submarine highs autochthonous carbonate factories predominated, which showed a response to sea-level fl uctuations, carbonate factories on submarine ciff s underwent frequent redeposition via rock falls, debris falls, grain fl ows and debris fl ows, controlled by the basement rock relief. Th ereby, the developed redepositional process depended predominantly on the slope angle and the availability of fi ne matrix sediment. • Th e ooid-bearing aeolianites represent one of the northern-most ooid occurrences in the Quaternary, as well as in the Phanerozoic. Th ey highlight the frequent subtropical tropical conditions of the eastern Mediterranean Sea during the Late Pleistocene, most likely during interglacial intervals. • Th e absence of tropical faunal elements in the marine Plio-Pleistocene deposits of Rhodes is surprising if taking into account the presence of Late Pleistocene ooid-bearing aeolian depo-

9 Outlook

Nearly 50 years research in cool-water carbo- be common along convergent plate boundaries. nates brought out fascinating new environments Known occurrences from the fl anks of the Strait and ecosystems around the world, which broade- of Messina (Italy) or the Cook Strait (New Zea- ned our view of carbonate sedimentary systems. land) present promising localities to start with. Taking into account that the most extensive shelf • Marginal seas are a common feature during the areas are located beyond the tropics and that cool- Phanerozoic, such as the Germanian Basin (Tri- water carbonate factories exist in water depth even assic, Europe) or the Sundance Basin (Jurassic, deeper than the shelf edges highlight the global re- western North American), and are intensely levance of these ecosystems and the importance of studied. However, the infl uence of reduced fau- their exploration. Th e aim of the presented study nal exchange with open ocean settings and its of the warm-temperate Plio-Pleistocene deposits infl uence on carbonate factories and related from Rhodes is to draw attention to the comple- sediment body symmetries, as well as its clima- xity of cool-water sedimentary systems related to tic and environmental interpretation, are large- structured island shelves and their peculiarity in a ly unknown and may be a promising target for marginal sea setting. Th e intense fi eld studies on future research. Rhodes during the last years provided new out- • For Rhodes, a major task will be to unravel its crops resulting in further projects, which are cur- Plio-Pleistocene stratigraphy. Too many diff erent rently in progress: stratigraphic schemes exist at the moment, pre- senting the individual view of working groups • A multiproxy study on bathyal clays (upper Lin- (Fig. 3.3). A revised lithostratigraphic scheme dos Bay Clay) with a shallowing-upward trend. should be published in agreement with all work- Th e study is carried out in cooperation with ing groups and in cooperation with the national Karl Gürs, Sonja-B. Löffl er, Max Wisshak, Nina geological survey of Greece (IGME – Institute Joseph and Gerhard Schmiedl. Main goals are of Geology and Mineral Exploration, Athens, the investigation of benthic faunal communities Greece), and in accordance with the interna- and their response to oceanographic changes tional guide of stratigraphy. Main goal should such as climate and intervals of sapropel forma- be to present a scheme, which endure the next tion. Hereby, the focus will be set on the extinc- decade(s) as the Hanken et al. (1996) scheme tion and recolonisation of fauna (foraminifers, has done for the last, and which provides a relia- molluscs, bryozoans) linked to sapropel events. ble basis for further research on the Plio-Pleis- Th e shallowing-upward trend in the succession tocene deposits of Rhodes. provide the possibility to study these events in diff erent palaeobathymetric environments. • An ultrastructure and oxygen and carbon stable isotope study on the bivalves Spondylus gaederopus (from Plimiri) and Pliocene giant oysters (from Lardos valley) in cooperation with Edith Maier. Th is study will provide the basis for using these organisms as high-resolution climate archives for intervals possibly as long as 100 a.

Promising future tasks in the fi eld of cool-water carbonates but also for further research on the island of Rhodes are:

• Cool-water carbonate sedimentary systems related to highly structured shelves. Th ey are rarely described until today, especially in deep- water environments. Th e herein presented results are just a start in this fascinating fi eld of research. Candidates for further research should

10 References

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Curriculum Vitae Jürgen Paul Herbert Titschack

Geburtsdatum: 17. Oktober 1973 Geburtsort: Darmstadt, Hessen Nationalität: Deutsch Status: Verheiratet

Adresse: Habichtweg 2 D-91096 Möhrendorf Telephon: +49 (0)9131 9313366 E-mail: [email protected]

Eltern: Dr. Marianne Titschack (geb. Hannawacker) Dr. Herbert Titschack

Ausbildung und wissenschaftlicher Werdegang

1980 - 1986 Grundschule (inklusive Förderstufe) Ernsthofen (Hessen) 1986 - 1993 Georg Büchner Gymnasium Darmstadt Abitur: 1993 (Note: 1.9)

1993 - 1994 Zivildienst (Behindertenbetreuung in der Nieder-Ramstädter Diakonie)

Studium der Geologie-Paläontologie an der 1994 - 1997 Technische Universität Darmstadt und der 1997 - 2000 Universität Bremen

Diplomarbeit: Fazies- und Diagenesemodell der pleistozänen Tiefwasser- Korallenkalke (St. Paul’s Bay Kalkstein Fazies Gruppe) auf Rhodos, Griechenland.

Diplomkartierung: Geologische Neuaufnahme Blatt ÖK 114 Holzgau, im Gebiet Birkental-Gappenfeldscharte-Nessewängler Edenalpe.

Diplomabschluß Geologie-Paläontologie: November 2000 (Note: 1.0)

2001 - 2002 Wissenschaftlicher Mitarbeiter am Institut für Paläontologie der Eberhardt-Karls-Universität Tübingen

seit 2002 Dissertation am Institut für Paläontologie der Friedrich-Alexander- Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg im Rahmen des Projektes: Reaktion benthischer Organismen auf rapide Umweltveränderungen im Plio- Pleistozän von Rhodos, östliches Mittelmeer (DFG Fr 1134/7)