Volume 8, Issue 10(3), October 2019 International Journal of Multidisciplinary Educational Research
Published by Sucharitha Publications 48-12-3/7, Flat No: 302, Alekya Residency Srinagar, Visakhapatnam – 530 016 Andhra Pradesh – India Email: [email protected] Website: www.ijmer.in
Editorial Board Editor-in-Chief Dr. K. Victor Babu Associate Professor, Institute of Education Mettu University, Metu, Ethiopia
EDITORIAL BOARD MEMBERS
Prof. S.Mahendra Dev Prof. Igor Kondrashin Vice Chancellor The Member of The Russian Philosophical Indira Gandhi Institute of Development Society Research, Mumbai The Russian Humanist Society and Expert of The UNESCO, Moscow, Russia Prof.Y.C. Simhadri Vice Chancellor, Patna University Dr. Zoran Vujisiæ Former Director Rector Institute of Constitutional and Parliamentary St. Gregory Nazianzen Orthodox Institute Studies, New Delhi & Universidad Rural de Guatemala, GT, U.S.A Formerly Vice Chancellor of Benaras Hindu University, Andhra University Nagarjuna University, Patna University Prof.U.Shameem Department of Zoology Prof. (Dr.) Sohan Raj Tater Andhra University Visakhapatnam Former Vice Chancellor Singhania University, Rajasthan Dr. N.V.S.Suryanarayana Dept. of Education, A.U. Campus Prof.R.Siva Prasadh Vizianagaram IASE Andhra University - Visakhapatnam Dr. Kameswara Sharma YVR Asst. Professor Dr.V.Venkateswarlu Dept. of Zoology Assistant Professor Sri. Venkateswara College, Delhi University, Dept. of Sociology & Social Work Delhi Acharya Nagarjuna University, Guntur I Ketut Donder Prof. P.D.Satya Paul Depasar State Institute of Hindu Dharma Department of Anthropology Indonesia Andhra University – Visakhapatnam Prof. Roger Wiemers Prof. Josef HÖCHTL Professor of Education Department of Political Economy Lipscomb University, Nashville, USA University of Vienna, Vienna & Ex. Member of the Austrian Parliament Dr. N.S. Dhanam Austria Department of Philosophy Andhra University Prof. Alexander Chumakov Visakhapatnam Chair of Philosophy Russian Philosophical Society Dr.B.S.N.Murthy Moscow, Russia Department of Mechanical Engineering GITAM University Prof. Fidel Gutierrez Vivanco Visakhapatnam Founder and President Escuela Virtual de Asesoría Filosófica Lima Peru Dr.S.V Lakshmana Rao Dr.Ton Quang Cuong Coordinator Dean of Faculty of Teacher Education A.P State Resource Center University of Education, VNU, Hanoi Visakhapatnam Prof. Chanakya Kumar
Department of Computer Science Dr.S.Kannan University of Pune,Pune Department of History Annamalai University Prof. Djordje Branko Vukelic Annamalai Nagar, Chidambaram Department for Production Engineering University of Novi Sad, Serbia Dr. B. Venkataswamy H.O.D., & Associate Professor Prof. Shobha V Huilgol Dept. of Telugu, P.A.S. College Department of Pharmacology Pedanandipadu, Guntur, India Off- Al- Ameen Medical College, Bijapur
Dr.E. Ashok Kumar Prof.Joseph R.Jayakar Department of Education Department of English North- Eastern Hill University, Shillong GITAM University Dr.K.Chaitanya Hyderabad Department of Chemistry Nanjing University of Science and Prof.Francesco Massoni Technology Department of Public Health Sciences People’s Republic of China University of Sapienza, Rome
Dr.Sandeep Narula Prof.Mehsin Jabel Atteya Dept. of Management Sciences Al-Mustansiriyah University IIHMR University, Jaipur College of Education Department of Mathematics, Iraq Dr. Bipasha Sinha S. S. Jalan Girls’ College Prof. Ronato Sabalza Ballado University of Calcutta, Calcutta Department of Mathematics University of Eastern Philippines, Philippines Prof. N Kanakaratnam Dept. of History, Archaeology & Culture Satheesha H Dravidian University, Kuppam Mettu University Andhra Pradesh Mettu, Ethiopia
Dr. K. John Babu Dr.J.B.Chakravarthi Department of Journalism & Mass Comm Assistant Professor Central University of Kashmir, Kashmir Department of Sahitya Rasthritya Sanskrit Vidyapeetha, Tirupati Dr.T.V.Ramana Department of Economics, Andhra University Dr.Ni Luh Putu Agustini Karta Campus, Kakinada Department of Tourism Triatma Mulya Institute of Economy Bali, Indonesia
® © Editor-in-Chief, IJMER Typeset and Printed in India www.ijmer.in IJMER, Journal of Multidisciplinary Educational Research, concentrates on critical and creative research in multidisciplinary traditions. This journal seeks to promote original research and cultivate a fruitful dialogue between old and new thought.
C O N T E N T S
Volume 8 Issue 10(3) October 2019
S. No Pg.No 1. Footwear Manufacturing Process: A Role of Computerized 1 Sewing Machine to Lift up of Fast Production Chandra Shekhar and Neeraj Kumar 2. Continuity and Change in Communal Land Ownership in Karbi 6 Society Sangita Das 3. A Critical Review of 11th Five Year Plan on Higher Education 10 in India Partha Roy 4. Black Money and Its Effects on Indian Economy - A 25 Conceptual Study Nagaraju.K.O 5. Assessing the Impact of Rural to Urban Migration on City 33 Development: -The Case of Fitche Town Ketema Joro Ayane 6. Assessment of Anti-Inflammatory Potentiality Using ‘HRBC’ 47 Membrane Stabilization Assay on Aqueous and Methanol Extract of A ‘Spice’ Mixture Used to Impair Obesity MI Manuha, BM Nageeb and PA Paranagama 7. History of Female Education in Assam 53 Niharika Moran E/; Izns’k Esa Iapk;Rh Jkt O;Olfkk & Pquksfr;Kw ,Oa Hkfo"; 58 8. Xqykc Izlkn Dkjisuvj and Mk0 V’kksd Xqirk 9. Awareness & Accessibility Level of the Beneficiaries of J&K 62 with Respect to Special Education Services for Persons with Intellectual Disability: A Comparative Analysis Rohnika Sharma 10. 73
11. Two Step Cluster Analysis on Census Tract Data of 79 Kancheepuram District of Tamil Nadu State: An Exploratory Study H. Gladius Jennifer and M. Bagavandas
12. Gender Discrimination and Thought-Process 87 R.P. Gangwar 13. The Concept of Man in Sarvāstivāda: A Critical Approach 92 Bishnu Borah 14. Creutzfeldt-Joakob and Variant Creutzfeldt-Joakob Disease 99 Deepa J 15. Head-Hunting Among the Naga Tribes and Nietzsche’s Moral 101 Relativism: A Critical Study Avothung Ezung 16. 110
17. A Study on Socio-Economic Status of Dhemaji District with 119 Special Reference to Lakhipathar Village, Assam, India Achinta Saikia and Pinku Gohain 18. Analysis of the Financial Performance Through Solvency Ratio 129 of Selected Petrochemical Industry in India A. Antoniammal 19. Impact of Global Terrorism on International Peace and Security 140 Rajvinder Kaur 20. 151
ISSN : 2277 – 7881 Dr. K. VICTOR BABU Impact Factor :6.014 (2019) M.A.,M.A.,M.Phil.,Ph.D.,PDF, (D.Lit) Index Copernicus Value: 5.16 Associate Professor, Institute of Education & Editor-in-Chief International Journal of Multidisciplinary Educational Research (IJMER) & Sucharitha: A Journal of Philosophy and Religion Mettu University, Metu, Ethiopia.
Editorial……
It is heartening to note that our journal is able to sustain the enthusiasm and covering various facets of knowledge. It is our hope that IJMER would continue to live up to its fullest expectations savoring the thoughts of the intellectuals associated with its functioning .Our progress is steady and we are in a position now to receive evaluate and publish as many articles as we can. The response from the academicians and scholars is excellent and we are proud to acknowledge this stimulating aspect. The writers with their rich research experience in the academic fields are contributing excellently and making IJMER march to progress as envisaged. The interdisciplinary topics bring in a spirit of immense participation enabling us to understand the relations in the growing competitive world. Our endeavour will be to keep IJMER as a perfect tool in making all its participants to work to unity with their thoughts and action. The Editor thanks one and all for their input towards the growth of the Knowledge Based Society. All of us together are making continues efforts to make our predictions true in making IJMER, a Journal of Repute
Dr.K.Victor Babu Editor-in-Chief
SOCIAL SCIENCES, HUMANITIES, COMMERCE & MANAGEMENT, ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY, MEDICINE, SCIENCES, ART & DEVELOPMENT STUDIES, LAW www.ijmer.in
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VOLUME 8, ISSUE 10(3), OCTOBER 2019
FOOTWEAR MANUFACTURING PROCESS: A ROLE OF COMPUTERIZED SEWING MACHINE TO LIFT UP OF FAST PRODUCTION
Chandra Shekhar Neeraj Kumar Sr. Faculty (FT) Sr. Instructor (FT) School of Footwear Technology School of Footwear Technology Footwear Design & Development Institute Footwear Design & Development Institute (An “Institution of National Importance” as per (An “Institution of National Importance” as per FDDI Act, 2017 FDDI Act, 2017 Under Ministry of Commerce & Industry, Under Ministry of Commerce & Industry, Govt. of India) Govt. of India) A-10/A, Sector-24, Noida U.P India A-10/A, Sector-24, Noida U.P India
Abstract As we know automation is the technology by which a process is performed with minimal human assistance. This machine must only be operated by adequately trained operators and only after having completely read and understood the Instruction Manual. Automation has been achieved by various means including mechanical, hydraulic, pneumatic, electrical, electronic devices and computers, usually in combination. Key Words: Lock Stitch, Chain Stitch, Roller Feed, Bottom Feed, Pressure Roller, Top Feed
1. Introduction As we know stitching is the number of stitches on the component having a specified stitch length. These stitches can be in millimeter, centimeter or inches depends on the requirement. Stitching can be done by hand or by machine. When we do stitching by hand it is called hand stitching and when we do stitching by machine it is called machine stitching. For doing stitching with machine we use various types of machines like flat bed, post bed and cylinder arm stitching machines. Apart from these machines we use various types of ancillary stitching machines like skiving m/c, folding m/c, perforating m/c, seam rubbing & taping m/c, eyeleting m/c etc. These machines are also used for making upper. Normally we use two types of stitching in closing room i.e. lock stitch and chain stitch. In lock stitch we use two threads (top and bottom) and this type of stitching is done with the use of flat bed, post bed and cylinder arm machines. In chain stitching we use only one thread (top thread) and this is done with the use of strobel machine. 2. Manually Operated Normal Stitching Machines These types of stitching machines are controlled manually with the help of treadle. In these machines we use clutch motor. These machines can be light, www.ijmer.in 1
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medium or heavy duty. These machines mainly produce a lock stitch. These machines can be single, twin or multiple needle. Flatbed machine motor speed is usually 1400 rpm and 0.33HP motor is required. The speed of the post bed machine is 2800 RPM with ordinary clutch motor and can be increased to 4000- 6000 RPM by changing the necessary motor. These machines can have vertical and horizontal hook movement. 2.1 Bottom feed in these machines can be: i. Roller feed- a toothed circular wheel, which is rotary, feeds the material to be stitched. ii. Step feed: A feed dog feeds the material. 2.2 Top feed which is pressure feed can have: 2.2.1 Pressure roller- An indented pressure wheel which can be free wheel (that do not rotate by machine) or driven by machine mechanism. The driven wheel can be intermittent or continuously moving. 2.2.2 Pressure foot- It can be ordinary foot or walking foot. Walking foot is used for stitching thick leather or multi layers stitching. 2.3 In manually operated stitching machines: Operators have to trim the thread manually with the help of thread trimmer Pressure roller will be raised manually with the help of knee press Lock is made manually at the start and end of seam Needle is also positioned manually etc. These machines can be used for stitching Lap seam, Close seam, Decorative seam, Zig-zag seam, French binding, Collar binding, U-binding, Italian binding etc. Manually operated stitching machines can be Flat bed m/c, Post bed m/c, Cylinder arm m/c, Zig-zag m/c etc
Pic- 1 Manual Normal stitching machine
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3. Manually Operated Semi-Automatic Stitching Machines These machines are the upgrade version of manually operated stitching machines. In these machines we use electronic motor. Sewing speed of these machines can be up to 3000 spm (stitch per minute). These machines can be used for stitching constructive and decorative stitching like Lap seam, Close seam, Decorative seam, Zig-zag seam, French binding, Collar binding, U-binding, Italian binding etc. These machines can be flat bed, post bed, cylinder arm etc. In manually operated semi-automatic stitching machines: Thread can be trimmed automatically by pressing the treadle back side Pressure roller can be raised automatically when we start and finish stitching Lock can be made automatically at the start and end of seam Needle can be positioned automatically etc.
Pic 2 – Semi automatic sewing machine 4. Fully Automatic Stitching Machine With the help of this machine we can increase productivity and quality. In this machine components are stitched with the help of jig attached with the machine. In this machine we make the stitching pattern with the help of various commands or with the use of PSP (Puff stitching program). After making the program we can stitch the components with the use of jig.
Pic 3- Fully Automatic Sewing machine www.ijmer.in 3
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4.1 Technical Specification of the Machine (Pfuff-3590):
Max. Sewing speed: : 3000 s.p.m. Max. Stitch length: : 0,1 - 6 mm Stitch type: : 301 (lockstitch) Needle system: : 134-35 KK Needle size: : 80 – 160 Max. Motor speed: : 3000 r.p.m. Operating voltage: : 230 V ± 10%, 50/60 Hz, A/C Power requirement: : 2.2 kW Storage capacity: : 5.000.000 stitches Min. working pressure: : 6 bar Air
4.2 Operating Procedure of fully automatic sewing machine: Switch on the machine. Select the desired program number Select the desired program number (0 – 9999) using the number block. Confirm the selection and quit the selection menu Arrange the materials in the jig Close the Jig Insert the Jig Close the jig indexing function Start the sewing cycle Continue stitching Preparing components in another jig Take out the stitched components After stitching you will get final product 5. Conclusion We can say with the help of this machine we can stitch the components very fast with accuracy. In the normal stitching machines we can stitch only one type of stitch (single line, double line, curved line, half curved line etc.) at one time but in this machine we can stitch all types of stitching at one time with the help of various commands and jig. This machine is very costly so it is suitable in bulk orders on the same article.
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6. References:
[1] www.satra.co.uk [2] https://youtu.be/xx4bMhYN--g?t=9 [3] Wikipedia-automation [4] FDDI (Footwear Design & Development Institute) technical handouts [5] Technical Manual Pfaff-3590 [6] www.leather india.org [7] www.teoline.com
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VOLUME 8, ISSUE 10(3), OCTOBER 2019
CONTINUITY AND CHANGE IN COMMUNAL LAND OWNERSHIP IN KARBI SOCIETY
Ms. Sangita Das Assistant Professor Eastern Karbi Anglong College Sarihajan, Karbi Anglong Assam, India
Introduction Karbi tribe of Assam as well as the other parts of North-East India has been greatly assimilated with nature and forest. Since the time immemorial, land has ever been the greater source of livelihood for the Karbis. The oral tradition of the Karbis give a clear picture about the history of migration of the Karbis, where the main domain of livelihood is mentioned as shifting cultivation as well asfood gathering and hunting. In the initial period of their settlement in Karbi Anglong district, the Karbis did not get their ownership over land and forest based products. They simply survived their lives by shifting cultivation. Community sentiment is lies in the core of Karbi society and accordingly they received land from the Sarthe according to community wise. It was in the pre independence period, when there was no revenue office and District Council formed to collect revenue on behalf of the private land. Sarthe (Gaonbura) had utmost superiority over land and he distributes the land according to the urge and demand of the clan members or a family. After a few years, before set up for a new land, they handed over the plot to the Sarthe of the concerned village. The revenue system over land was also prevailing in pre independence period but their pattern was different. During that period, land revenue was not measured by money, rather goods and services were treated as revenue. The landholders had to pay revenue according to the demand of Sarthe after a specific period of time. The quantity and period were fixed by the Sarthe. Gradually, a drastic change has taken place in the land ownership system in Karbi society. In 1951, after the formation of Karbi Anglong Autonomous Council, people started to get their own individual land and started to pay tax to the District Council on behalf of the land. State government laid several laws for the land in Karbi Anglong District where a non-Karbi (Non-Mikir) could not take ownership of land in sixth scheduled areas. The Karbis follow certain rituals and customs, which are mostly oriented towards shifting cultivation. Since the primitive time, communal land ownership has been prevailing in Karbi society, where Sarthe (village headman) distributes the land to the villagers for cultivation. Presently, though the Karbis considered themselves as native inhabitants of Karbi Anglong District and each and every www.ijmer.in 6
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VOLUME 8, ISSUE 10(3), OCTOBER 2019 household owned their own land but in different aspects there are depriving from their rights over land. The research work has revealed the fact that now a day’s several factors are playing leading role in depriving the Karbis from their land and its ownership. According to field work report, the following factors are lies behind land alienation in Karbi society: Interest for personal ownership of land. Indebtedness. Lacunae in the land laws. Acquisition of land for public purpose by the government and other institutions. Encroachment and forcible eviction of tribal’s from their land. Methods of land alienation: Sale. Mortgage. Lease. Benami Transfer. Collusive decrees. Fraudulent methods and land grabbing. Protective provisions: Several articles have been made for the interest of tribal development in scheduled areas. Out of all, a few articles are mentioned below, which are related with land in scheduled areas. The protection provision are contained in articles15 (4), 16 (4), 19 (5), 23, 29, 46, 164, 330, 332, 334, 335, 338, 339 (1), 371 (B), 371 (c), fifth scheduled and scheduled. Article 15 (4), 16 (4), and 19 (5) are exception to the fundamental rights of equality and freedom guaranteed under part III of the constitution. Provisions for development of scheduled tribes are contained in article 275 (1) and 339 (2). Article 15 (4):- promotion of social, economic and educational interest. Article 15 prohibits any discrimination on ground of religion, race, caste, sex, or place of birth. Clause 4 of this article empowers the state to make any special provision for advancement of the scheduled caste and scheduled tribe. Article 16 (4):- Reservation in the posts and services. Article 16 (4) is another exception to the right of equality of opportunity in the matters of public employment laid down in clause 1 and 2 of article 16. Article 19 (5):- Safeguard of tribal interest in property. Article 23:- Article 23 prohibits traffic in human being , beggars and other similar forms of forced labor. This is significant for the scheduled tribes as mnany of them are employed as bonded labor. www.ijmer.in 7
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Article 29:- Cultural and educational right. Article 46 Findings and Discussion: The field work report has revealed the fact that presently all most all the Karbi households has their land records, which is termed as Patta regularly people use to pay the revenue of their land. According to the field work report out of 300 households 287 households have their Patta of their land. Among a few households are there, who enjoying different types of financial assistance on behalf of their land. Presently, the Karbis are growing their interest for rubber and tea cultivation because the climate of Karbi Anglong District as well as its neighboring district is favorable for such types of cultivation. Karbi Anglong Autonomous District Council has its own independent department of land and revenue and it is regulating effectively land Revenue Administration and maintaining records of the lands and issuing Patta for all the Karbis. In the then Mikir Hills, simultaneously the Mikir Hills (Land and Revenue) act 1953, the Karbi Anglong District (Land and Revenue) act 1979 and the Karbi Anglong District (Land and Revenue) rules 1981 has been enacted and framed. In Karbi Anglong District, Land Revenue Act I of 1979 is instituted from 10th May 1979 by the Gazette notification. These acts were enacted especially to protect the native tribes from the immigrants and non-tribal peoples. Interest for private ownership of land is a major reason, which leads all the Karbis to collect Patta for their land. Initially the Karbis did not occupy any land for their own and they moved from place to place for the sake of shifting cultivation. Gradually, after a few decades, the Karbis started to orient themselves towards change by the influence of education, literacy, modernization and democratization of political power. Slowly and steadily, economic set up had started to change from shifting cultivation to settled cultivation. Literacy enables to acquire different knowledge about application of science and technology in their day to day life. Adaptation and application of technology and literacy again enable them assimilate with the grater world and in this way they got the idea of the utilization of land for several types f cultivation. Presently, the tea garden cultivators, who own the patta on behalf of their land, are getting financial assistance, loans, and subsidy on technical instruments for agriculture, free seeds, fertilizer etc. Presently, there are no provisions available in Karbi Anglong District to transfer of the ownership of land from tribal to non-tribal, even those people, who considered themselves as the earlier settler of this District also cannot sell their land to non tribal and it was banned by the notification of Karbi Anglong District Council with order no: KSC/REVENUE/LRD/306/2003-04/6646(a), Dated 13th July, 2007. Now a days , though a drastic change had taken place in the land ownership system in Karbi Anglong District but in the remote areas of Karbi Anglong www.ijmer.in 8
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VOLUME 8, ISSUE 10(3), OCTOBER 2019
District, still people are practicing shifting cultivation and according to the report of field investigation, it has come to know that still the remote hill dwellers does not have their land documents or Patta and the non tribal or the Karbis themselves taking over the land for tea and rubber plantation and in this way the hill dwellers are depriving from their right to use the land for shifting cultivation, which makes them economically weak. In rural areas, though people are having their patta in favor of their land but still people are supposed to obey the order of their Sarthe in order to settle any insurgency and clash related with land. Till today, Sarthe (village headmen) plays significant role in settling the land related disputes among the villagers. Sometime permission of Sarthe is also necessary for selling or transferring the ownership of land.
Conclusion:
In conclusion it can be say that the land settlement act of 1979 enacted by Karbi Anglong District Council brought a tremendous change in the land ownership pattern in Karbi Anglong District. Presently, very rare households are found in Karbi Anglong District, who does not have any land property as their own. The Karbis started to collect land by their own and started to cultivated tea and rubber to increase their financial condition. They are collecting Patta from revenue officer and also enjoying various financial benefits, loans and subsidy from District Council and State Government.
Reference:
1. Bordoloi B.N, (1991). Transfer and Alienation of Tribal Land in Assam: with special reference to the Karbis of the Karbi Anglong District, Planning and Development Department, Government of Assam. 2. Bhattacharjee T, (1986), Sociology of the Karbis, BR Publishing Corporation, Delhi. 3. Dutt K.N, (1979), Assam District Gazetteer-United Mikirs and North-Cachar Hills, (Karbi Anglong and North Cachar Hills), Government of Assam, Guwahati. 4. Goswami P.C, (1969). Land Reform in Assam in Economic and Political Weekly. 5. Phangcho P.C, (2001). Karbi Anglong and North Cachar hills – A study of geography and Culture, Tika, Karbi Anglong. 6. Lyell CJ, (1908). The Mikirs, Spectrum Publications, Guwahati.
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VOLUME 8, ISSUE 10(3), OCTOBER 2019
A CRITICAL REVIEW OF 11TH FIVE YEAR PLAN ON HIGHER EDUCATION IN INDIA
Partha Roy M.A, NET in Education Bachelor of Education Ramakrishna Mission Shikshanamandira Belur, India
Abstract: Development of any nation solely depends on the quality of human resources and good human resource is produced through quality education. Education provides people with an opportunity to reflect on the social, cultural, moral, economic, and spiritual issues and contributes towards the development through propagation of specialized knowledgeand skills.Higher education is a relative term expressing that in the progression of learning, where the utility of a skill cannot be achieved without the acquisition of previous skills, or previous knowledge, which was derived, and proven through theories, to become 'higher' knowledge. Here we discuss about some Past Five Year Plan and 11th FYP (2007- 2012) on Higher Education in India. And also criticize of this plans and present problems. Lastly, I suggest some point of view to overcome these problems.
Keywords: Quality, Opportunity, Higher Education, Skill, FYP.
Objectives of the Study: 1. To know about concept of Higher Education. 2. To understand the thrust areas of previous FYPs’ and their problems on Higher Education. 3. To know some objectives of 11th Five Year Plan. 4. To discuss the recommended thrust areas of 11th FYP and their problems on Higher Education. 5. To discuss Qualitative Higher Education, Relevant H.E and suggested career opportunity point-out in 11th FYP on H.E. 6. And some suggestion to overcome the Higher Education Problems in India.
Introduction: India, even after 71 years of its independence, is far away from the goal of universal literacy. The fact that India’s higher education system is churning out millions of graduates who are unemployable speaks of the need to improve the quality of education in the country. However, on a positive note, India is engaged in the use of higher education as a powerful tool to build a knowledge-based information society of the 21 Century. Indian professionals are considered among the best in the world and are in great demand. This signifies the inherent strength of the Indian educational system.Although there have been challenges to higher education in the past, these most recent calls for reform may provoke a fundamental change in higher education. This change may not occur as a direct response to calls for greater transparency and accountability, but rather
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VOLUME 8, ISSUE 10(3), OCTOBER 2019 because of the opportunity to reflect on the purpose of higher education, the role of colleges and universities in the new millennium, and emerging scientific research on how people learn. Now the time has come to create a second wave of institution building and of excellence in the fields of education, research and capability building. We need higher educated people who are skilled and who can drive our economy forward. When India can provide skilled people to the outside world then we can transfer our country from a developing nation to a developed nation very easily and quickly.
Thrust Areas about Higher Education during 5th to 10th Five Year Plan: Analysis of the past Five Year Plans indicates that, there have beencontinuous efforts to strengthen the base by developing infrastructure, improvingthe quality through several programs and schemes, introducing reforms incontent and evaluation and encouraging generation of knowledge throughresearch. The focus of fifth five-year plan was on infrastructure development, thesixth plan onwards the focus shifted to consolidation and quality improvement.
The Seventh Plan laid emphasis on research and academic developments. Itwas from this plan onward that the development centers of excellence and areastudy programs got special attention. From the Eighth Plan onward, the need fordifferential funding was recognized. Under this plan, it was envisaged that thedeveloping departments would be provided necessary funds to bring up theirfacilities and activities to an optimum level for their teaching and generalresearch pregrammes. The Ninth Plan aimed at gearing the system of highereducation to meet the challenges arising out of the major social, economic andtechnological changes. The focus of Tenth Plan was aimed at quality andrelevance of higher education, research and development, management infinancing and the use of the new information and communication technologies.
Plans Thrust Areas Fifth Construction of academic buildings, library, staff quarters,teachers’ hostel, students’ hostel, study homes, non- residentstudents’ center; Purchase of books, journals, equipment; Appointment of additional teaching staff, technical supportingstaff etc. Sixth Improvement of standards; Regulation of admission; Restructuring of courses for practical orientation and greaterrelevance; Centralization of instrumentation and repair facilities; Make extension as an integral part of education;(low priority was given to expansion of educational facilities byway of new universities, centers for postgraduate studies, newdepartment and to construction/extension of buildings involvingbrick and mortar.) Seventh Creation of research and other centralized facilities at
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selectedcenters for the benefit of a group of institutions in theregion/country, Encouragement of academic mobility and cross-fertilization ofideas with a view to inculcating the feeling of national integrationby providing special assistance for faculty housing/complex andhostels, Restructuring courses at first degree level so that they becomerelevant to the local needs and environment and increase the area of employability of graduates; Prioritization of programs intended to achieve the nationalobjectives; Development of Centers of Excellence; Optimization of use of the existing facilities in theuniversities/colleges specially physical facilities. Eighth Strengthening of existing postgraduate departments in terms oflaboratories, workshops and library services; Opening of new specialized courses and departments, In caseof developed , with an inter-disciplinary approach provided theycould be sustained by existing facilities; In case of developing universities, new departments andcourses only if the need is justified; Viability of courses, departments etc. so that those courses thathave lost their relevance or are outdated could be dispensedwith and teachers in such subjects could be retrained. Ninth Relevance and Quality of Education: Career development by encouraging the relevant courses with professional focus; Modification in traditional courses to make them application oriented; Encouragement to universities to develop basic theoretical understanding of discipline to ensure that the theory and practice are blended and integrated; Focus on hands on experience; and Addressing the public concerns about downslide in the quality of education by focusing on the quality of education rather than on quantitative expansion. Access and Equity: Paying special attention to institutions of higher education in backward areas, hill areas and border areas in order to remove regional imbalances; Addressing the higher education needs of under-represented social groups including the SC/STs, women, handicapped and the minorities; and Focus not only on quantitative expansion but also on qualitative
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development of institutions of higher education in the areas catering to the above groups.
University and Social Change: Encouragement to universities to develop a greater emphasis on non-degree programs in order to meet the expectations arising out of changes that are taking place in the society; These activities to be made the responsibility of every department; while the departments of adult and continuing education would be the focal point for social change function and Major thrust to be given to program development for women studies and centre for women studies shall be essentially interdisciplinary.
Management of Education: Support for streaming the university management system; Assistance for academic, administrative and financial decentralization; Autonomy of the Departments; Autonomy of the affiliated colleges & institutions; Developing in-house training facilities for non-teaching staff, rationalization of posts; increasing use of information technology in management; and Establishment of College Development Council, workshops for college Principals, and improvement in backward and forward linkages.
Resource Mobilization: Focus on planning for internal and external resource mobilization; Differential fee structure; Enhancement in fees for foreign studies; and Generation of revenue through increased university-industry linkages.
Thrust Areas in the 10th Five Year Plan - GENERAL: To achieve a profound transformation of higher education in orderthat it becomes an effective promoter of sustainable human development and atthe same time, improves its relevance with closer links with the world of work andachieve quality in its teaching, research, business and community extension functions including lifelong learning. SPECIFIC: To contribute to the transformation through improvement of the conceptions, methodology and practices related to:
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The relevance of higher education. Quality, evaluation and accreditation. Research and development. Outreach activities in business and community and lifelong learning. The knowledge and use of the new information and communication technology. Management and financing. Export of higher education, and reorientation of international cooperation. Strengthening of open and distance education system. Strengthening of research institutions. Mobilization of resources.
Problems: Current Curriculum and content system is not to be fulfil need our society. Lack of Fund. Problem of student admission. Problem of proper University and Environment. Interposition of universities freedom or autonomy. Lack of teacher’s attendance in university. Lack of proper research for society. Lack of reading text book or library book. Problem of Formative Examination. Problems of ‘Autonomy College’.
Objectives of 11th Five year Plan: The initiatives and schemes described above, are all important and have their impacts on the higher education system. It is, however, being greatly realized that such sporadic schemes would not lead to quality movement in a country of our size and complexity. The country cannot go on creating islands of excellence in the ocean of mediocrity.
It must be realized that the youth of this country and parents thereof are not only seeking equitable access to higher education but also are in search of equitable access to quality higher education. The needs and expectations of masses can be met only by making concerted initiative to improve quality of higher education across all institutions of higher education in the country. The objective of the XI Five-Year Plan should, thus, be to bring about an across-the-board improvement in the quality of education provided by universities and colleges.
The above will require identification of - a. The critical factors and determinants of quality in higher education. b. To fill gaps in qualitative knowledge. c. The number of institutions i.e. the colleges and higher education that would require financial support for improving quality.
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VOLUME 8, ISSUE 10(3), OCTOBER 2019 d. The financial implications of the quality and excellence drive targeted at all institutions of higher education.
Recommended Areas about Higher Education of 11th of Five Year Plan: A Working Group on Higher Education was set up by the Planning Commission under the Chairmanship of Secretary (HE), vide order no. M-12015/2/2005-Edn.
Broad Agenda for 11th Plan: 1. Expansion of Access - Expanding the overall access to provide higher education to all those eligible. To ensure equity through equitable access to the deprived socio-economic strata of the society. Enhancing the quality of teaching and learning experience through use of information pathway. Setting up of new universities and colleges to increase enrolment. To increase the enrolment of women students by building hostels for women in metropolitan cities, semi urban and rural areas. Setting up of new colleges, aided by the Government, in backward, rural, and tribal areas. Access to good institutions and facilities.
Problems: Classroom Size. Poverty.(Rate) Family Factors. Technology. Bullying. Student Attitudes and Behaviors. No Child Left Behind.(USA) Parent Involvement.(No counselling)
Research - Developing a creative framework for combining the strengths of scientific laboratories, private initiatives and universities to start advanced institutions for undergraduate and post graduate science education. Twinning with R&D institutions and industries for symbiotic program. Promoting cross flow of teachers/scientists through interchange between universities and diverse research laboratories at national/international level. Expanding links with international educational & research institutions for enriching the students and faculty. Upgrading scientific infrastructure in universities and Inter-University Centres and providing easy access to research funding. Problems:
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Affordability and Rising Costs: The Effects on Student Academic Performance and Persistence. Campus Climate. International and Out-of-State Students: Their Integration and Academic Engagement. High volume of research information and lack of tools. Lack of institutional policies. Ethical or social-cultural challenges. Lack of funds.
3. Distance Education - The distance education system needs to be suitable geared so as to enable the manpower, which is already engaged in the gainful employment, to improve their academic attainments, so that they cancompete for better prospects, vertically.
Problems: Chances of distraction high. Hidden costs. Complicated technology. Quality of faculty compromised. Questionable credibility of degrees. Lose out on networking.
Quality Education should have been given more importance in India. Academic ambience in our universities needs to be improved a great deal. Quality and excellence are the watch- words in today’s liberalized environment. Making higher education globally competitive, therefore, cannot be postponed any further.
The focus should be on enhancing the quality of educational institutions in general. In order to facilitate the growth of excellence in institutions with potential, the following programs /processes need to be developed with due emphasis and arrangements for appropriate monitoring:
Application of ICT in Quality Framework. Improvement of External Assessment Systems. Development of Internal Systems of Quality Assurance. Performance Based Quality Assessment Approach.
Problems: Teaching Quality. The first issue that higher education in India is facing is decreasing teaching quality. Financing. Privatization.
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Quota System. Political Factor. Moral Issues. Gap in Supply and Demand. Mushrooming of Low Quality Institutes. No Project Based Learning. No Strategy. Why Only Servicing Industry?
Problems Quality Teachers: 1) Passion for teaching. 2) Love of kids. 3) Love of their subject. 4) Understanding of the role of a school in a child's life. 5) A work ethic that doesn't quit. 6) A willingness to reflect. 7) Organization. 8) Understanding that being a “great teacher” is a constant struggle to always improve.
Quality Education - One of the most efficient ways of tackling the problem of poor educational quality is by sharing the resources between private and public schools. It is vital to remember that the quality of education is directly linked to the resources available and it is important for the government to improve the resource allocation to bring about qualitative changes in the field of education. To enable the higher education sector to take on the emerging competition from the Asian countries, there is a need to loosen the hold of the government over the higher educational institutions. (For Solve - Encouraging Individuality, Making the Curriculum Dynamic, Tech-Savvy Methods of Teaching, High-Tech Libraries-E-library and The Power of Alumni).
Faculty Development - There is a need for provision of fully staffed, equipped and functional Academic Staff Colleges in all the Central Universities. Professional development of teachers in higher education needs to be a continuous and an on-going process for maintaining quality. Vacancies in the sanctioned teaching posts must be urgently filled up all over the country. The refresher courses and orientation programs should be revised for, updating of the skills of the teachers in the respective fields, with coordination between the industries and the employers, where necessary. The faculty improvement program should be extended to computer faculty and such faculty members should be allowed to go to the industry to update their knowledge. Principals of colleges should be given training program in innovative leadership. Exchange of faculty members across the borders should be done for developing managerial skills.
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The facility of going on sabbatical leave for improving subject knowledge and skills should be extended to teachers of colleges as in the case of universities. Restructuring of service conditions and salary of teachers to maintain and retain the best talent in view of the lucrative offers available in the IT and management sectors. Financial support for faculty to present research papers abroad. Four to six months of sabbatical leave may be awarded for research work, projects, post-doctoral research, for completing doctoral thesis (for faculty who have not availed FIP) and for writing and publishing books and research articles. Colleges may be allowed to conduct the refresher courses. Three weeks of academic program conducted by institutions of reputeshould be recognized as refresher courses. To arrange for Technical training program for teaching and non-teaching staff to develop software skills. All affiliating universities may have academic staff colleges and labs are to be set up for them. There should be four faculty members for academic staff colleges. Academic staff colleges to be open throughout the year. Resource centre to be set up within the university. There should be a resource centre to cater to not more than thousand teachers. Academic staff colleges in State universities need to be strengthened. The universities and colleges to participate in promotion of Indian higher education abroad and to attract as many foreign students as possible to study in India.
Problems: Professional status of teaching. Financial compensation. Commercialisation of education. Lack of motivation and support. Professional development and teacher’s needs. Personal image and society’s expectations. Lack of teamwork, empathy, and support between students. Teachers working too many roles at the same time. No time to deal with bodily functions. Teachers being made accountable for more than they should. Not enough time to plan. Balancing the different learning needs of students. Every student who walks through my door is different. Respecting expectations from school admins. Helping parents and students meet long-term goals.
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Curriculum Development– “The aim of education is gaining knowledge, not of facts, but of values” –William S. Burroughs
There is a need for starting of interdisciplinary and integrated courses at under graduate and post- graduate levels with flexibility in choice of Courses and a system of credits that enable horizontal and vertical mobility/transfers for teachers. These courses need to be started in both science and social science streams and must be offered by the Departments of the Central Universities. Colleges should also be involved in curriculum development. The curricula should be revamped to reflect the need for national development with international benchmark. Creativity of teachers, research fellows, students and external experts should be harnessed in order to develop multimedia teaching material.
Problems: There is a dire need for revolutionary changes in the India's education system. Not just the syllabus and pedagogy, but also the attitude change towards the markssystem need to be changed. With the effective learning system, India cansuccessfully utilize its vast human resources.
Use of Technologies - ICT has tremendous potential to extend and augment quality in higher education. Its full potential has not been tapped. Under the Eleventh Plan, Central Universities can lead this process by providing campus based wireless Internet facilities, 24X7 computer labs. In collaboration with corporate houses, a laptop initiative can be put in place for post-graduate and research scholars. This will greatly enhance equitable access to knowledge base Satellite uploading equipment for each Central University should be established. The State universities have fallen behind in modernizing their administrative machinery and introducing e-governance. Funds should be provided to State universities for ICT faculty.
Problems of Implementing Technology: Avoiding Technology for Technology's Sake. Creating a Vision. Money. Professional Development. Get Everyone onboard. Scheduling for Success. Systems and Procedures. Unlocking Student Motivation
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ICTs, therefore, cannot by themselves resolve educational problems in the developing world, as such problems are rooted in well entrenched issues ofpoverty,social inequality and uneven development.What ICTs as educational tools can do, if they are used prudently, is enable developing countries to expand access.
Inclusive Education The objective of inclusiveness will be achieved through the following: Reduction of regional imbalances; Support to institutions located in border, hilly, remote, small towns, and educationally backward areas; Support to institutions with larger student population of SCs, STs, OBCs, minorities, and physically challenged; Support to the SCs, STs, OBCs, minorities, physically challenged, and girl students with special scholarships/ fellowships, hostel facilities, remedial coaching, and other measures; Setting up of an ‘Equal Opportunity Office’ in all universities to bring all schemes relating to this groupunder one umbrella for effective implementation.
Problems: Lack of experience in an inclusion setting. Lack of experience dealing with severe and profound disabilities. Including all students in all activities. Educating students with less severe disabilities. Dealing with death. Shortage of teacher aides. Teaching compassion to students.
Status of Quality and Excellence: Quality in Higher education has assumed great significance in recent times, particularly in the context of massification and increase in competition due to role of the market forces in higher education. Increasing cross-border education opportunities, technological development resulting in new modes of educational provisions and emergence of ‘Knowledge society’ are other challenging demands. In view of the rapid advancement of knowledge and rapid growth of complexity of technological endeavor, the future will need greater competencies and as a consequence, higher education must provide improved and speedy methods to meet today’s needs and face tomorrow’s challenges. While the expansion of the system of higher education has been impressive, the problem of access with equity, quality, and that of resource continue to burden the system as a whole, without finding suitable strategies to address them adequately. The principal postulate is that the quality assurance in higher education during the XIth plan period will be enabled primarily when human capital is creatively and imaginatively harnessed, developed and released compared to the ‘linear’ development strategies. Therefore it would be necessary to approach the matter in two dimensions.
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Making Higher Education Relevant: The fact that education should be meaningful for life cannot be contested. However, the term ‘meaningful for life’ can be interpreted in economic, social, and intellectual terms. The economic meaningfulness of education means that education should enable an individual to acquire certain skills that help him to geta decent income through self- employment or through working on some remunerative job. It might thus mean that education should improve one’s own economic status, and in the process, the economic status of the country. Hence, education should equip an individual for some career that has significant economic advantages either in the short run, medium run or in the long run. This is what is meant by ‘relevant education’. Vocationalization assumes a special significance under the career oriented program at the graduate and post graduate stages, as it is at these stages that the students need to enter into the world of work and into the income earning activities to support the family. It should also be emphasized that constant innovations are necessary to make education at all the levels meaningful and relevant, as there are continuous changes in the economy and the skills acquired through such specific programmes of vocationalization are likely to become obsolete within a short period.
Career Oriented Programmes at the level of Higher Education during the XI Plan – A Suggested Approach: At the dawn of independence, universities in India were the focal points for both teaching and research. However, since the late 1960’s there has been a massive erosion of research, particularly experimental research, in most universities. This task of quality research has been taken over by a large number of small, well-equipped and reasonably well-funded institutions. Over the years, the Universities have become more and more teaching institutions.
To enhance the quality of teaching, learning and research, the UGC should identify institution (colleges) offering postgraduate and research programmes and encourage them with liberal research grants and provide broadband and digital resources (inflibnet etc.). Postgraduate and research departments should be encouraged to do more research and their workload (teaching) should be considerably reduced.
Age limit for women teachers may be extended for award of researchGrants. Priority should be given to achieve maximization of the level of access to research journals and development of e-journals. Besides providing research grants directly to the faculty, steps may be considered to make provision for Research Associates, Teaching Assistants and Post-doctoral Fellows for universities. The UGC can also extend matching grant for resources generated by a State university through consultancy work to build up corpus fund to promote further research. The Universities need to link their teaching and research initiatives with manpower training program and innovation and entrepreneurship. Research funds not only from the University Grants Commission but from other funding agencies also should be extended to the colleges. At least 200 undergraduate
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colleges in science, technology and social sciencesshould be provided additional assistance to develop them into colleges of Excellence. There are a large number of sanctioned faculty positions in universities that have been lying vacant for a prolonged period. Inducting talented faculty with a view to strengthening the research base should expeditiously fill up these positions. 1000 positions of Research Scientists at various levels equivalent to that of Lecturer, Reader and Professor need to be created. There is a need to create 10 networkingcentres in Basic Sciences (two centres each in Physical Sciences, Chemical Sciences, Life Sciences, Material Sciences and Mathematical Sciences) in leading Departments of Universities in different parts of the country to promote collaborative research, access to advanced facilities and training in frontier areas. Formal linkage between the Universities and national level institutions including CSIR laboratories be promoted through joint research projects and training. The system of both winter and Summer Schools must be supported. Each subject area of Basic Sciences may offer upto ten programmes a year. There should be a provision for visiting Fellowships for faculty within the Country. The number of Ph.Ds from Indian Universities should increase five-fold within a span of ten years with proper standards. Every institutions of higher learning should earmark 5% of its non-plan budget for the furtherance of research in basic sciences. 10% of the capital grant allocated to each University should be provided as annual some add-on facilities and repairs etc. The overhead charges provided to the Universities should be made uniform at 15%. Special Assistance should be provided to ten selected Universities to establish them as world-class premier Universities in the country. Leading postgraduate teaching universities and IITs should be encouraged to impart undergraduate science education. Encouragement be given to interdisciplinary movement between Science & Technology streams and industrial R&D by establishing 20 Engineering Schools that admit students with a bachelor’s degree in Sciences for a two-year B.Tech. Degree in selected areas requiring strong science technology interface. The competitive Grant System for Research and Development should be further strengthened. National Merit Scholarships should be provided for 1000 B.Sc and 500 M.Sc. students. Research fellowships for Ph.D students need to be enhanced. Meritorious doctoral students should be recognized through teaching assistantships with stipends over and above the research fellowships. Post-doctoral research culture must be promoted for improvements in R&D. Refresher courses need to be strengthened for improvement in quality of existing faculty. Meritorious scientists should be recognized by creating positions of National Professors.
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Working conditions for women in Science and Technology need to be improved, all major institutions of higher learning and research should have on campus crèches. Every faculty member of the University must be provided with the minimum contingency grant every year. About 50% of the funding available in the competitive grant system of various Government agencies should be specifically marked for universities. Research grant should only be used only for consumables, minor-spares, data collection and analysis, field studies and publications. All new faculty members in experimental areas should be given a startup grant to set up their research laboratories or to acquire the tools necessary for their research.
Suggestions: Towards a Learning Society. Industry and Academia Connection. Incentives to Teachers and Researchers. Innovative Practices. To mobilize resources. Coming of Information Age. Student-Centred Education and Dynamic Methods. Public Private Partnership. To Provide Need Based Job-Oriented Courses. International Cooperation. Towards a New vision. Cross Culture Programmes. Action Plan for Improving Quality. Personality Development.
Conclusion: Today, India is a long heritage of quality higher education system but sometime it failed to solve the problems of Access, Equity, Quality, etc. The deteriorating administration, unproductive practice, corruption and fund availability leads to break down of indigenous educational system. But, recently with the introduction of LPG i.e. liberalization, privatization and globalization an avenue to revive the system has evolved. On the one hand globalization may help to improve the quality of education it can also affect the indigenous development of educational sector. So, today the government should provide some avenues to enable them to mitigate their Educational problems, Social problems, financial problems, etc.
References:
1. Bhattacharya, J. & Pal, P. (2016). Higher Education in India: Recent Issues and Trends. Kolkata:Research Journal of Educational Sciences. 2. Planning Commission. (2007). Draft Report of Working Group on Higher Education 11th Five Year Plan.New Delhi: Government of India.
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3. http://www.indiaeducation.net/online-education/articles/advantages-and- disadvantages-of-dista_nce-learning.html, 31.3.2019, 12:31pm. 4. http://www.recruitment.guru/general-knowledge/five-year-plan/, 30.3.2019, 7:10pm. 5. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Higher_education, 30.3.2019, 6:53pm. 6. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Higher_education_in_India, 30.3.2019, 7:50pm. 7. http://www.wg.aegree.org/ewg/higheredu.htm, 30.0.3.2019, 6:53pm. 8. https://theknowledgereview.com/author/admin/, 31.03.2019, 12:49 pm. 9. http://www.nrcddp.org/Five_year_plan.aspx, 30.03.2019, 8:27 pm. 10. http://www.careerizma.com/blog/indian-teachers-problems/, 31.03.2019, 12:28 pm. 11. http://www.ugc.ac.in/pub/heindia, 30.03.2019, 8:27 pm. 12. MHRD. (2011). Statistics of Higher and Technical Education: 2009-10. New Delhi: Bureau of Planning, Monitoring and Statistics. 13. Singh, J.D. (2011). Higher Education in India: Issues, Challenges and Suggestions. Germany:LAMBERT Academic Publishing.
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BLACK MONEY AND ITS EFFECTS ON INDIAN ECONOMY-A CONCEPTUAL STUDY
Nagaraju.K.O Research Scholar Department of Economics Bangalore University Bangalore
Abstract The study has made an attempt to assess the overall profile of Black Money in Indian Economy, particularly the causes, effects and government initiatives towards regulating black money. The results indicate that Black Money has been expanding very rapidly in India as well as in developing countries. The total amount of black money deposited in foreign banks by Indians is unknown. Some reports claim a total exceeding US$50 trillion are stashed in Switzerland’s. Other reports, including those reported by Swiss Bankers Association and the Government of Switzerland, claim that these reports are false and fabricated, and the total amount held in all Swiss banks by citizens of India is about US$2 billion It is evident from the study that government of India already introduced various commissions for estimating black economy but estimation reports are not same. Indian government is more concerned about the prevalence of the parallel economy and various commissions are formed for controlling it but results are not so impressive. It also studies the one of the main reason behind the generation of black money i.e. corruption. It shows up to what extent, the corruption leads to its generation which has considerable impact on various sections of the economy. At last but not least, conclusion of this paper is provided representing the on going issue of black money in our country and its future course of action. To control the generation of black money there should be a strong and appropriate legislative framework. And the present paper helps to know about present status of black money in India & its Impact on economy.
Keywords: Black Money, Corruption, Inequalities, Indian Economy.
Introduction Black money, also described as tainted money, has seeped into every walk of life and is posing a great threat to the stability of our economy. The most unfortunate aspect is that it has come to be accepted as normal fact of life. People hardly feel concerned while dealing with it. In their view, black money is highly attractive and alluring. The problem of black money cannot merely be looked upon as an anti-social activity or an unlawful activity. It is rather, like a cancer in www.ijmer.in 25
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VOLUME 8, ISSUE 10(3), OCTOBER 2019 the country's economy which, if not checked in time, will ruin the country's economy. One of the worst consequences of black-money is its pernicious effect on the moral value of our society which puts a premium on dishonesty and shatters the faith of the common man in the dignity of honest labour and lawful living. Black money results in the functioning of a parallel economy in the country. The problem, therefore, needs immediate attention. Various estimates have been made regarding the quantity of black-money in circulation. It is estimated that the amount of black-money has reached over Rs. 20,000 crores. The black-money has now assumed vast dimensions and creates menace. It has been engaging the attention of the Government and the public.
Objectives: The objectives of the present study stated below:
1. To study the reasons behind creation of Black Money in India. 2. To study the effects of Black Money on the Economy. 3. To examine the initiatives taken by the government to control Black Money in India.
Methodology The Present study is descriptive in nature and mainly emphasis on impact of Black Money on development of Indian Economy. The study used secondary source of data, which were collected through various Annual reports and economic survey. Some information collected from the sources of Journals, Periodicals, Books and Website. The collected data was analyzed by using simple analytical tool like average, percentage etc.
What is ‘Black Money’? In fact, ‘Black money’ can be defined as assets or resources that have neither been reported to the public authorities at the time of their generation nor disclosed at any point of time during their possession. “Black Money is the aggregate of incomes which are taxable but not reported to authorities.” Thus, in addition to wealth earned through illegal means, the term black money would also include legal income that is concealed from public authorities: To avoid payment of taxes (income tax, excise duty, sales tax, stamp duty, etc); To avoid payment of other statutory contributions; To avoid compliance with other laws and administrative procedures.
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Source of Black Money Indian corporate invariably under invoice their exports and over invoice their imports from tax heaven countries such as Singapore, UAE, Hong Kong, etc. Thus the promoters of the public limited companies, who hold rarely more than 10% of share capital, earn black money abroad at the cost of majority share holders and tax income to the Indian government.Politicians, political parties and corrupt higher officials of government and its institutions take bribes from foreign companies and park/invest the money abroad in tax havens for transferring to India when needed. Many times locally earned bribes/funds/collections are also routed abroad through hawala channels for evading from Indian tax authorities and consequent legal implications. Black Money is either deposited in foreign banks like Swiss Bank or invested in Real Estate in other countries like Dubai etc. According to 3rd report published in May, 2012 Swiss National Bank estimates total deposits as below: Country Money Deposited INDIA $ 1,456 billion RUSSIA $ 470 billion UK $ 390 billion UKRAINE $ 100 billion CHINA $ 96 billion
Causes for the creation of Black Money Black-money arises due to various reasons. Some of those reasons are: Corrupt practices indulged into by corrupt people at all levels Complex tax structure and corrupt tax officials Foreign banks are havens for black money hoarders Lot of black money is transacted during election campaigns Black money laundering financial companies and chit funds Unscrupulous charitable trusts and societies create black money Hawala business is a great source of black money transactions Investments in property, jewellery, luxury cars, rare pieces of art etc Donations to educational institutions transacted in black money Issue of licences, contracts to Indian and foreign companies
Effects of Black Economy: The effects of black money in a country are discussed under the following heads:
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(i) False Information about the Economy: The most important effect of black money is providing false information about the actual economy because it remains outside the purview of the economic policies. The presence of a sizeable black money casts doubts on the validity of the data on national income estimates, per capita income, and distribution of income, consumption, savings and investment. The economic planning losses it’s worth, because they are based on macro-economic parameters which completely ignore the black money. (ii) Impact on Fiscal System: Government is fully based on tax revenue. Evasion of taxes has serious consequences for the economy’s fiscal system. In long-run consequence of such revenue loss is to reduce the built-in elasticity of the tax system. To raise a given target of revenue the Government is obliged to depend increasingly on discretionary hikes in tax rates or to expand the array of taxes. Direct Taxes Enquiry Committee in this connection mentioned “Black money and tax evasion, which go hand in hand, have also the effect of seriously undermining the equity concept of taxation and warping its progressiveness. Together, they throw a greater burden to the economy.” (iii) Create Inequalities: The black money creates inequalities among people. The excess of money leads to purchase non- essential articles, which gives demonstration effect. The overall consumption pattern is tilted in favour of rich and elite classes. A rise in the overall consumption on non-essential products leaves less resource for investment in priority areas. These distortions in the product-mix in favour of non-essential consumption have adverse effects on production and thus they distort the objectives of planning. (iv) Implications for Monetary Policy: The black money related to the stock of ‘black liquidity’. The stock of ‘black liquidity’ is defined as the accumulation of black savings (from black incomes) in the form of cash and other readily convertible assets such as gold and silver. It is the ‘black liquidity’ which creates a lot of problems for monetary authorities to regulate the economy. The existence of sizable ‘black liquidity’ in our country misguides the Government to diverting credit from more urgent to the less urgent. (v)Corruption: While corruption creates black money in the economy, it can also be a result of the growing underground market. People with black money are able to bribe the administrators and politicians to get what they want. By doing this, they are able to get what they want and others are pushed down the stack. (vi) Inflated Real Estate: When people with deep pockets are ready to pay more for a piece of land, the price of surrounding land also tends to increase; thus artificially inflating the prices of an entire area. Generally, people involved in www.ijmer.in 28
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VOLUME 8, ISSUE 10(3), OCTOBER 2019 black money market are always ready to pay more for a piece of land as this helps in converting their colored money to legal money. (vii) Transfer of Indian Funds Abroad to Safe Heavens: The black money generated in India is kept in foreign tax havens. For this, money has to be transferred from India to other countries through secret channels. Under- invoicing of exports and over-invoicing of imports are two of the main methods used by black money holders for transferring money overseas. (viii) Encourages Anti-Social Activity: It is no doubt that black money is a curse to any country. Black money is always promoting anti-social activities in the society. Bribery, mentioned earlier, is only one example. The anti-social effects of black money include activities like terrorism, a huge threat already to our country.
Policy initiatives by the Government to check the black money There have been two amendments of the Voluntary Disclosure of Income Scheme (VDIS) under which black incomes and assets could be declared, the tax paid at current rates and amnesty availed from penalty and prosecution. For the smooth functioning of the economy, the following measures are suggested to combat the menace of the parallel economy: i. Demonetization: In 1946, demonetization was resorted to but the Direct Taxes Enquiry Committee in its interim report observed, “Demonetization was not successful then, because only a very small proportion of total notes in circulation were demonetized in 1946 and its worth was Rs.1,235.93 crores.” On January 16, 1978 demonetization of high demonization notes was introduced. The high demonetization rates as on that day amounted to Rs. 146 crores. Notes tendered to Reserve Bank of India amounted to Rs. 125 crores as per data available till August 1981. ii. Voluntary Disclosure Schemes: The Government has floated various voluntary disclosure schemes to determine the black money. In 1951, a voluntary disclosure scheme with relaxation in panel provision was introduced. It resulted in total disclosures amounting to Rs.71 crores and tax collection of Rs. 11 crores only. Up to 1968 a total concealed income of the order of Rs. 519 crores was declared on which Rs. 131 crores were paid as tax; this further highlights the failure of the Government to unearth black incomes. The wealth disclosed under the scheme will attract income tax, but not wealth tax. Under the scheme, previously undisclosed income reported by the declarant, will be subject to tax at the rate of 30% for individuals and 35% in other cases. Further, the Finance Minister has announced that the declaring will not be liable to pay interest or penalties and will be granted immunity from prosecution under the Income tax Act 1961, Wealth tax Act, 1957, Foreign Exchange Regulation Act, 1973 and Companies Act, 1956. www.ijmer.in 29
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This scheme will remain in force till December 31, 1997 (Highlights of Union Budgets, 1997). iii. Special Bearer Bond Scheme: Bonds that are owned by whoever is holding them, rather than having registered owners like most other securities. Like most other bonds, they have a stated maturity date and interest rate, but coupons representing interest payments are generally physically attached to the security and must be submitted to the company for payment (Bernfeld, 2010). Special Bearer Bonds Scheme (1981) was intended for canalizing unaccounted money for productive purposes. The Special Bearer Bonds, 1981 of the face value of Rs. 10,000 each were issued at par with a maturity period of 10 years. iv. Measures to Check Tax Evasion: Dealing with tax evasion has always been one of the most difficult challenges for governments all round the world. Tax evasion is done by individuals belonging to different strata of the society in different ways. As per the surveys and reports, there are many people who provide false income details to the tax authorities to reduce the amount of liability. The income tax evasion penalties can help the government recover maximum amounts in the form of tax and utilize the money for the benefit of the common public. Tax evasion is one of the basic causes to generate the black income. Therefore, various measures were undertaken to plug the loopholes in tax evasion. Most of these measures were based on the recommendations of various committees and commissions viz.. Taxation Enquiry Commission (1953), Administrative Reforms Commission (1969), Direct Tax Enquiry Committee (1971) etc. Most of these recommendations were an upgrading in tax laws. v. Economic Liberalization: Introduction of economic liberalization has detached the regime of controls and regulations and thereby the extent of black economy would be reduced regularly vi. Voluntary Disclosure Scheme: Finance Minister Mr. P. Chidambaram while presenting 1997-98 budgets announced a Voluntary Disclosure Scheme (VDS). Voluntary Disclosure Scheme which was extensively advertised yielded tax revenue of Rs.10, 500 crores an unprecedented revenue gain from any VDS scheme launched since the independence.
Findings: The total amount held in all Swiss banks by citizens of India is about US$2 billion. As Schneider estimates, using the dynamic multiple-indicators multiple- causes method and by currency demand method, that the size of India's black money economy is between 23 and 26%, compared to an Asia-wide average www.ijmer.in 30
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of 28 to 30%, to an Africa-wide average to 41 to 44%, and to a Latin America-wide average of 41 to 44% of respective gross domestic products. According to this study, the average size of the shadow economy (as a percent of "official" GDP) in 96 developing countries is 38.7%, with India below average. In February 2012, the director of the Central Bureau of Investigation said that Indians have US$500 billion of illegal funds in foreign tax havens, more than any other country. In February 2015, Indian Express released the list of 1195 Indians account holders and their balances for the year 2006-07 in Hongkong and Shanghai Banking Corporation Limited (HSBC's) Geneva branch. The list was obtained by French newspaper Le Monde and included the names of several prominent businessmen, diamond traders and politicians. Indian companies are reportedly misusing public trusts for money laundering. India has no centralized repository— like the registrar of companies for corporates—of information on public trusts.
Suggestions After studying the concept of black money & its various sources of generation in our country, it’s time for some Recommendations & Suggestions that may help to control black money in India. These are as follows: E-Governance should be started by the Government i.e. the use of technology be made as far as possible like E-Registration with Revenue Authorities, E- Filing of Returns, etc. because more the involvement of human beings more is involvement of corruption, ultimately generating Black Money. Agriculture income should be taxed for those who have both the agricultural as well as non-agricultural income. Black money revolves around in cash only so the Government should put restriction on cash transactions wherever possible and instead should increase the use of Plastic Money like Debit Cards, Credit Cards, etc. and by other such means. The Government should not give absolute power of work to any one person as it creates monopoly and instead should segregate the work among many persons. The tax rates should be made helpful to some extent in solving this problem. For this purpose tax rates should be lowered. Tax evasion should be checked by plugging loop-holes in tax system. All the aspects of its generation should be looked into and stopped. Competitive bids should be motivated.
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Conclusion
It may be pointed out that many more measures be taken which might have been left out in writing this article. There are many genius and intelligent persons in our country including economists of eminence who can suggest measures to the government to do away with the menace of black money afflicting our country. Conversion of black money into white money is only a short term measure, but it is the preventive measures which can root out this evil permanently. The most important aspect of nationality and love for once nation in all aspects must be taught to our children from their basic educational system. It should start from their earlier school education because whatever the child learns in his / her formative years is carried forward towards the later stages in his or her life.
References: 1. Ahuja, R. (2007). “Social Problems inIndia” (2nd Ed). Jaipur: RawatPublications. 2. Nafees.A.Khan, P.T.Chaudhary, "Black Money: Its Impact on the Indian Economy," Tax Reforms in India (Ed.), Srinawas Publications, Jaipur,pp. 150-155,2003. 3. "Banking secrecy spices up Indian elections". SWISSINFO - A member of Swiss Broadcasting Corporation. 14 May 2009. 4. "Black money: Tax havens exposed:". 9 March 2011. Retrieved 9 May 2011. 5. "Black money menace: India writes to Switzerland, seeks details on secret accounts". Retrieved 29 July 2015. 6. "Black Money Probe: Supreme Court Appoints SIT". 4 July 2011. Retrieved 2 May2012. 7. Lalit Mohan Agarwal(2012), edit. “White Paper On Black Money”, Journal of Securities Academy & faculty for e-education, vol.72. 8. Kavita Rani & Dr. Sanjiv Kumar (Jan,2014). “ Black Money In India – A Conceptual Analysis” Indian journal of Research, Volume 3, Issue1 9. Sukanta Sarkar (2010). “The parallel economy in India: Causes, impacts & government initiatives”. Economic Journal of Development Issues, Volume 11-12 no.(1-2) p.124-134. 10. Vaidyanathan – Prof of finance and control, IIM Baglore (1 December 2011). "Shame them! Black money held abroad is not just a tax issue". Retrieved 4 March 2012. 11. Gupta, S.B. (1982), Monetary Economics-Institutions, Theory & Policy, S.Chand and Company, New Delhi.
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ASSESSING THE IMPACT OF RURAL TO URBAN MIGRATION ON CITY DEVELOPMENT: -THE CASE OF FITCHE TOWN
Ketema Joro Ayane Researcher & Head Department of Civics and Ethical Studies College of Social Science and Humanities Salale University, P. O. Box: 245, Fiche, Ethiopia
Abstract In developing countries like Ethiopia rural-urban migration affects development in both urban and rural areas. As such, this study aims at establishing the major causes and consequences of the movement of people from rural to urban areas. To achieve the objective 500 migrant household heads were selected randomly from four Kebeles of the town by using snowball method. The study revealed that migrants came to Fitche in search of employment and to utilize urban services and education. Hence, the out flow of economically active people from the rural agricultural sector has a negative effect on production in the areas of origin and the receiving area now experiences problems such as a shortage of housing, unemployment, increasing cost of living, lack of access to social services, Therefore, to mitigate the problem of rural-urban migration is launching of integrated rural development policyand provision of different social services such as better medical facilities, education, infrastructure, water and electricity to the rural areas may reduce the amount of flow of population to urban centers.
Key words: - Migration, Urban Development
Back ground of the study Historically, rural to urban migration has played a significant role in the urbanization process of several countries and continues to be significant in scale, even though migration rates have slowed down in some countries. Today almost half the world population lives in cities and the number of people living in urban areas has risen steadily by around 1 million every year (Birhan, 2011).
Many developing countries in the world are currently experiencing an unprecedented rate of urbanization. It is also clear that, unlike the experience of currently developed countries, the process of urbanization presently taking place in developing countries is not so much due to rapid industrialization. Rather, it is the consequence of growing population pressure on land in the rural areas (Birhan, 2011).
‘Migration is an expression of the human aspiration for dignity, safety and a better future. It is part of the social fabric, part of our very make-up as a human family’ (World Economic Forum, 2017:10). The central idea of the speech deals with human being move from place to place for the purpose of searching better life and adjudges the future opportunities. It could be resulted in indispensable social, economic and political impacts on countries development.
Migration is a continuous process that has been the subject of political debate worldwide. Migration has shown an unbroken upward trend, be it of people who have left their homelands voluntarily for economic or other reasons, or of those who have been forced to leave their homes and being refugees, displaced persons, etc(World Economic Forum, 2017:10).Migration is a truly global phenomenon, with movements both within nations and internationally across borders. Generally speaking migration is one of the biggest problems of our world today.
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According toKinuthia(2003) cited in Birhan 2011, African migrations especially rural to urban have not demonstrated the same effect for industrialization and economic development as migration has done elsewhere especially in Europe and North America. As it was expressed in World Economic Forum,(2017) theclassic “push factors” from the rural areas, for example, lack of jobs; famine especially in pastoralist areas; drought; various kinds of poverty and landlessness, have been known to “push” people out of their rural homes in search of better opportunities elsewhere, particularly in the urban areas. The “pull” factors in the urban areas have been the hope to find a job; increase one’s income; educational opportunities; in search of better services and generally to improve one’s economic welfare.
In Ethiopia one important dimension of internal population movement is its link to urbanizationthat only15% of the population is urban and having the highest rate of urbanization in the World. According to Ministry of Federal Affairs and German Technical Co-operation(GTZ) (2003), the average rate of urban population growth for the country is 5% per year and in some individual towns and cites the rate approaches 8% per annum. The urban areas, relatively speaking, are more developed with better prospects for employment opportunities and career advancement and more comfortable living. In contrast the living conditions and employment opportunities in most of the rural areas have not shown significant improvement. Under such circumstances, there is an ever increasing trend of migration from the rural areas to towns and cities of Ethiopia. Although understanding impact-migration from rural areas is indispensable for policy formulation, our knowledge about migration in Ethiopia is limited. The poor data available indicates that rural– urban migration was the most common pattern in the country. Spatial patterns show that movement is generally from northeastern to central and southwestern regions and from densely populated highlands and midlands to the sparsely settled, hotter, and drier lowlands (Birhan, 2011). The town of Fitche has been the capital town and center of administration of North Shoa Zone. The town is situated on the main Addis Ababa–Bahdar road. It is also a point of branching off different Woreda Town. Because of its strategic location, the town has been experiencing rapid population growth. Also due to its location on the main road, it receives a considerable number of in-migrants. Due to these and other factors, the number of migrants of Fitche town has grown from 8000 people in 1984 to 11325 people in 2007 (CSA, 2007). According to world Economic Forum, (2017) in the era of globalization, an improved and sophisticated means of transportation and communication are playing a key role in facilitating the interaction of people around the world. As a result, the rate of migration is alarmingly increasing both at national and international level. In developing countries, internal migration is more persistent. In Ethiopia, rural-urban migration is quite common especially in areas where drought is frequent. Historical documents record that rural-urban migration from drought-prone areas of northern regions to Addis Ababa were experienced for many years. Dejene (2000 cited in Birhan, 2011) examined that migration from the villages of Wollo in northeast Ethiopia to the resettlement villages was a last resort and for migrants the choice was often between possible death and migration. Consequently, those who moved are often economically embedded in their place of origin with no locational incentives to stay in the place of destination. Regarding to the causative factors of rural-urban migration, in Ethiopia, scholars examined several “push and pull” factors for rural-urban migration. Kebede (1994) identified that the combined effects of “push and pull” factors are responsible for the tide of migration to urban areas of Ethiopia However, some studies show that, more than urban pull factors, rural push factors have been strong forces for the movement of people from rural to urban areas of Ethiopia (Markos, 2001). In line with this statement, Solomon, (2003) examine that, after all in Ethiopia, population is on the development, land degradation has become common and the rural areas are being rocked by www.ijmer.in 34
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VOLUME 8, ISSUE 10(3), OCTOBER 2019 frequent drought and famine. In view of these, one shall expect entry of the rural people to the cities to happen. Then the chain of migration to urban areas of Ethiopia is higher than the capability of urban areas to handle the new demands requested by the migrants. Therefore, there is an increment of unemployment and migrants rate involve in the informal economic sector and other casual works (Feleke et al, 2006). Even not all migrants are lucky to get and fully make use of the informal employment. Birhanu, (2011) also examined that the major push factors are identified as landlessness, land shortage and lack of social services like school. The migrants are involved in street vending and daily labor work at the expense of psychological benefits due to drop-out of their schooling, culture of the society at origin and low success of their migration. However, they don’t have an interest to return to the rural place of origin.
However, the towns and cities of Ethiopia are finding it increasingly difficult to absorb the migrants into gainful jobs and are struggling to provide adequate living conditions for the new arrivals. In spite of the above noted prevailing situations, there is lack of sound knowledge and understanding of rural – urban migration in connection to the urban development. At the same time, there is apparently little research work at empirical level on rural-urban migration in the country at large and Fitche in specific. Therefore, the study and analysis of impact of rural-urban migration on urban development is important and thereby to provide significant data and analysis for policy formulation for launching suitable planning and response strategies to the emerging challenges and problems. The study was focus on internal migration particularly to rural urban migration in Fitche town central Ethiopia.Fitche is one of the places which receive many movements of people from rural Wereda’s of Salale. Thus, at the present time there is a continuous flow of the people from rural Wereda’s of Salale and others from National Regional State of Amhara to Fitche Town who have abandon their role in the farms, and have engaged themselves in the urban informal economic sector. Therefore, internal migration of large numbers of people could have a major impact on the society and economy of the former places. Rural-urban migration is a form of labor migration and the people most likely to leave are those of working age. This trend of movement of rural people in to the city has minimized agricultural development of the rural place and causes other social crisis. This must have an impact on family life. Although, these problems are of larger dimension, pervasive and are continuing unabated, research is scarce to monitor trend of movement of the people on a sustainable ways. The fact that little or no empirical research has been carried out in the area on such a crucial issue encompassing all the above process makes the topic important and timely. Thus, the motivation of the study is to fill this knowledge gap and to study the main impact rural to urban migration on city development and influence on their home communities. The study also targeted to assess the challenges faced by migrants. Therefore, thestudy was targetedto answer the following objectives:- To assess socio-economic and cultural impacts of rural to urban migration on the case study. To identify the approaches of migration from rural to fiche town. To assess challenges face by migrants in the study area.
Material and method The study was employeesmixed methods.The major purpose of this approach is “description of the state of affairs as it exists at present (Kothari, 2004:P.2) - as the main characteristic of this method is that the study has no control over the variables.” Therefore, the intent of this mixedmethods; is to assess the impact of Rural to Urban Migration on City Development in Fitche Town. By and large, the study belief in a qualitative interviewfor exploratory purposes to generate themes about the impact of Ruralto Urban Migration on city www.ijmer.in 35
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VOLUME 8, ISSUE 10(3), OCTOBER 2019 socio-economic and cultural development using face-to-face interviews with selected local government office of the Townwill be done. Since the impact of Rural to Urban Migration needs deep interview. On the other hand, focus group discussion was apply with selected government workers of the town. This tool used in order to get clear answer on contradicting idea.
Sampling Technique According to the information obtained from the administration office of Fitche, the town has recently four kebeles. In order to select sample Kebeles as a sampling unit, purposive sampling was employed. Thus, fourkebeles were selected purposively because the researcher assumed that the majority of migrants settlein all these Kebeles. Table 1 shows the sample Kebeles of the four and distribution of samples. There was no readymade list of migrant households from secondary sources. So, it was decided to go ahead for identifying the migrant household with the help of Kebeleadministrator before distribution of the questionnaires. Snowball method was employed to select the migrant arbitrarily from each Kebele to be included in the sample up to saturation of data fromKebeles. Table 1.Shown the number of migrant households selected from the total number of migrant household heads of each Kebele.
Table 1:-number of migrant households selected from the total number of migrant Kebele’s Name Numbers Of Sample Size Percent Household Heads Househol Heads 01 6873 125 25 02 5600 102 21 03 6925 126 25 04 8095 147 29 Total 27,493 500 100
The studyemployedsnowball methods due to lack of adequatedataof migrants. The total numbers of population size in Fitche Town is 27,493 (ESA, 2007).Expecting high degree of homogeneity in the characteristics of the migrant population of the four sample Kebeles included in the survey, and due to time and financial constraints, the study covered 500 sample migrants’ households (3.5 percent of the total migrant households of sample Kebeles) from sample Kebeles proportionally. That means a proportional allocation of sample Migrants households for each Kebeles was used.
Methods of Data collection Questionnaire To complement the data through other instruments and to collect primary data on individual migrant house hold heads, the questionnaire which includes open-ended and closed ended types and that consisted of four main sections has been prepared (please refer to Appendix 1). The first part was Demographic characteristics of migrants at present that helps to secure information about the personal profile of the respondents including their age, sex, marital status and educational attainment. The second section deals with Demographic characteristics of migrants – past (before migration). The third part is about socio-economic and cultural impacts of rural to urban migration. The fourth section addressesWays (Approaches) of migrants used to flow from rural to Fitche Town. The last sections concerned on challenges faced by migrants in Fitche town. The researcher developed the interest of pursuing questionnaires guide as instrument of this study while reviewing the research literatures on rural urban migration. The development of questionnaires and group discussion guide is also useful to triangulate the responses of sample migrants. The study considered responses obtained from migrants on the same item through questionnaire and group discussion guide to reveal consistency of responses. In order to achieve the stated objective, the items of the questionnaire were developed using simple and clear words that www.ijmer.in 36
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VOLUME 8, ISSUE 10(3), OCTOBER 2019 were appropriate and helped migrants to respond to the questions with understanding. During the development of this questionnaire, the researcher used the related theoretical background reviewed for the study. The construction of this questionnaire items is more strengthened using the professional comments given by colleagues, and the feedback obtained during the pilot survey. The questionnaire was prepared in English and translated in to Afan Oromo which is the language of the local people.
Focus Group Discussion (FGD) The study was also employee focus group discussion type of instrument for primary data collection to support information which was obtained from other sources of primary data mention above. One FGD was conduct with 8 informants from 1person from each Kebele;four from government officers- (social affairs office, women and children office, administration office and health) sectors. These informants should not overlap with the informant on interview. These government sectors were purposely selected due to direct attachments with the impacts of rural to urban migration on Fitche Town Development.The FGD was conduct in Afan Oromo and systematically changed into English. The study was take part in FGD as a facilitator and guider of the discussion by pre-planning on issues to be raised in the discussion. The rationale for using FGD was conflicting ideas which was obtained from interview,and secondary data will get the reasons or actual gap. Eric Rusten, (2010)pointed out, in conducting the FGD a minimum of 6 and a maximum of 12 individuals are involved in one FGD. Therefore, the study will done FGD with the number of individuals with this interval. Moreover, the researcher wa played an active role in raising issues for debate, asked critical questions that could fill the data gap and recorded all the ideas raised by the participants including the points of common consensus reach on and disagree on through count the voices of the participants regroup the idea under disputes.
Secondary Data Sources The study was used secondary sources of data which includes reports (monthly, half year, and annual) of the impacts of rural to urban migration on city’s development sent for different concerned national and international organization, magazines, pamphlets and other related documents kept by the Fitche Town Administration.
Method of Data Process and Analysis The study was used editing, coding, classification and tabulation that gathered from both primary and secondary data sources. Primary Data Analysis As discussed in the methodology part, the primary data collected using Questionnaires andfocus group discussion (FGD) was analyzed by SPSS 20 Version like percentage and frequency in order to conduct to analyze the impact of rural to urban migration in city development.
Secondary Data Analysis All data was collected from secondary sources like reports, documents; working manuals; was scanned in a way that can help the study achieve the above stated objectives by considering the information from printed documents and reports as an integral part of the whole data to finalize the study. Data acquired from secondary sources are meaningless without being with the data obtained from primary sources and vice versa. Hence both the primary and the secondary data wasanalyzed together to extract co-operative effect out of it. In general meta-analysis will conduct on secondary information so as to triangulate primary data results.
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Result and Discussion Demographic Description A. Marital Status Marital status is another important characteristic influencing the propensity to migrate. Migration propensities change with marital status. That is, the matter of being married, unmarried (single), divorced and widowed has an effect on the decision to migrate. Single persons have less responsibility than married ones. As such, the propensity to migrate is highest among the single than married ones. According to Kebede (1994), many of the migrants were unmarried at the time they migrated. Similarly, the response given by the respondents strengthen this idea. As shown in Table 2, the majority of migrants which accounts for 81 percent of surveyed total population were either single, divorced, or widowed when they first migrated to Fitche. Table 4.1 further shows that about 68 percent of the surveyed male in-migrants were single when they first migrated to Fitche town .The corresponding figure for female in-migrants were about 70 percent. It was also found that 19 percent of the surveyed migrants were married when they migrated to Fitche town, of which 23 and 12.3 percent were males and females respectively. The higher proportion of married females at rural origin than urban origin can be elaborated by the tradition of the country by large where females are relatively forced to marry at earlier ages than males in the rural part of the country. Furthermore, the condition of marital status by place of birth shows that 21.4 percent of both divorced and widowed in-migrants of sample population were females of rural origin whereas the corresponding figures for urban origin female migrants were 11.4 percent. On the other hand, from the total divorced and widowed sample in-migrants, 10 percent was accounted by divorced while 2.2 percent were widowers. Thus, from the sample survey, one can understand that most of in-migrants to Fitche are females who are single, divorced and widowed of rural origin when compared to the corresponding figure of urban origin. This may be based on the fact that, in Ethiopia particularly at rural areas, unmarried females have too much responsibilities at home as well as farm activities. As such, they have no time for education and even some of them are forced to dropout from schools. So, they prefer to move to other areas where better different opportunities are available.
Table 2: Distribution of migrants by Sex, Marital Status and Place of Origin at Time of Migration Mari Rural origin Urban origin Rural + Urban Total tal statu Male Female Male Female Male Female s N % N % N % N % N % N % N % o o o o o o o
Single 13 64. 73 62. 7 75. 5 82 21 68. 131 70. 34 68. 9 7 4 4 5 8 .9 3 1 0 4 8 Marrie 56 26. 19 16. 1 16. 4 5. 72 23. 23 12. 95 19. d 0 2 6 3 7 0 3 0 Divorc 20 9.3 17 14. 8 8.2 5 7. 28 8.9 22 11. 50 10. ed 5 1 8 0 Widow - - 8 6.9 - - 3 4. - - 11 5.9 11 2.2 ed 3 Total 21 10 11 100 9 10 7 10 31 10 187 10 50 10 5 0 7 8 0 0 0 3 0 0 0 0 (Source: Field Survey, 2018)
Addition, because of less respect from the society, divorced and widowed females in rural areas also prefer to move to urban areas and be engaged in different activities. In general, in-migrants to www.ijmer.in 38
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Fitche town based on their marital status is dominated more by unmarried male and female than married, divorced and widowed ones.
B. Educational Characteristics Education is one of the significant characteristics inducing rural-urban migration. The decision to migrate is also more likely influenced by educational attainment. This would mean that those who are better educated are relatively more involved in different migration streams than those who are not. Those who have completed secondary education and higher are more migratory than those who have completed primary education. This is mainly because of the fact that educational attainment increases the chance to get employment and other opportunities. Strong association between the propensity to migrate and level of education is observed in many developing countries (Oberai, 1978). However, an increase in the migration of illiterate persons to the urban informal sectors of African and other developing regions may reduce the generality of education as a factor of selection (Adepoju, 1995). The survey result of this research also shows that the propensity to migrate is directly related to educational attainment. As illustrated in figure 1, majority of the respondents (about 69 percent) had primary and above educational level when they migrated to Fitche. However, 50 percent of the sample in-migrants had secondary education and above.
Figure 1: educational level of development
The survey result indicates that male in-migrants are better educated than female in-migrants. Out of the total surveyed male in-migrants about 73 percent had primary education and above when they in-migrated to Fitche whereas the proportion of female in-migrants who had primary education and above from the total surveyed female in-migrants accounted for about 65 percent figure 1 further shows that in-migrants of Fitche town from urban areas are better in attaining formal education than those who came from rural areas. About 93 percent of urban origin in- migrants had primary education and above whereas corresponding figure for rural origin was about 58 percent. Such wide difference in educational attainment between them may be explained by the presence of more schools in urban areas than in rural areas. In addition, in rural areas where schools are available parents may not be willing to send their children to attend education rather they keep
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VOLUME 8, ISSUE 10(3), OCTOBER 2019 them at home to help them in farming and other related activities. Moreover, school dropout is also one factor for low educational attainment of migrants of rural origin. The survey also assessed the employment status of in-migrants before they in-migrated to Fitche town. As indicated in Table 3 out of the total employed surveyed in-migrants, 50, 23.3 and 22.1 percent were farmers, government employees and private organization employees before they came to Fitche respectively.
Table 3:the employment status of in-migrants before they in-migrated to Fitche town Employment Status Place origin Total
Rural Urban NO % NO % NO % Government employees 7 11.1 13 56.5 20 23.3 Private employees 11 17.5 8 34.8 19 22.1 Famers 43 68.3 - - 43 50.0 Employers/ farming 2 3.1 - - 2 2.3 others - - 2 8.7 2 2.3 Total 63 100 23 100 86 100
In general, most of the surveyed in-migrants of Fitche town are found young adults that are productive both demographically and economically. Most of them have educational level of primary education and above. The majority of them are also single while some of them were divorced and widowed.
4.2. CUASES OF MIGRATIONS IN FITCHE TOWN There are several reasons for population mobility from place to place. Reasons for migration to urban centers in particular are more complex. However, the causes of migration are usually identified as two broad categories, namely “pushing” and “pulling” factors. For example, people of a certain area may be pushed off by poverty and other natural factor to move towards towns for employment. On the other hand, better employment opportunities or the need for better facilities in urban areas may also pull people to different urban areas. In addition, the decision to migrate from one place to another may also be influenced by non-economic factors such as the need to join relatives, the need to be free from cultural and family restriction and obligation and so on. In general, however, as to the causes of migration scholars conclude that migration is a response by humans to a series of economic and non-economic factors (Lewis, 1982; Todaro, 1997). However, nowadays scholars agreed that rural-urban migration is largely explained by economic factors than non-economic factors (Todaro, 1997). In Ethiopia rural-urban migration also takes place largely as a response to economic factors rather than non-economic factors (EEA, 1999/2000). The survey result of this study also confirms the above theories. As indicated in Table 5.4 the majority of sample in-migrants that accounted for 34.4 percent of the total surveyed migrants in-migrated obtained job or seek employment. About 24.6 percent of sample in-migrants moved to Fitche as a result of famine, poverty and crop failure. This is due to the fact that North ShewaWeredas are highly food insecure and degraded areas. So, the only opportunity is to move to other areas for economic betterment. On the other hand, 13.4 percent of the surveyed migrants were looking for modern urban services and facilities while 6.4 percent of sample in-migrants came to Fitche to get education and training. About 5.4 percent of sample in-migrants moved to Fitche as a result of job transfer. In addition, about 6 and 1 percent of sample in-migrants came to Fitche to join their relatives and to be free from cultural or family restrictions and obligations. Table 4 further indicated that there is a significant variation between rural and urban origin migrants as to the influence of cultural or family restriction as one of the causes for migration to www.ijmer.in 40
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Fitche. Out of the total sample in- migrants who reported that cultural or family restriction and obligation are their main causes for migration to Fitche, 2.1 percent of sample in-migrants came from rural areas where as none came from urban areas. This may be related to the fact that in.
Table 4:-causes for migration Reason for migration Rural origin Urban origin Total
Male Female Male Female N % N % No % No % No %
o o
Seek 63 29. 49 41.1 33 33. 27 38.6 1 34. employment 3 7 7 4
2 Famine, poverty, crop 86 40. 37 31.6 - - - - 1 24. failure, lack of oxen, land 0 2 6 shortage, poor facilities 3
To be free from cultural or 2 0.9 5 4.3 - - - - 7 1.4 family restrictions and obligations
To join immediate 7 3.3 4 3.4 11 11. 10 14.3 3 6.4 relatives and friends or 2 2 following them
To gain education and 24 11. 8 6.8 - - - - 3 6.4 training 2 2
To seek modern urban 13 6.0 9 7.7 26 26. 19 27.1 6 13. services and facilities 5 7 4
Job transfer 6 2.8 1 0.9 12 12. 8 11.4 2 5.4 3 7 To open up or extended 9 4.2 2 1.7 7 7.1 6 8.6 2 4.8 personal business 4
To seek good climate 2 0.9 1 0.9 5 5.1 - - 8 1.6
Others 3 1.4 1 0.9 4 4.1 - - 8 1.6
Total 215 10 11 100 98 10 70 100 5 100 0 7 0 0 0 Ethiopia cultural restriction and obligation are more rampant in rural areas than urban areas. Furthermore, out of the total sample in-migrants of rural origin that came to Fitche to be free from cultural or family restriction and obligation, the proportion of females was greater than males. This may be because early marriage, abduction and so on are more prevalent on females than males in rural Ethiopia. In general, the rural-urban migrants migrated to Fitche basically in search of economic betterment at place of their destination. www.ijmer.in 41
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CONSEQUENCES OF MIGRATION Our understanding of the consequences of migration in particular so far is less well developed. This is because the effect of migration on both the places of destination and origin is very complex and requires thorough understanding of various behavioral contexts. However, in general, the consequences depend on the volume of migration, the degree of flow of remittance, and the type (characteristics) of migrants that dominates the migration flow. In developed countries the flow of labor from areas of low marginal productivity to high marginal productivity is normal and is accepted as an ingredient for development by raising labor efficiency at both ends, i.e. places of origin as well as destinations. On this ground, Oberai (1987) thinks that the rural-urban migration is a population movement from relatively low income rural activities to higher income industrial and service sector so that the level of income of migrants can be increased. Therefore, it is considered as generating various benefits to the migrants. Contrary to this, migration particularly in the push stream of movement is found to be the major bottleneck for development in both receiving urban and departing rural areas in developing nations. This is because most of urban areas of less developed nations are ineffectively urbanized and hence are not found to have the capacity to fruitfully absorb the rural migrants in gainful jobs, neither to provide housing or various other social services and amenities. Thus, they have limited pull situation but still are perceived by the rural migrants as powerful magnets. The high rate of overcrowding and unemployment is increasingly causing several social, psycho-social, cultural, political and economic problems in the towns, making them quite unstable social organizations in perpetual tension and stress. In spite of this frustrating state of affairs, the movement of people continues unabatedly to urban areas due to the perceived, though false expectation of better living and working conditions in urban areas.
Problems Encountered by Migrants while adjusting themselves to the New Environment Individuals may take rational decision to leave their places with the hope of better life chances of their destinations. This is always a decision under risk and uncertainty taken under certain perception based on the information and knowledge. According to the survey (Table 5), about 79 percent of in-migrants of Fitche made self-decision. This indicates that family bondage for decision making is less important. The survey also emphasis that family-parent decision was more important than relatives', friends‟ decisions in the case of rural origin. Table 5: Factors for migration Decision for out Migration Place of birth Total
Rural Urban NO % NO % NO % Self 272 81.9 121 72.1 393 78.6 Family or parents 8 2.4 4 2.4 12 2.4 Relatives/ friends 3 0.9 17 10.1 20 4.0 Employer 6 1.8 11 6.5 17 3.4 others 43 13.0 15 8.9 58 11.6 Total 332 100 168 100 500 100
The effect of migration upon the individual involved can take many forms, much of it being related to the extent to which his/her needs and aspirations are being met in the host community as well as his/her own adaptation to the new surroundings. On arriving at area of destination, the migrant goes through three inter-related processes. First, acculturation must take place. Second, the migrant must adjust to the new economic and social environment. Third, the migrant must participate in the institutional and social settings of the new environment (Lewis, 1982; Barrett, 1996). Thus, during www.ijmer.in 42
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VOLUME 8, ISSUE 10(3), OCTOBER 2019 the survey period an attempt was made to ask migrants about their experience and satisfaction with urban life in Fitche.
Table 6:challenge faced migrants in Fitche town Information about Response No % Fitche Town Positive (migrant life is easy at Fitche) 463 92.6
Negative (Migrant life is not easy at Fitche) 37 7.4
Total 500 100
Problem faced by Housing /shelter problem 293 58.6 migrants Food and related consumer items 7 1.4 Social services and other amenities 18 3.6 Job problem 169 33.8 Cultural difference 9 1.8 No difficulty 4 0.8 Others - - Total 500 100
As indicated in Table 6, although the majority (92.6 percent) of the surveyed migrants had positive information (migrant life is easy) before they in-migrated to Fitche, most of the surveyed migrants indicated that they faced different problems during the initial period of in-migration. About 59 percent of the migrants reported that they faced housing/ shelter problems whereas about 34 percent faced the problem of obtaining job. About 3.6 and 1.8 percent of surveyed migrants faced with problems of obtaining social services and other amenities, and of cultural differences at the initial period of in-migration respectively. This cultural difference may be the fact that people who came from different regions or Weredas that had different culture and traditions which in turn create cultural differences with the host community. Moreover, about 1.4 percent of the surveyed migrants had problem of food and related consumer items. However, 0.8 percent of the surveyed migrants reported that they faced no difficulties at the initial stage of in-migration to Fitche. Examining the time that in-migrants spent under unemployment is also one of the common methods that help to assess the problems that migrants faced after a certain period of arrival in the town. About 19.2 percent of the surveyed migrant populations have had jobs that were waiting them. These people are usually government employees who transferred to Fitche town and those people who came to Fitche to work with their relatives' or friends', firms or to start a new business and/or extended an existing one. According to the report of migrants, the majority of them 80.8 percent had no jobs. In general, one can therefore conclude that the main difficulties being faced by migrants were the inadequate supply of consumer items, housing shortage, problems related to job such as the difficulty of obtaining urban formal job and inadequate social services and amenities. To sum up, an evaluation of the main characteristics of the migration theories discussed in Chapter 2 in the context of the empirical observations suggest that the migration theories noted earlier considerably offered a satisfactory explanation for migration behaviour of respondents at Fitche Town. Ravenstein`s Laws of Migration proves to be the theory with a few challenges and comes close to providing an explanation for the migration phenomenon recorded at Fitche Town. However, the weak point of this law is that it may not be applicable to the study area in particular and Ethiopia at large in full scale. www.ijmer.in 43
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Conclusion and Recommendation Conclusion There are towns in Ethiopia where the population growth has been very fast during recent years not only because of natural increase but as a result of migration processes. Among them, Fitche town is one example which has experienced an accelerated growth rate of population as a result of in- migration. This research deals with the theoretical background of migration, review of literature, the nature of migrants, migration processes, the differential incidence of the rural push and urban pull factors and the consequences of migration on various aspects of socio-economic lives of the people in both the areas of origin and destination. Most in-migrants to the town are of rural origin. Though Fitche attracts migrants from many parts of the districts, most of them are intra-regional, particularly intra-zonal. In other words, the stream of migration to the town is dominated by short distance migrants, characterized by their stepped and chained movement following one another. The majority of them are in their most productive ages, both demographically and economically. The town itself hardly seems to be in any feasible way capable of absorbing the excessive inflow of migrants nor has the investment capacity to add to its urban resources. Migrants themselves are too poor to contribute to the investment sector of the capital resources to the town’s growth and development. A large number of migrants were single (unmarried) when they came to Fitche town. Most migrants moved basically for economic reasons such as seeking employment, job transfer, to open up or extend personal business, to gain education and training services. On the other hand, some of them were moved to Fitche for non-economic reasons such as to be free from cultural or family restriction and obligation, and to join relatives or friends in the town. Rural push factors, by and large, are stronger than the urban pull factors causing excessive to urban areas. At the same time, rural areas because of lack of investment and economic growth are suffering from lack of agricultural or alternative employment, droughts and famines which were amongst reasons for migration. Growing unemployment in the rural areas pushes young people, who are also bitten by the rising ambition bug and better life chances in the urban area. Moreover, as the study shows, a large number of migrants had more positive information about Fitche town (migrant life in Fitche is easy). However, most of the migrants had faced different types of problems immediately after arriving at Fitche. Regardless of hazards, risks and difficulties in the town migrants feel individually better off in the town than in the rural areas. Once the migrants are in the town, they showed no inclination to return back to the origin. There are several factors that induced flow of people to Fitche town. The main determinants are low per capita income, distance and education. The availability of better employment opportunities and career advancements are concentrate in the urban areas. Therefore, the relevant measures that can be taken on these determinants are expected to increase the rate of migration and did not arrest the people in their rural areas in particular. One important issue related to rural migration is the net and gross effects on their places of origin. The main sources of employment opportunities and household income in rural Ethiopia is agriculture. Sizeable depopulation of rural labor forces as a result of increased rate of out-migration from rural areas can hamper agricultural production which in turn can stimulate further withdrawal of people from the region because of low land productivity.
The survey reveals that most of the migrants are in their productive age leaving behind the rural areas for females, children and aged people with low labour efficiency and productive capacity. As such, this condition can lead to adverse effects on agriculture because of less efficient and low agricultural labor input, particularly because small-scale subsistence agriculture can be hardly made mechanized and still requires hard manual labour. The amounts of remittances sent by migrants home essentially were meager and negligible in amount. This is because most migrants are only on the level of self-sustenance and can ill afford to send any sizeable amount. Although the amount that goes to villages is too small, it is used mostly for consumption purposes rather for investments www.ijmer.in 44
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VOLUME 8, ISSUE 10(3), OCTOBER 2019 in agricultural or other activities such as housing. It hardly has contributed to the improvement of quality of life and welfare and well-being of the people in the rural areas. Because of dully living conditions in the rural areas, people move to towns almost spontaneously, without much rational decision perhaps under the perceived notion that things must be better than what they are in, and they end up indulged in their destination. Similarly, in-migrants of Fitche town also do not move in well planned and rationally decided manner so that they face many problems particularly during their initial arrival. Among the problems, housing is the most pressing. The town has chronic shortage of housing units compared to the growth of population. Thus, because of scarcity of houses, dwellers live in highly congested dwellings and rooms but the distribution of water and electricity to different parts of the town has improved. Most of the migrants have improved their working condition, income, education, schooling of dependents, access to urban transportation and health care. In general, for most of them their general living condition has improved. However, the problem of housing, lack of employment opportunities and sufficient consumption goods, rising cost of living, inadequate social services and others are major problems that migrants currently face. But, most of the migrants do not have an intention or a plan to return to their place of birth because most of the migrants are from rural areas and showed no interest to return to their origin rather to stay there expecting things will get improved. However, a few others have plans to move to other urban areas. This is an indication of low level of returnees of urban-rural migrants in Ethiopia. This is because rural living and working conditions are much worse compared to urban areas of the country. Some of the theoretical models of migration have been found applicable to this research. But one of the Ravenstein`s Laws of Migration, which states that 'females pre-dominate among short journey migrants' could not be confirmed in this research rather it was found that males are more migratory than females. In general, the high flow of migrants to Fitche has accentuated the problem of unemployment. Thus, the overall effects of rural- urban migration in the town are discouraging and hence the following recommendations are suggested to solve some of the socio-economic problems of both the places of origin and destination. Recommendations After analyzing the causes and consequences of rural-urban migration to Fitche town, the researcher proposes the following suggestions that could be implemented by policy makers and implementers at different level: o Problems with rural unemployment and underemployment greatly impact the rural economy. Because of the above, rural people are compelled to migrate. Therefore, there is the need for integrated rural development strategy to increase agricultural production by increasing rural labour productivity by improving farm technology, increasing farm inputs such as fertilizers, high yielding variety of seeds, insecticides, adequate agricultural extension services, and price incentives and improve access to financial credit and market facilities. o Resettlement on voluntary basis from highly degraded areas to where there are vacant and potentially productive irrigable lands can reduce the flow of people towards urban areas. o Concentration of various elements of modernization in the urban areas and their conspicuous absence in rural localities pull many rural people to towns. Therefore, provision of different social services such as better medical facilities, education, infrastructure, water and electricity to the rural areas may reduce the amount of flow of population to urban centers. o Taking into account the population growth of the town, constructing additional house and social service centers, such as schools, health institutions, recreational centers and so forth are important in providing needed services and better quality of life. o The vast actual or perceived difference between rural-urban incomes causes population migration. Since poverty is a pronounced rural phenomenon, migration from rural areas is tied to the income gap between rural and urban areas. When growth is balanced between them through viable regional planning strategies for the mutual development of the towns and their www.ijmer.in 45
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hinterlands at different hierarchical scales it is recommended that it will check or slow down the rural outflow.
BIOGRAPHY
1. Belay Z, . (2011). Push And Pull Factors Of Rural-Urban Migration And Its Implication On The Place. Addis Ababa: Addis Ababa University. 2. Birhanu A,. (2011).Causes and Consequences of Rural-Urban Migration: The Case of Woldiya Town, North Ethiopia 3. CSA (2007): Population and Housing Census Report. Central Statistics Authority, Addis Ababa,Ethiopia. 4. DegefaTolossa (2005). Rural Livelihoods, Poverty and Food Insecurity in Ethiopia: A Case Study at Ernessa and Garbi Communities in Oromya Zone, Amhara National Regional State. 5. FelekeTaddele.,Pankherst, A., Bevan, P., and Lavers, T. (2006). Migration and Rural-Urban Linkages in Ethiopia: Implications for Policy and Development Practice. ESRC WeD Research Programme. UK: University of Bath. 6. Mesfin, W. 1970. “Problems of Urbanization.” Proceeding of the Third International conference of 7. Ethiopia studies, Addis Ababa, Vol. 3, PP. 20-38. Ministry of Federal Affairs and GTZ .2003. Low-Cost Housing Projects in Ethiopia. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. 8. KebedeMamo (1991). Migration and Urban Development in Ethiopia: The Case of Nazreth. 9. MA. Thesis in Geography, Addis Ababa University. 10. KebedeMamo (1994). Population Education Monograph: Migration and Urbanization in 11. Kothari, C.R. 2006. Research Methodology: Methods and Techniques. New-Delhi: New Age International Publishers. 12. Lee, E.S. 1966. "Theory of Migration" in M. Kefyfitz (ed), Demography, Vol.3 ,No.1. A Publication Association of America. 13. Lewis G.S. 1982. Human Migration: Geographical Perspectives. New York, St. Martin‟s Press. 14. Markos Ezra (2001). Ecological Degradation, Rural Poverty, and Migration in Ethiopia: AContextual Analysis. Policy Research Division Working Paper, No. 149. New York: 15. Population Council. 16. McCatty, M. 2004. The Process of Rural-Urban Migration in Developing Countries. An Honours essay 17. submitted to Carleton University in fulfillment of requirements for the course ECON 4908, as credit toward the degree of Bachelor of Arts with Honours in Economics. CarletonUniversity. Ottawa, Ontario 18. McDowell, C., and De Haan, A. (1997). Migration and Sustainable Livelihoods: A Critical Review of the Literature. IDS Working Paper 65. 19. MoFED (2005). Plan for Accelerated and Sustainable Development to End Poverty (Draft Report), Addis Ababa, Ethipia. 20. Solomon Abebe and Mansberger, R. (2003). Land Policy, Urban-Rural Interaction and LandAdministration Differentials in Ethiopia, 2nd FIG Regional Conference. Marrakech,Morcco, December 2-5. 21. Tesfaye, T. 2007. The Migration, Environment and Conflict Nexus in Ethiopia: A Case study of Amhara Migrant Settlers in East Wollega Zone. Addis Ababa, Printed in Ethiopia. 22. Todaro, M., and Smith, S. (2003). Economic Development (8th ed.) New York University and Population Council, Barkharath printers, New Delhi. 23. UNDP (2009). Human Development Report. Overcoming Barriers: Human Mobility and Development. New York: UNDP. 24. UN DESA.(2016). Cross-national comparisons of internal migration; McKinsey Global Institute, 2016; UN DESA. 25. World Economic Forum. (2017). Migration and Its Impact on Cities, October, 2017, Geneva Switzerland 26. Zhao, Y. 1999. „Labor Migration and Earnings Differences: The Case of Rural China‟, Economic Development & Cultural Change, vol. 47, no. 4, pp. 767-82.
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ASSESSMENT OF ANTI-INFLAMMATORY POTENTIALITY USING ‘HRBC’ MEMBRANE STABILIZATION ASSAY ON AQUEOUS AND METHANOL EXTRACT OF A ‘SPICE’ MIXTURE USED TO IMPAIR OBESITY
MI Manuha BM Nageeb Senior Lecturer Grade 1 Senior Lecturer Grade 1 Institute of Indigenous Medicine Institute of Indigenous Medicine University of Colombo, Rajagiriya. University of Colombo, Rajagiriya.
PA Paranagama Senior Professor in Chemistry Department of Chemistry University of Kelaniya, Kelaniya Abstract Introduction: One of the main actions of anti-inflammatory agents is the inhibition of lysosome release enzymes which are responsible for the tissue injury leads certain pathological condition. Objective: This study is to evaluate the anti-inflammatory activity of aqueous and methanol extract of a compound preparation made up of ‘spices’. Methods: Aqueous and methanolic extract was obtained.Fresh whole human blood (10mL) was collected and centrifuged at 3000 rpm for 10minutes. Then this was washed three times with equal volume of normal saline. The volume of blood was measured and re-constituted as 10% v/v suspension with normal saline. The reaction mixture contains 4.8 ml hypo saline, 0.5 mL HRBC suspension (10 % v/v) with 200μL of extracts of various concentrations (0.3125, 62.5, 125, 0.625, 1.25, 2.5, 5 mg/0.5mL). As a standard drug aspirin was used. For control 4.8 mL hypo saline, 0.5 mL HRBC suspension (10 % v/v) with 200μL DMSO and for blank 100μL DMSO, 2mL of hypo saline were mixed in centrifuge tubes. Then the whole setup was incubated at 56o C for 30 min and centrifuged at 3000 rpm for 15 minutes. The absorbance of supernatant was read using spectrophotometer at 560 nm. The experiment was performed in triplicates. Results: Methanol extract showed significant response (p < 0.05) when compared with standard drug aspirin. However, aqueous extract did not show an appreciable activity. Conclusion: Therefore the study suggests that the methanolextracts of the compound preparation possess enough potential to reduce inflammation.
Key words: Anti - Inflammatory, Extract, Aqueous, Methanolic www.ijmer.in 47
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Introduction Inflammation is a complex biological response of vascular tissues through the immune system to harmful stimuli, such as pathogens, damaged cells, toxic compounds, or irradiation etc. It is a protective response by the body to remove those injurious stimuli and initiating the healing process.When the tissues become injured they release kinins, prostaglandins and histamines. These work together and cause vasodilation and increase permeability of the capillaries and increase the blood flow around the injured area. Also, these substances act as chemical messengers and attract the body's natural defense cells such as blood leukocytes into the injured tissues[1],[2].
Lysosomesare released enzymes during inflammation and produce variety of disorders which leads to the tissue injury by damaging the macromolecules and lipid peroxidation of membranes which are assumed to be responsible for certain pathological conditions as heart attacks, septic shocks and rheumatoid arthritis etc. Obesity has also a strong relationship with an inflammatory state in metabolic tissues and define as a low-grade chronic inflammation arranged by metabolic cells in response to excess nutrients and energy [3],[4].
Stabilization of lyso-somal membrane is important in limiting the inflammatory response by inhibiting the release of lysosomal constituents. Human red blood cell (HRBC) membrane is analogous to the lysosomal membrane[5] and its stabilization indicates that the extract as well stabilize lysosomal membranes. Stabilization of membrane of HRBC by hypo tonicity induced membrane lysis can be taken as an in vitro measure of anti- inflammatory activity of the extracts.
Origin of herbal anti-inflammatory drugs dates back as thousands of years with Hippocrates and his fellow physicians by prescribing the willow bark including pain, inflammation with a wide range of conditions[6]. This study was designed to evaluate the anti-inflammatory activity of a spice mixture made by the seeds of cumin (Cuminumcyminum), garlic (Allium sativum), curryleaves (Murrayakoenigii), bark of cinnamon Cinnamomunzeylanicum and seeds of pepper (Piper nigram).This spice mixture was given to obesity participants to reduce their excess weight. MATERIALS AND METHODS Collection of the plant material for the ‘spice’ mixture: Seeds of cumin (Cuminumcyminum), cloves of garlic (Allium sativum), curry leaves (Murrayakoenigii), bark of cinnamon Cinnamomunzeylanicum and seeds of pepper (Piper nigram) were collected from the local market Colombo, www.ijmer.in 48
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Sri Lanka and identified at the Department of Materia Medica, Institute of Indigenous Medicine, University of Colombo.The anti-inflammatory activitity of the ‘spice’ mixture was carried out at the Department of Chemistry, University of Kelaniya.
Preparation of Aqueous extract of the ‘spice’ mixture: The plant materials were dried in the shade and mechanically powdered (Centrifugal Mill, Retsch, Germany) ‘spice’ mixture (100 g) was mixed with distilled water (0.25 L) and placed on orbit shaker at room temperature for 24 hours. The extract was filtered using a vacuum filter with Buchner funnel and Whatman No.1 filter paper. The filtrate was frozen at -40 o C and dried for 48 hours using a freeze dryer (Labconco, Model No 7670560, USA) to give a yield of 4.5 g of dry extract. The dried water extract was stored in freezer at temperature below 0 O C.
Preparation of Methanol extract of the ‘spice’ mixture: Mechanically powdered (Centrifugal Mill, Retsch, Germany) ‘spice’ mixure (100 g) was mixed with distilled MeOH (0.25 L) and placed on orbit shaker for 24 hours. The extract was filtered using a vacuum filter with Buchner funnel and Whatman No.1 filter paper. The filtrate was transferred to a round bottom flask. The mixture was then filtered and evaporated under reduced pressure using a rotary evaporator (BUCHI Rotavapor R-114). Nitrogen gas was passed in to the MeOH extract and then it was kept in a vacuum drying oven for 24 hours to remove any remaining solvent residue. The weight of the extract 6.75 g yield was obtained and stored in a freezer.
HRBC membrane stabilization assay: Human Red Blood Corpuscle (HRBC) membrane stabilization test was performed according to Sadiqueet al, (1989) with slight modification. Fresh human blood (10 mL) was collected and transferred to the centrifuge tubes. The tubes were centrifuged at 3000 rpm for 10 minutes and washed three times with equal volume of normal saline. The volume of blood was measured and re constituted as 10 % v/v suspension with normal saline.
The reaction mixture contains 4.8 mL of hypo saline, 0.5 mL of HRBC suspension (10 % v/v) with 200 μL of different concentrations of the extracts (0.31, 0.63, 1.25, 2.5, 5 mg / 0.5 mL). Aspirin was used as the standard. For control 4.8 mL of hypo saline, 0.5 mL of HRBC suspension (10 % v/v) with 200 μL of DMSO and for blank 100 μL of DMSO, 2 mL of hypo saline were taken in test tubes. Then the whole setup was incubated at 56o C for 30 min and centrifuged at 3000 rpm for 15 minutes. The absorbance of supernatant www.ijmer.in 49
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VOLUME 8, ISSUE 10(3), OCTOBER 2019 was read using spectrophotometer at 560 nm. The experiment was performed in triplicates. The control represents 100 % lyses [7].
Statistical Analysis: Percentage of HRBC membrane stabilization or protection was calculated using the formula.
% inhibition of haemolysis = 100 × (Absorbance of control - Absorbance of Test) Absorbance of control
ID 50 values were calculated for each extracts (Methanol, Aqueous and Standard Aspirin) using Probit analysis. The comparisons of the ID 50 values were carried out using one way sample t test.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The Methanol and aqueous extracts of the ‘spice’ mixure with different concentrations exhibited varying degree of anti-inflammatory activity as compare to the standard drug Aspirin. The results are exhibited in the Table 1.
Table 1 Absorbance and percentage inhibition of the aqueous and MeOH extracts of the ‘spice’ mixture Amount (mg) % inhibition MeOH extract Aqueous extract Aspirin 5 mg 51 19 56 2.5 mg 41 16 44 1.25 mg 21 14 28 0.63 mg 12 14 16 0.31 mg 10 14 13
The lysosomal enzymes released during inflammation and produce a variety of disorders. The extra cellular activity of these enzymes is said to be related to acute or chronic inflammation. The non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, aspirin, act either by inhibiting these lysosomal enzymes or by stabilizing the lysosomal membrane. Since HRBC membrane are similar to lysosomal membrane components, the inhibition of hypotonicity induced HRBC membrane lysis, is taken as a measure of anti-inflammatory activity of the extracts [8]. The anti-inflammatory activities are probably due to their inhibitory effect on enzymes involved in the production of the chemical mediators of inflammation and metabolism of arachidonic acid [9],[10].
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Table 2In vitro anti-inflammatory activity of extracts and Aspirin standard Extracts ID50 Aspirin (Standard Drug) 3.96 (± 0.04)a Methanol Extract 4.41 (± 0.05)a Aqueous extract 19.92 (± 0.04)b
Different letters indicate significant differences between means based on one sample t test analysis (p < 0.05)
It has been found in this study, that the methanol extract showed a significantly higher (p < 0.05) anti-inflammatory activity than that of the equal amount of the aqueous extract of the ‘spice’ mixture. 60
50
40 Asprin 30 MeOH % inhibition%
20 Aquous 10
0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 Concentration in mg/ml
Figure 1 HRBC Anti-inflammatory Assay at MeOH extract and aqueous extract of the ‘spice’ mixture
Further the table 2 and the Figure 1 showed that the percentage inhibition of the methanol extracts of the spice mixture comparably significant (p < 0.05) with the percentage inhibition of the standard drug aspirin. The aqueous extract of the spice mixture did not show the significant effect on percentage inhibition. The methanolic extract of the above ‘spice’ mixture possess significant anti-inflammatory activity.
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CONCLUSION Overall, it could be concluded that the methanol extracts of the compound preparation possess enough potential to reduce inflammation. The spice mixture hold the anti-inflammatory potentiality.
CONFLICT OF INTEREST
The authors have no personal or financial conflicts of interest associated with this work
REFERENCES
1. Ferrero-Miliani L, Nielson OH, Andersen PS, Girardin SE. Chronic inflammation: importance of NOD2 and NALP3 in interleukin-1β generation. ClinExpImmunol. 2007;147(2):227–235. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 2. Chertov O, Yang D, Howard O, Oppenheim JJ. Leukocyte granule proteins mobilize innate host defenses and adaptive immune responses. Immunol Rev. 2000;177:68–78. [PubMed] [Google Scholar] 3. Amy, R., Johnson, J., Milner, J.J. & Makowski, L. (2013). The inflammation highway: metabolism accelerates inflammatory traffic in obesity. Immunology Review, 249 (1), 218–238. [PubMed] 4. Faloia, E., Michetti, G., De-Robertis, M., Luconi, M.P., Furlani, G., &Boscaro, M. (2012). “Inflammation as a link between obesity and metabolic syndrome”, Journal of Nutrition and Metabolism. [Google Scholar]. 5. Chou CT. The anti-inflammatory effect of Tripterygium wilfordii Hook F on adjuvant-induced paw edema in rats and inflammatory mediators release. Phytother Res. 1997;11(2):152-54 6. Rao P, Knaus EE. Evolution of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs): Cyclooxygenase (COX) inhibition and beyond. Journal of Pharmacy & Pharmaceutical Sciences. 2008;11(2):81-110 7. Sadique, J., Al-Rqobahs, W.A., &Bughaith, EI. Ar. T. (1989). The bioactivity of certain medicinal plants on the stabilization of RBS membrane system. Fitoterapia , 60 ,525-532. 8. Rajendran V, Lakshmi KS. In vitro and in vivo anti-inflammatory activity of leaves of Symplocoscochinchinensis (Lour) Moore sspLaurina. Bangladesh J Pharmacol. 2008;3(2):121-4.9. 9. Oweyele, B., Oloriegbe, Y.Y., Balaogun, E.A., &Soladoye, A.O. (2005). Analgesics and anti-inflammatory properties of Nelsonia canescens leaf extract. Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 99, 153–156. 10. Metowogo, K., Agbonon, A., Eklu-Gadegbeku, K., Aklikokou, A.K., &Gbeassor, M. (2008). Anti-ulcer and anti-inflammtory effects of Hydro-alcohol extract of Aloe buettneri A. Berger (Lilliaceae). Trop J PharmaceutRes , 7 (1) , 907–912.
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HISTORY OF FEMALE EDUCATION IN ASSAM
Niharika Moran Research Scholar Department of Assamese Gauhati University Gauhati,Assam
Abstract There was no formal education facility for girls in ancient India whereas boys had the gurukul system. However a few aristocrat families used to arrange home education for their daughters. Educated women like Gargee, Moitreyee, Lilawati, Khana etc can be found in ancient Indian history, but they are very few. Most of the parents got their daughters married at a very tender age of 9-10 years. Women had to be busy in household works only. It was the same scenario in Assam like the rest of India.
I. INTRODUCTION Assam also had gender based education system. No evidence of female education is found in ancient Kamrup. In fifteenth-sixteenth century, after the period of Vaishnavite movement, common women could get spiritual education through satras and namghars, but formal education was still out of reach for them. We get a few Assamese women of this period who got educated at home with their own efforts. In Vaishnavite period, Gopal Ata's daughter Padmapriya, Harideva's daughter Bhubaneshwari, Sankardeva's granddaughter-in-law Kanaklata are a few examples of them. Education got a great boost during Ahom rule. The Ahom kings made facilities for education in various places of Assam, but commoners could not go there as they were available only for royal people. Borroja Phuleswari Konwari of the Ahoms emphasized on education. Chaoching Konwari could write Ahom script with both her hands and legs.
Aim and objectives of the study This kind of research is very necessary for complete modernization of female consciousness. This kind of discussion is necessary for strengthening women socially and economically. Every man and women should be aware to that woman do not loose their identity in the grasp of patriarchy. It is necessary to discuss that women are still not completely free from superstition, exploitation, oppression, rape etc. This kind of discussion is necessary to eliminate the mentality of thinking women as commodity, from the society.
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II. METHODOLOGY This paper is based on secondary data collected from different sources like research articles, research papers, etc. published in journals, periodicals, books and internet. The paper is descriptive research.
III. DISCUSSION After the treaty of Yandaboo, Assam came under British rule in 1826. The social and political scenario of Assam was very complicated at that time. As there was chaos everywhere, people could not even think of education. East India Company came only to rule and exploit Assam, and did not take any step for promoting education. Charter Act of 1813 stated that providing education to Indian people was one of the moral responsibilities of the Company and advised to spend one lakh rupees per year for education, but it was never implemented in reality. American Baptist missionaries came to India in 1836. They have a great contribution towards education in Assam. Their main motive was to preach their religion, yet they realized the poor state of education of the local people. They were the pioneers of female education in Assam. Only after a few months of their entry to the state, they set up their first school in Sadia, which had separate classes for boys and girls. Mrs. Brown established a girls' school in Sadia in 1838. We can find in her diary about starting the first girls' school in Assam - "Mrs. Brown commenced the girls' school today, with ten scholars." In 1839, Mrs. Kattar, wife of O. T. Kattar established another girls' school in Sadia. Although it had a short life, this was a bold step for female education in Assam. Mrs. Warker set up another girls' school in Sivasagar in 1841. According to the report of Morphet Mills, "And three school in the station one for boys numbering fifty and one for girls numbering ten. Mrs. Brown has also a girls' boarding school of thirteen scholars." In 1850, day school was established in Guwahati, in which number of girl students was only 13. Girls did not come to school at that time for various reasons. Very few girls were able to go out of their homes. The patriarchal society considered that it was better for the girls to remain at home. Also particular subjects were selected for the girls in the few schools they could study. They were First Book, First and Second Mathematics, Arunodoy and Young Assam alongwith handicrafts for girls. The fabrics, threads and slates required for that were imported from the USA. As the girls' schools established by the missionaries did not grow, their female workers started another set of schools named Zenana School. They went
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VOLUME 8, ISSUE 10(3), OCTOBER 2019 door to door to encourage the girls to study but did not get much success. East India Company took the responsibility of female education only in 1858. Earlier on 19th July 1854, the need for female education was declared officially in Wood's Education Despatch. It came from Charles Wood, which was the first letter sent from the English government about education in India. Female education was not expanding due to various reasons. Not only the carelessness of East India Company, but also the narrow-mindedness of the Assamese people was major barriers of female education. Some other factors were - 1. Grant policy of the government. 2. Carelessness of the parents. 3. Poverty. 4. Superstitions. 5. Transportation problems. 6. Child marriage. 7. Lack of enough girls' schools. 8. Lack of female teachers. 9. Making the girls to do most of the household works.
The Company rule in India came to an end after the Sepoy Mutiny in 1857. The Wood's Despatch in 1859 emphasized the need of female education and advised to provide huge grants for the same. Eight girls' schools were established with government initiative in 1870. Five of them were set up in Kamrup and one each in Darrang, Nagaon and Lakhimpur. The missionaries with their own initiative had already founded a few schools in Sivasagar, Nagaon, Kamrup and Khasi-Jaintia hills. The first girls' primary school in Sivasagar was founded in 1860-61. In 1874-75, the number of girls having primary education was 875. According to the statistics from 1875-76, the number of girls' schools and educated girls is shown in the table.
District No. of Schools No. of Female Students Cachar 5 59 Sylhet 2 20 Goalpara 2 31 KG Hills 12 390 Garo Hills ---- 10 Kamrup 6 109 Darrang 4 70 Nagaon 6 76 Sivasagar 3 133 www.ijmer.in 55
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Lakhimpur ----- 8 Total 40 906
In 1889, there were 2414 girl students in total 185 schools. In 1897- 98 no. of primary schools in Assam including both hills and plains was 185 and no. of girl students was only 3823. There were 3 middle schools for girls in Dhubri, Dibrugarh and Shillong, where no. of girl students was only 235. The Bengali Renaissance started in the nineteenth century. It s one of the main motives was to promote female education. Notable personalities like Raja Rammohan Roy, Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar etc. lead this renaissance. In nineteenth century, Assam had almost no impact of female education. In that period, a few progressive Assamese youth who had gone to Calcutta forstudy also thought of female education in Assam. They included Haliram Dhekial Phukan, Jajnaram Khargharia Phukan, Anandaram Dhekial Phukan, Gunabhiram Barua etc. Anandaram Dhekial Phukan taught his wife at home and started his daughter Padmavati's education at 5. Gunabhiram Barua also stood for female education and tried hard for expansion of the same. In 1880 he brought her daughter Swarnalata to Calcutta for study when she was 9. He believed that Boys and girls both should have education, even shastra tells this to us. It is the main responsibility of the parents to look after and educate both boys and girls equally. An ambience of female education was tried to be formed in Assam in the later period of nineteenth century. But the girls were not able to come to learn that easily as they were leered and criticized for doing that. Even Balinarayan Bora, an England-returned engineer of that time and editor of the magazine named 'Mou', commented badly about female education in his magazine. Another notable person Lambodar Bora also had the same view. However amidst all this, a few people tried their best to educate the girl children. They understood that a home can progress only if the females progress, and a society can progress only if the homes progress. Deviprava Dutta from Dibrugarh stayed in a rented house to make her girls Durgaprava and Hemaprova study in Bethune School. Durgaprava is known to be the first Assamese woman to pass matriculation examination. Similary Hemaprova is the first Assamese woman to pass FA. Sudhalata Duwarah and Sukhalata Duwarah, daughters of Rotnokanto Borkakati, were the first female MA BT from Assam. Principal of Handique Girls' College Rajbala Das, Puspalata Das etc. were from the first batch of the Assamese women who studied in Calcutta or Kashi University. Female education increased at a slow rate like this until the end of nineteenth century. With the start of twentieth century, female education started to expand rapidly. A few reasons are 1. Implementation of Sarada Act. www.ijmer.in 56
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2. Non co-operation movement by Mahatma Gandhi. 3. Awareness of the people. 4. Spread of western education. 5. Government initiative. 6. Demands by the women organizations for female education.
In fact a new sense was developed in India through the Swaraj movement in twentieth century. The impact of the independence movement by Mahatma Gandhi reached Assam also. Gandhi emphasized a lot on female education. Everyone, whether they were literate or not, participated in the movement. Women also came forward to the movement in the strong leadership of Mahatma Gandhi. It changed the scenario of female education in Assam to a great extent. At the same time Cotton College, the first college in Assam, was established in 1901 in Guwahati. The parents also got rid of a few superstitions to some extent. Even after a long wait, the girls were permitted to take admission in Cotton College for the first time in 1929. Only from the twentieth century, the higher education was available for women in Assam.
IV. CONCLUSION In the conclusion, we can say that education takes the society forward in the true sense. The superstitions and evil customs rooted in the illiterate societies can be abolished only through education. Education provides self-consciousness, self-confidence and true sentiments to a person through which he can separate the good from the evil. Therefore the history of education is related to female consciousness in Assamese society. The awareness of the ignored section of women improves with the increase of expansion of rate of female education. Hence the women get courage to protest against the patriarchal mindset of the society. In this way, the history of female education in Assam is naturally related to the continuous increase of the female consciousness.
References [1]. Baruah, Birinchi Kumar: History of Assamese Literature, Sahitya Academy, Delhi 1964 [2]. Baruah, Birinchi Kumar: Modern Assamese Literature, Lawyer s Book Stall, Gauhati 1957 [3]. Beauvior, Simande : The Second Sex (1949), Pan Books, London, 1988. [4]. Gogoi, Hridayananda: Aadhunikatar Sandhanat Mamoni Roisom, Jyoti Prakashan, Guwahati, 2001. [5]. Devi, Mira : Asomiya Upanyasat Naribaad, Lokayat Prakashan, guwahati, 1996.
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'kks/k izfof/k %& euq"; dh ftKklk vuqla/kku gsrq mls izsj{kk iznku djrh gSA D;k vkSj dSlk\ D;k gS vkSj dSlk gS\ D;k gksxk vkSj dSlk gksxk\ ;s rhu iz’u okpd dFku 'kks/k ds izdkjksa dks fufnZ"V djrs gSA www.ijmer.in 58
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VOLUME 8, ISSUE 10(3), OCTOBER 2019 tcfd fdlh ?kVuk] rF;] LFkku ;k O;fDr ds Hkwrdky ds fo"k; esa oSKkfud fof/k }kjk tkudkjh izkIr dh tkrh gS rks bls ,frgkfld fof/k dgk tkrk gS ,oa tc fdlh laLFkk rF; ;k leL;k ds orZeku fLFkfr dk oSKkfud v/;;u fd;k tkrk gS rc og 'kks/k fooj.kkRed gksrk gSA 'kks/k ds vUrxZr leL;k dh igpku lhekadu ifjdYiukvksa dk fuekZ.k] vkdM+ksa dk ladyu] oxhZdj.k ,oa fo’ys"k.k vkfn dk v/;;u fd;k tkrk gSA orZeku esa lkekftd fo"k;ksa ds vUos"k.k esa vuds rF;ksa ,oa Kku muds i;Zos{k.k ,oa fo’ys"k.k gsrq oSKkfud i)fr dk lgkjk fy;k x;k gSA izLrqr 'kks/k i= ds mn~ns’; fuEukuqlkj gS %& 1- ekuo ds lkekftd] vkfFkZd ,oa jktuSfrd i)fr;ksa ds iquxZBu ,oa uohuhdj.k ds lekos’k gsrq iapk;rhjkt O;oLFkk dh dk;Ziz.kkyh dk v/;;uA 2- uohu iapk;rh jkt O;oLFkk esa lkekftd U;k; ln~Hkkouk ,oa xzkeh.k {ks=ksa dk lexz fodkl egRoiw.kZ pqukSfr;ksa dh leh{kkA 3- yksdra= esa iapk;rhjkt O;oLFkk lkoZtfud fØ;kdykiksa esa ikjnf’kZrk ykus esa lQy Hkwfedk dk v/;;uA iwoZ lkfgR; dh leh{kk %& ehuk{kh iaokj] ¼1995½ ^^e/;izns’k esa iapk;r jkt fodkl ds c<+rs pj.k**] us crk;k fd xkWoksa dh izxfr gh lgh vFkksZa esa ns’k dh izxfr gSA muds vuqlkj xkWoksa ds fodkl ds fcuk izns’k ;k ns’k ds fodkl dh dYiuk djuk csekuh gksxhA bl /;s; dks lkeus j[kdj e/;izns’k esa iapk;r jkt dk LoIu lkdkj fd;k gSA Mh-ds- fcYykSjs] ¼1996½ ^^e/;izns’k esa iapk;rh jkt dh leL;k,W vkSj lq>ko**] us rF;ksa ds vk/kkj ij crk;k fd iapk;r jkt ds fØ;kUo;u esa D;k&D;k leL;k,W mHkjdj lkeus vk;h gqbZ gS\ bu leL;kvksa dk fdl izdkj lek/kku fd;k tk ldrk gS\ mUgksaus bu leL;kvksa ds lek/kku ds lq>ko Hkh izLrqr fd;s gSA ;rhUnzflag] ¼1998½ ^^e/;izns’k esa iapk;r jkt O;oLFkk% leL;k,sa ,oa lEHkkouk,W** us e/;izns’k esa iapk;r jkt O;oLFkk ij ,d v/;;u fd;k gSA bl v/;;u esa e/;izns’k ds iapk;r jkt O;oLFkk ds fofo/k i{kksa ls lacaf/kr leL;kvksa dks Li"V djrs gq, mldh laHkkoukvksa dks Øeokj fo’ysf"kr fd;k gSA eghiky] ¼2005½ ^^iapk;rh jkt pqukSfr;kW ,oa laHkkouk,W** us lq>ko nsrs gq, fy[kk gS] fd& iapk;rksa dks iz’kklfud Lok;Rrk iznku djus ds fy, fodkl vfHkdj.k ij cy fn;k tkuk pkfg,] D;ksafd ;gha dsUnz }kjk izR;k;ksftr fofHkUu xzkeh.k fodkl ;kstukvksa dks ykxw djus esa egRoiw.kZ Hkwfedk dk fuoZgu djrk gSA tks’kh] MkW- vkj-ih-] eaxykuh] MkW- :ik ¼2013½ }kjk laikfnr iqLrd Hkkjr esa iapk;rh jkt esa iapk;rh jkt O;oLFkk rFkk mlds ifjorZuksa ls lacaf/kr fofHkUu ys[kdksa ds fo}rkiw.kZ fopkjksa dk ladyu gSA jktLFkku fgUnh xzUFk vdkneh] t;iqj ds bl izdk’ku esa iapk;rh jkt O;oLFkk dh fodkl ;k=k] laxBukRed ,oa dk;kZRed igyw] iz’kklfud ra=] tuizfrfuf/k] efgykvksa dh lgHkkfxrk] fofRr; O;oLFkk] vkfFkZd fu;kstu] xzkeh.k fodkl] jktuhfrd nyksa ,oa Lo;alsoh laLFkkvksa dh Hkwfedk xzke lHkk] lkekftd vads{k.k ,oa bZ&xousZUl lacaf/kr ys[k fn, x, gSaA iapk;rh jkt O;oLFkk dh pqukSfr;kW %& iapk;rksa ds le{k lcls egRoiw.kZ pqukSrh ljdkj ds vf/kdkfj;ksa ,oa deZpkfj;ksa ds lkFk leUo; ,oa rkyesy LFkkfir djuk gSA uohu iapk;rh jkt O;oLFkk ds vUrxZr vf/kdka’k jkT;ksa esa iapk;rksa ij vc iwoZ dh rqyuk esa vf/kd foHkkxksa ,oa lsokvksa dk nkf;Ro vk x;k gSA ftuds fuoZgu gsrq lacaf/kr foHkkxksa ds vf/kdkfj;ksa ,oa deZpkfj;ksa dk u dsoy lg;ksx izkIr djuk vko’;d gksxk oju~ mu ij fu;a=.k Hkh j[kuk gksxkA ljdkjh vf/kdkjh ,oa deZpkjh ;g ugha pkgrs gSa fd iapk;rksa ds lnL; muds utnhd jgdj muds dk;ksZ dk ewY;kadu ,oa fuxjkuh djsaA bl rjg lacaf/kr foHkkxksa ds deZpkfj;ksa dks iapk;rksa ds v/khu ,oa fu;=.k esa ykus esa bu deZpkfj;ksa ds fojks/k dh izcy lEHkkouk gSA bl laca/k esa ,d mnkgj.k i;kZIr gS fd izkbejh Ldwyksa ds v/;kidksa ds la?k us ,d izLrko ikfjr dj iapk;rksa ds v/khu dke djus dh vfuPNk O;fDr dh gSA bl rjg] ftyk Lrj ,oa www.ijmer.in 59
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VOLUME 8, ISSUE 10(3), OCTOBER 2019 mlls fupys Lrj ij dk;Z djus okys deZpkfj;ksa] ftyk iapk;r v/;{k] Cykd lfefr;kW ds v/;{k ;k xzke lHkk ds v/;{k ds vkns’k ij dk;Z djus ds fy, vfuPNqd jgrs gSA vr% LFkkuh; 'kklu O;oLFkk dks pykus ds fy, ubZ rjg dh iztkra=h; laLd`fr ds fodkl dh vko’;drk gSA vHkh jktuSfrd psruk dh deh dk gksuk gSA fcgkj] e/;izns’k rFkk mM+hlk vkfn jkT;ksa esa tgkW yxHkx 60 djksM+ tula[;k fuokl djrh gSA ogkW vHkh iapk;rh jkt O;oLFkk ds izfr okafNr psruk tkxzr ugha gks ik;h gSA bldk dkj.k ;g gS fd bu jkT;ksa esa vHkh Hkh xkWoksa esa O;kid vf’k{kk fo|eku gSA ;gkW Hkh lkeUr’kkgh O;oLFkk ,oa ewY; gh O;kIr gSA 73 osa lafo/kku la’kks/ku ds i'pkr~ e/; izns’k esa lcls igys pquko gq, ysfdu ogkW iapk;rsa vc rd fu"izHkkoh gSa rFkk pqus gq, lnL;ksa dks mRihM+u tkjh gSA ;gha fLFkfr yxHkx mRrj izns’k dh Hkh gSa] tgkW iapk;rsa foRrh; lalk/ku foghu vkSj vlgk; gSA lekt esa tks ijEijkxr 'kfDr dk
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VOLUME 8, ISSUE 10(3), OCTOBER 2019 lfefr dsoy vkfnoklh cgqY; vkB jkT;ksa dh fuiVkjk djsxhA leh{kk cSBd esa iapk;rksa dks fn;s x;s vf/kdkjksa vkSj Lok;Rrrk dh leh{kk dh x;hA jkT;ksa dks bl laca/k esa vius dkuwuksa dks vey esa ykus ds fy, foLr`r fn’kk funsZ’k tkjh djus dh flQkfjl dh x;hA leh{kk esa iapk;rksa dks foHkkxh; inkf/kdkjh miyC/k djkus dh Hkh flQkfjl dh x;hA bl rjg dsUnz rFkk jkT; ljdkjksa us iapk;rh jkT; O;oLFkk ds izfr viuh izfrc)rk dks O;Dr fd;kA blls ns’k esa iapk;rh jkt laLFkkvksa dk Hkfo"; mTtoy fn[kkbZ ns ldrk gSA vkt ns’k esa iapk;rh jkt laLFkkvksa dk Hkfo"; mTtoy fn[kkbZ ns ldrk gSA vkt ns’k ds dbZ Hkkxksa esa yksxksa ds tuthou esa Hkz"Vªkpkj dk Hkh fodsUnzhdj.k gqvk gS] tks Hkh gks ijUrq bruk rks fuf’pr gS fd fupys Lrj ij tks Hkh dk;Z gksxs og yksxksa dh fuxkgksa ds lkeus gksxsa rFkk dk;ksZ ds izfr tckonsgh fupys Lrj ij T;knk vPNh rjg fu/kkZfjr dh tk ldrh gSA bu iapk;rh jkt laLFkkvksa }kjk lwpukvksa rFkk tkudkfj;ksa dks vPNh rjg yksxks dks xkao Lrj rd igqWpkuh pkfg,A lkoZtfud fØ;kdykiksa esa igys ikjnf’kZrk ugha jgrh FkhA phtksa dks vf/kdkfjd :i esa xksiuh; j[kk tkrk Fkk yksxksa ls fNik;k tkrk FkkA iapk;rksa ds fØ;k’khy gksus ls tc 30 yk[k ls vf/kd pqus x, lnL; fofHkUu fo"k;ksa ls lacaf/kr lwpukvksa ds izfr ftKklk izdV djsaxs rks lwpuk dk dsUnzh;dj.k Hkax gks tk;sxk vkSj Lor% ikjnf’kZrk vk;sxhA yksdra= tc tu lk/kkj.k ds gkFkksa esa gksxk rc ;g xjhch fuokj.k lekurk ds lkFk vkfFkZd fodkl] LokLF; i;kZoj.k rFkk ekuokf/kdkjksa ds izfr vf/kd l’kDr ,oa dkjxj gksxkA ;|fi fupys Lrj ij vHkh Hkh os 'kfDr;kW 'kfDr’kkyh cuh gqbZ gSa tks yksdra= ds fojks/k esa jgrh gSA fQj Hkh uohu iapk;rh jkt O;oLFkk ls /kkjk foijhr fn’kk esa eqM+us yxh gSA Hkkjrh; 'kklu O;oLFkk esa
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AWARENESS & ACCESSIBILITY LEVEL OF THE BENEFICIARIES OF J&K WITH RESPECT TO SPECIAL EDUCATION SERVICES FOR PERSONS WITH INTELLECTUAL DISABILITY: A COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS
Dr. Rohnika Sharma Associate Professor and HOD UG Department MIER College of Education (Autonomous) Jammu (J&K) Abstract Due to global competitiveness, education scenario in India is fast changing. Along with that, special education is also catching importance and various government and non-government agencies are working hard to successfully implement Special education services throughout India. As per the current scenario, attempts have been made in our country to provide special education to children with Intellectual disability. J&K is one of the states of India where special education services have not been adequately available and CWID are deprived of these services in spite of the enforcement of various Acts and policies in the country. In the present problem an analysis of the J&K state was made in order to know the status of Special education services as compare to other selected states (PB, HP & HR). Survey method Purposive sampling technique was employed. Sample of that total 200 beneficiaries were selected from four states. Questionnaire related to Special education Services was developed and used. Data was analyzed by using Chi- square, Mean, ANOVA and Post-hoc test. Based on the results it was revealed that there was a difference in the level of awareness & accessibility of the beneficiaries of J&K and other selected states of India with respect to special education services for persons with intellectual disability. Keywords: Intellectual Disability, Special Education Services
Introduction Every child with disability has a right to education. In the Biwako Millennium Framework, inclusive, barrier free and right based society is emphasized. Various acts and policies have led to programmes towards inclusion in India. Yet, only 3 to 4% of children with disabilities have access to education with or without support services. There is an urgent need for providing competencies at various levels. Educating children with disabilities has to be done keeping in mind their limited ability levels.
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All school going children, whether they are disabled or not, have the right to education as they are the future citizens of the country. Some children with special needs may not benefit from regular classroom education due to various reasons including disability. In such a case, it is only appropriate that they be provided with education in some other meaningful way. This entails changes in curricular decisions and classroom arrangements, provision of aids and appliances, arrangements for finances.. According to the National Policy on Education, 1992, the number of school going children with disabilities in India is reported to be about 12.59 million (1). It is in this context that this paper critically analyses the accessibility of the special education services by the beneficiaries of J&K. The state of Jammu and Kashmir is situated on the northern extremity of India. The territory of the state lies between 32O and 37O North and 73O and 80O East. The state is bound in the north- east by China, in the north – west by Afghanistan and in the west by Pakistan. The southern boundary of the state is contiguous with the states of Punjab and Himachal Pradesh. On the basis of its location, the state occupies a position of unique and strategic importance in the sub-continent. The area of the state is 2, 22,236 sq.kms. As per census figures of 2011, population of the state is 12,548,926. The literacy rate is 68.572% .The state is divided into three distinct regions, viz, Jammu, Kashmir and Ladhakh comprising of 22 districts. Even though having ethnic, linguistic, religious and cultural diversity, yet the state of Jammu and Kashmir is a perfect example of unity in diversity.
Literature Reviews The purpose of the present study is to do the comparative analysis of special education services for CWID in the state of Jammu & Kashmir in comparison to other selected states of India. Before that an extensive review of literature has been done in the area of special education. The researcher was able to find very limited literature related to selected area of study. Varma (1986) conducted a study on ‘Special Education in India: A critical analysis of the present status with special reference to mental retardation’. He discussed the extent of mental retardation in India, facilities available to them and role of the government in assisting the persons with mental retardation. Although 20 million Indians suffer from mental retardation, 75% of these persons are marginally retarded and can care for themselves. Services for the handicapped, which reach only 1% of the affected, include clinical services, daycare centers, child guidance clinics, residential homes, vocational training centers, vocational rehabilitation, in-service training, job placement and research. The government scheme of integrated education was also discussed. www.ijmer.in 63
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This study was conducted 3 decades ago which gives a hint on the types of rehabilitation services available during those days for persons with ID. Rapid changes have happened in the area of special education in India. State wise comparison was not done by the researcher. So the present study intends to make a comparison of special education and rehabilitation services available in J&K as compared to other neighboring states of India to find out what kind of developments are happening in J&K and the neighboring states. Reddy (2006) conducted a study on “Awareness on Special Education to Children with Mental Retardation among Elementary School Teachers”. The objective of the study was to find the level of awareness on special education to children with mental retardation among elementary school teachers with respect to their education, age, gender and experience. A survey method had been employed in the study on 83 school teachers. A questionnaire was developed by the researcher for collecting the data. The results showed that majority of the teachers lacks awareness on special education and mental retardation and they gave negative responses. This also provides a base to check the level of awareness by using a questionnaire in order to achieve one of the major objectives set for the study. As it was revealed from the findings of the above said study that awareness is the key factor which leads to accessibility and implementation of any service.
Rationale of the study The total population of differently – abled children in J&K state as per census, 2001, is 3.067 lacs. Out of total disabled, 2.8 lac individuals are visually impaired, 0.38 lacs are physically handicapped, 0.17 lacs are with speech disability and 0.13 lacs have hearing disability. There are only 15 institutions in J&K state to cater to the needs of differently abled individuals as against these large numbers of disabled. Only 0.05% has access to education. The average intake capacity of each school is not more than 40; it means that only a very small proportion out of the total population of the disabled is making use of educational facilities while the rest is outside the ambit So the present study “Awareness & Accessibility level of the Beneficiaries of J&K with respect to Special Education Services for Persons with Intellectual Disability: A Comparative Analysis” was taken to know the status of J&K with regard to special education services available in J&K and in the other selected states (Haryana, Punjab & Himachal Pradesh) of India for the empowerment and betterment of persons with intellectual disabilities. This study provides answers to questions like what type of educational services are available for persons with intellectual disability, in what ways these are different from other selected states, how many people are aware of these services, what is their level of accessibility. The present study would help to know about the current www.ijmer.in 64
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VOLUME 8, ISSUE 10(3), OCTOBER 2019 scenario of the J&K state as compare to Haryana, Himachal Pradesh and Punjab with respect to special education and services presently available. More over recommendations would be given to the departments concerned for initiating those services which are not available and by making services accessible in a better way.
Objectives of the study To compare the awareness level of the beneficiaries of J&K and other selected states of India with respect to education services for persons with intellectual disability. To compare the accessibility level of the beneficiaries of J&K and other selected states of India with respect to education services for persons with intellectual disability.
Research questions Is there any difference in the awareness level of the beneficiaries of J&K and other selected states of India with respect to education services for persons with intellectual disability? Is there any difference in the accessibility level of the beneficiaries of J&K and other selected states of India with respect to education services for persons with intellectual disability?
Research Design:
The present study is a comparative descriptive survey research. The primary purpose of descriptive research is to provide an accurate description or picture of the status or characteristics of a situation or phenomenon. Survey method of data collection is commonly used in descriptive research. Therefore survey method was used for collecting the data.
Sample & tool Used
Purposive sampling method was used to select the beneficiaries’ i.e. (parents of the children with intellectual disability) as a sample from four states of India. Total 200 beneficiaries (80 from J&K, 40 from HP, 40 from Haryana and 40 from Punjab) was selected
The variables (Gender, Age, Area, Socioeconomic status and Educational qualification) were taken into consideration while selecting the sample.
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Details of the sample related to impact analysis is given under below
Figure 1.1 State wise Sample distributions
States wise sample distribution Himachal Pradesh, 40, 20% Jammu & Kashmir, 80, 40% Haryana, 40, 20% Punjab, 40, 20%
Tool used Self-made validated questionnaire related to impact analysis was used to collect information. The questionnaire comprised of 12 items under special education services domain. Scoring The respondent was asked to tick Not aware, Aware Not Accessible, Accessible with difficulty and Easily Accessible for each item .The response ‘Not aware’ was given score as ‘0’ the response ‘Aware Not accessible’ was given score as ‘1’ and the response ‘Accessible with difficulty’ was given score as ‘2’ and the response ‘Easily Accessible’ was given score as ‘3’ for the purpose of data analysis.
Result and Discussion Table 1.1 Item wise percentage of awareness level of Beneficiaries of J&K and other selected States of India with Respect to Special education Services for CWID
Item Level of Awareness No. Special education Services (SES) J&K (%) PB (%) HR (%) HP Chi - N=80 N=40 N=40 (%) sqr N=40 1 Do you aware about early 46.8, Intervention Programme for CWID 66.2% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% p<0.01 ? www.ijmer.in 66
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2 Do you aware about special school NS 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% services for CWID? p>0.05 3 Do you aware about integrated 55.9, special education services for 45.0% 97.5% 97.5% 77.5% p<0.01 CWID ? 4 Do you aware about inclusive 20.3, special education services for 28.8% 42.5% 55.0% 70.0% p<0.01 CWID ? 5 Do you aware about the scheme of 24.2, 72.5% 97.5% 100.0% 90.0% Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan? p<0.01 6 Do you aware about residential NS school and its services for CWID 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% p>0.05 ? 7 Do you aware about scholarships / 20.0, 65.0% 97.5% 82.5% 87.5% Special educational allowances? p<0.01 8 Do you aware about relaxation in 41.8, 45.0% 97.5% 82.5% 77.5% examination time for CWID ? p<0.01 9 Do you aware about exemption 20.1, 65.0% 97.5% 82.5% 87.5% from certain subjects for CWID ? p<0.01 10 Do you aware about barrier free 20.0, 65.0% 97.5% 82.5% 87.5% environment in the schools? p<0.01 11 Do you aware about providing free 24.2, books/stationary and uniform for 72.5% 97.5% 100.0% 90.0% p<0.01 CWID ? 12 Do you aware about orientation / 20.0, training programme for in-service p<0.01 65.0% 97.5% 82.5% 87.5% teacher related children with special needs?
Table 1.1 shows the chi-sqr value significant at level p<0.01 for all items , which is significant and that reflects that there is a difference in the awareness level of the beneficiaries of J&K and other selected states of India with respect to special education services for persons with intellectual disability. Only item no. 2 & 6 indicted that was no difference in the level of awareness as the chi-sqr value is not significant p>0.05.
Table: 1.2 State wise mean score of the accessibility level of the beneficiaries with respect to special education services (SES) for CWID Domain States N Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error
Special educational Jammu & Kashmir 80 18.06 9.20 1.03 Services Punjab 40 24.68 4.24 0.67 (SES) Haryana 40 24.80 6.59 1.04 Himachal Pradesh 40 25.28 7.21 1.14 Total 200 22.18 8.20 0.58
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Figure: 1.2 State wise mean score of the accessibility level of the beneficiaries with respect to special education services (SES) for CWID
Comparison of the mean scores of special education services (SES) 24.68 24.8 25.28 18.06
J&K PB HR HP
Table 1.2 and figure 1.2 shows the difference in the mean scores of the accessibility level of the beneficiaries related to special education services for CWID. The mean scores of accessibility level of the beneficiaries with respect to special education services in J&K state is 18.06 which is less in comparison to the mean scores of other selected states i.e. PB=24.68, HR=24.8 and HP=25.28. The results revealed that there is a difference in the accessibility level of the beneficiaries of J&K and other selected states of India with respect to special education services for persons with intellectual disability. Since the results revealed that there is difference in the mean scores so further one way ANOVA was carried out to find the F-ratio the results of which is given under table 1.3
Table: 1.3 State wise result of one way ANOVA of the accessibility level of the beneficiaries with respect to special education services (SES) for CWID
Sum of df Mean F Sig. Squares Square Special educational Services Between 2,263.04 3.00 754.35 13.31 0.00 (SES) Groups Within 11,107.84 196.00 56.67 Groups Total 13,370.88 199.00
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Table 1.3 shows the value of F- ratio that is 13.31 which is highly significant at 0.00 level. The level of significance is less than 0.05 (P<0.01) which revealed that there is significant difference in the accessibility level .Further post –hoc was administered to verify the level of significance. Table: 1.4 Post-hoc test of the accessibility level of the beneficiaries with respect to special education services (SES) for CWID
Dependent Variable (I) State (J) State Code Mean Std. Sig. Code Difference (I- Error J)
Special educational Jammu & Punjab -6.61250 1.46 P<0.01 Services Kashmir Haryana -6.73750 1.46 P<0.01 Himachal Pradesh -7.21250 1.46 P<0.01
Table 1.4 shows the results of post –hoc test analysis which revealed that the difference in the mean scores of J&K in comparison to PB, HR, and HP was significant at (p<0.01). The results revealed that there was a highly significant difference in the accessibility level on the beneficiaries (parents of the children with intellectual disability) of J&K and other selected states of India with respect to special education services for persons with intellectual disability
Findings of the present study The chi-square value of most of the items related to special education services (SES) was significant at level p<0.01 which reveals that there is significant difference in the awareness level of the beneficiaries of J&K and other selected states of India with respect to special education services for persons with intellectual disability. This indicates that beneficiaries belonging to other states are more aware as their mean score of awareness level is high in comparison to the mean score of J&K. As far as the level of accessibility is concerned, the mean scores of accessibility level of the beneficiaries with respect to special education services in J&K state is 18.06 which is less in comparison to the mean scores of other selected states i.e. PB=24.68, HR=24.8 and HP=25.28 this clearly reflects that there is difference in the accessibility level of the beneficiaries of J&K and other selected states of India with respect to education services for persons with intellectual disability
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Educational Implication Protection of human right is not the responsibility of an individual; it is responsibility of the whole society for the protection of individuals of their region. Time has come to rouse public opinion on the level of implementation & accessibility of education and rehabilitation services in order to ensure that concept of human right prevails and the existing constitutional and legal safeguard are sincerely enforced. The present study highlighted about the current scenario of the J&K state as compare to Haryana, Himachal Pradesh and Punjab with respect to special education services presently available. The study reflects to what extent these services are accessible to the beneficiaries. There is dire need to make special education services available and accessible to the beneficiaries. The study will provide an insight to the authorities & policy makers to develop a checklist as per special education services which will help them to know the present / current status in which the state of J&K is lacking behind in comparison to other selected states. More over recommendations also given to the departments concerned for initiating those services which are not available and by improving the existing services. So that an expected action will be taken by the policy makers /planners to initiate those services which are not available in J&K and improving the existing services for effective implementation and outcome.
Suggestions & Recommendations of the study
Based on the findings of the present study following suggestions and recommendations were made: It was suggested & recommended that the state government of J&K should come forward and give its consent to get included in the NTA & PWD Act so that the PWDs belonging to the state of J&K would be able to avail all the benefits as equally as other persons of other states of India. Even the National Policy for Persons with Disabilities (2006) recognizes that persons with disabilities are valuable human resource for the country and seeks to create an environment that provides those equal opportunities, protection of their rights and full participation in society. Education is the most effective vehicle of social and economic empowerment. In keeping with the spirit of the Article 21A of the It was recommended that state should have its own Policy on disability, which is practical and can adequately transacted into action to fulfill its basic objectives.
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Orientation programmes, bridge courses, workshops and seminars need to be organized for teachers, administrators, policy makers and officials of different departments for enhancing the quality of special education. It was suggested to organize programmes for the orientation of teachers for inclusive education to handle the educational and allied needs of the CWID. It was recommended that state should make provisions of professional courses /programmes for developing man power in the field of intellectual disability. It was recommended that state of J&K should open special school for the CWID. As it was found that not a single govt. special school for CWID was functioning till date. It was recommended to conduct workshops and sensitization programmes in order to create awareness among the parents about education and rehabilitation services available for CWID. Child Guidance Centers are required to be established to provide guidance and support services to the CWID enrolled in schools. It was suggested that parents, and the public at large need to be encouraged to report cases of mild and severe mental retardation at some prominent and easily accessible centers so that professional help can be rendered to such individuals and their records maintained.
Conclusion
The disability sector is so vast and the challenges are plenty. Human rights recognize that everyone is equally entitled to live with dignity. With the growing concerns for creating right based and barrier free societies for persons with disabilities. Awareness and accessibility to the policies and programmes related to special education services is a necessity which will lead to such a society where all can live together without any discrimination. As a conclusion it was revealed that there was a significant difference in the level of awareness & accessibility of special educational services in J&K in comparison to other selected states. Based on the results it was suggested that there was a dire need to generate awareness among the beneficiaries of J&K with respect to available special education services for CWID.
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References
1. Advani, L. (1993). Is community based rehabilitation the answer for every disabled person? Indian Journal of Disability and Rehabilitation. 6, 71-73. 2. Advani, L. and Chadha, A. (2003). You and your special child. UBS Publishers’Distributors Private Ltd., New Delhi. 3. Ahluwalia, H. P. S. (2003). Disability status – India. Rehabilitation Council of India. Shivaji Marg, New Delhi. 4. Bommai, S. R. (1997). “Convention on the Rights of the Child”. Department of Women and Child Development, Ministry of Human Resource Department, Government of India, New Dehli. 5. Department of Education (1986). National Policy on Education. Ministry of Human Resource Development. New Delhi. 6. Department of Education (1992). Revised Programme of Action. Ministry of Human Resource Development. New Delhi. 7. Gupta, A. K. and Kapoor , D. R. (2011). Functional Profile of Jammu & Kashmir State in the Area of Mental Retardation. MIER Journal of Educational Studies, Trends & Practices , 1 (1). 8. Reddy, S. H. K. et al. (1990). Education in India: A survey of facilities for children with mental handicap. Mental Handicap.18, 26-30. 9. Reddy, V. B. (2006). Awareness on Special Education to children with Mental Retardation among Elementary School Teachers. Unpublished dissertation, NIMH, Osmania University Hyderabad. 10. Varma, J. (1986). Special education in India: A critical analysis of the present status with special reference to mental retardation. Prospective in Psychological Researches. 9, 42- 46.
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TWO STEP CLUSTER ANALYSIS ON CENSUS TRACT DATA OF KANCHEEPURAM DISTRICT OF TAMIL NADU STATE: AN EXPLORATORY STUDY
H. Gladius Jennifer Dr. M. Bagavandas Assistant Professor of Biostatistics Professor Department of Community Medicine School of Public Health Karpaga Vinayaga Institute of Medical SRM University Sciences and Research Centre Kattankulathur Chinnakolambakkam Tamilnadu Madhuranthakam, Tamilnadu
Abstract Introduction: Census tract is major source of health information system in India. Cluster algorithm is often using to administer in large scale data like census. There are several types of cluster techniques; but two step cluster analysis will be an exploratory tool to find the natural clusters for both categorical and continues variables. Hence this study attempt.
Objective: To determine homogeneous groups using census tract data of kancheepuram district 2011 by two step cluster analysis.
Materials and Methods: The exploratory study was carried out during Nov - Dec 2017, using Primary Census Abstract of kancheepuram district, Tamil Nadu issued from census 2011. This district has 1020 Villages and 75 towns. The census 380 variables consist of Area, Population, education and medical facilities, water, sanitation, worker population and other facilities with availability in km distance. The variables were made as domains by factor reduction and its scores were calculated by factor analysis. The villages were grouped with similar characteristics as clusters by two step cluster algorithm at 5% level of significance. The SPSS 16v software was used.
Results: Out of 1020 villages 962 had selected after data mining in kancheepuram district. The variables reduced as factors like Area, population, school, college, water, sanitation, workers, health, recreation and other facilities by factor analysis. These factors scores were taken for the analysis and which ungrouped was taken as original data for two step cluster analysis. In Towns (45) become only one cluster, in villages were grouped as 3 clusters. Cluster I (Good - 189), Cluster II (Average - 464) and Cluster III (Poor - 303).
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Conclusion: Two step cluster will give better understand about heterogeneity of large scale data. It helps us to select appropriate geographical locations to be sampling for further research.
Key words: Factor scores, two step cluster, census, Kancheepuram district
1. Introduction Census tract is major source of valuable information system in India. It has variations in size and heterogeneous and non stationary. To manage or avoid all these issues clustering data in to homogenous will be appropriate. Cluster algorithm is often used to make homogeneous subgroups in large scale data like census. The main aim of cluster analysis to identify set of objects with similar characteristics. There are several types of cluster analysis like two step, K mean, Hierarchical cluster algorithm etc. k mean will be calculated by maximizing intra cluster similarity and minimizing inter cluster. its usually partitioning n data points into k groups and k determined before cluster analysis. Hierarchical clustering clusters will be calculated step by step, top – down or bottom – top. Top down approach find break point to make two cluster and this process will go till each data point to find their own cluster. This forms “Dentogram” to visualize the data. These two types mainly used for continuous data points. The technique is an exploratory tool to find the natural clusters. This Cluster Analysis will provide solutions based on mixtures of continuous as well as categorical variables and for varying numbers of clusters. It is based on a distance measure which will give the best results if all variables are independent, continuous variables follow normal distribution, and categorical variables have a multinomial distribution.1 It does not involve hypothesis testing or significance levels, other than for descriptive follow-up. Since census data contains both quantitative and qualitative data, two step cluster analysis was used to find similar characteristics villages in this study. These kind of clustering techniques will help up to test the hypothesis with limited source and time. There are not much of studies available in India, Hence this study attempt. The objective of this study is to determine homogeneous groups using 2011 census tract data of Kancheepuram District of Tamil Nadu by two step cluster analysis. 2. Materials and Methods: - Study Design: An exploratory study design Study Period: November 2016 – November 2017 Population Data: The primary data of census 2011, kancheepuram district, Tamil Nadu was extracted from www.Census.gov.in website.2 There are different types of data sets available; we have taken “Rural table for Chengai Anna district” & “Table for kancheepuram district” for this study.2 The two sets www.ijmer.in 80
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VOLUME 8, ISSUE 10(3), OCTOBER 2019 data were merged by village code with name after checking duplication and spell checks for further analysis. Methodology The SPSS developed Two-Step clustering method which is scalable cluster technique for large data sets with two stages.3 First it scan and decide one by one and add observation to one of the previously formed cluster if not create new cluster based on the some distance criterion, will continue till all data points forms a clusters.3 In the next step treats each sub cluster centre as an observation, they are grouped into desired number clusters.3 Euclidean distance and log likelihood distance are used as distance measures. Euclidean distance is used when all the variables are of continuous type and Log-likelihood distance is used when are variables are of mixed type.1 In calculating log-likelihood ratio, the assumptions will be normal distributions for continuous variables and multinomial for categorical variables and also assumes that the variables are independent of each other, as well as the observations.3 If the desired number of clusters is unknown, this method will find the number of clusters automatically in such a way that objects in a group are homogeneous and objects between groups are heterogeneous.1,3 In order to determine the best number of clusters, this method uses automatic clustering function like Schwarz’s Bayesian Criterion (BIC) or Akaike information criterion (AIC). BIC will continue to decrease when no of cluster increase, the changes in BIC and changes in the distance measure will be evaluated to determine best cluster detections. It means large BIC, large ratio of distance measures. The face-validity of the cluster solution is obtained using Chi-square test and student’s t-test.1,3
Statistical Analysis: The data of village was merged and analyzed using software SPSS 16V. The census variables were segregated as various domains and exploratory factor analysis used for factor reduction and to calculate factor scores. These scores were named as F score for particular domain used for two step cluster analysis at 5% level of significance. 3. Findings: - The Kancheepuram district has 1020 villages among them 58 villages had more than 80% missing values so these were excluded from the study remaining 962 were taken up for analysis. The census data consists for nearly three hundred and eighty variables describing codes and names of district and villages, area, total population, density, SC, ST population, various types of worker population, schools, colleges, health, communication, recreation, transport availabilities and their km in distance to travel; also water, electricity, sanitation, drainage, waste disposal were available or not in each village and land areas such as forest, www.ijmer.in 81
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VOLUME 8, ISSUE 10(3), OCTOBER 2019 irrigated un irrigated lands, river, pond, lake etc in sqm2.These related variables were segregated as domains and analyzed by Factor analysis. The factor scores were calculated for continuous and as well as categorical variables. The factor scores were considered as continuous variables and the variables which rotated individually were taken with original values for two step cluster analysis. The factor scores were grouped as three homogeneous clusters. Table I describes that the variables in census tract data at village level of kancheepuram were categorized as factor indicators by using factor analysis. The continuous variables were categorized as following domains: Distance travel to school, college, transport, communication and other facilities, recreation were in km2; location and land were in sqkm2. Other variables converted as proportion were categorized as following domains: population, literacy, health, water, communication, transport and recreation facilities. Nearly 380 variables of census tract were categorized as 15 domains by using factor analysis at 5% level of significance. Table 2 explains that Data was analyzed by two step cluster analysis to find the homogeneous clusters of villages of kancheepuram district. Among these villages six were not significant and remaining were grouped as three clusters by using the Schwarz’s Bayesian criterion (BIC), which yields the distance measures and changes in clusters. These clusters were described as Good, Average and Poor clusters based on the cluster centers of variables of this study. Cluster I (Good): This cluster consists of 189 villages; they have satisfactory level of facilities at village levels. This cluster have average area 793.11 km2 , average population were 3881 per village nearly 18% of villages in national highway other were in district highways. Railway stations were not available at level, need to travel 5 km average. All the villages have government high schools, most of the villages have both private and government schools, but some were lagging for higher studies; need to travel 2 km in average. Colleges were not available in almost, where in 2km in distance. The proportion of literate’s 65.28% and average ratio 1.28. 98.9% have them treated tap water, 98.4% have closed drainage and community waste disposal prevailing in majority of these. They have good sources of irrigation facilities like river, well tank lake etc. within 4km distance they have agricultural lands and also 245 km2 were available nonagricultural land for grazing and other purposes. 86.8% of villages have primary health sub centers at their. Nearly 70% of them have sub post office, 96.8% have samuthayakoodam (assembly hall) but majority were lacking in markets. Cluster I was concluded that Good since it located nearby highways, have good water, sanitation, education, health, communication and other facilities, but few villages lack in railway and market. www.ijmer.in 82
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Cluster II (Average): This cluster consists of 464 villages; they have average population of 1217 and area 350sqkm at village level. The elderly people were more in this cluster. They have primary schools in majority all other educational facilities were in access of 3 km in distance. Half of them have primary health sub centres but many were lagging in accessing the health facilities. 75% of them drinking untreated tap water; open and no drainage were equal to closed drainage system. Toilet facilities were not there. Community halls were available at each village. 25% village have sub post office. All other facilities such as banking, mandi, recreation facilities were unavailable. Cluster II was defined as average cluster; it have more elderly population and recreation facilities but limited medical, education transportation, communication and agricultural facilities. They have lagging in water and sanitation. Cluster III (Poor): This cluster consists of 303 villages; they have average population of 530 and area 191 sqkm at village level. The elderly people were more in this cluster also. They have primary schools in majority all other educational facilities were in access of 3 km in distance. Primary health sub centers also in travel of 3km distances. Untreated tap water; no drainage system and no toilet facilities were common in almost all the villages. Transportation like either government or private buses was unavailable since this cluster not in national or state highways. All other facilities such as communication, banking, mandi, recreation facilities were unavailable. Cluster III concluded that as poor cluster since it consist only primary schools in their villages. But, have poor water and sanitation, all other facilities such as health, higher education, transport, communication, market etc were not available at their village level. Figure 1 explains the significant variables for each cluster separately for continuous variables (t test) and categorical variables (chi sq test). The dotted lines showed in the graph were significant line/ critical value where the horizontal bars were the test statistic. The demographic, socio economic and environmental factors in determination of health are undisputable. We identified 15 important factors as domains which formed three clusters in village level data of kancheepuram district, Tamilnadu. Similar type of studies were carried out to homogeneous groups regarding maternal and child health surveys, demographic studies and decision policies.7-9 this type of clustering help to find the domains by calculating factor reduction and create clusters similarity with in the groups and dissimilarities between the two. Many studies were used k mean and hierarchical clustering but not much studies were available of using two step method of cluster analysis, more emphasis are needed in this area. www.ijmer.in 83
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4. Conclusion: - Clustering techniques is a process of predicting patterns or grouping data in terms of similar characteristics, in this study the total villages of kancheepuram district were classified under three clusters. This kind of grouping of villages will help policy makers to decide where to concentrate and in what sectors in the future for improving the quality of life public. Similar type of studies in similar geographical area or population can also be avoided. 5. Conflict of Interest: Nil 6. Source of Funding: Nil 7. Ethical Clearance: The ethical clearance was obtained from institutional ethical committee (EC No: 24/2016). Then data was extracted from Census 2011 and analyzed.
Reference:
1. Junaidu YM, Bagavandas M, Dayyabu BI, Daladima NM, Identification of Group Structure among Abattoirs Workers of Kano State Metropolitan, Nigeria based on their KAP Scores in Relation to Hygiene Practice: A Two- Step Cluster Analysis. Veterinary Clinical Science, 2016, 4 (3): 26-32. 2. http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011/CensusData2011.html 3. SPSS technical report 2001. https://www.spss.ch/ the two step cluster comp 4. SPSS technical report 2004. https://www.spss.ch/ 5. Jeffrey DB, Adrian ER, Model-Based Gaussian and Non-Gaussian Clustering Biometrics, 1993, 49(3):803-821. 6. Johann B, Kunt W, Melanie V, SPSS two step cluster – A first evaluation, Project report, 2004,1-20 Accessed on December 2018. 7. Manisha C, Christpohe ZC, an analysis of the determinants of fertility behavior in south India at the village level. Fertility transition in South India, 2015: 325-353. 8. Beth H, Wei H, Comparison of Segmentation Approaches, Decision Analyst, 2016,1-12. 9. Sharyn RT, Krzysztof K, Aaron T, Joy P, Using two-step cluster analysis to identify homogeneous physical activity groups, Marketing Intelligence & Planning, 2015, 33(4):522-537.
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Table 1: Domains used for factor reduction by factor analysis
Domain Factors Domain Factors Location Distance from Head quarters Population (density) Lands (Km2) School , College Distance travel to school, College Literacy (Proportion) Worker Population (Proportion) Health Facilities Distance _ Health centres Water Facilities Sanitation and drainage Communication and other facilities Distance_ Communication and other facilities Transportation Distance _ Transportation Recreation Distance _ Recreation
Table 2: Details of Auto clustering
Ratio of Number of Schwarz's Bayesian Ratio of BIC BIC Change Distance Clusters Criterion (BIC) Changes Measures
1 55102.842 2 50544.367 -4558.475 1 1.88 3 48594.693 -1949.674 0.428 2.644 4 48488.81 -105.883 0.023 1.076 5 48462.036 -26.773 0.006 1.064 6 48498.305 36.268 -0.008 1.395 7 48811.772 313.467 -0.069 1.131 8 49206.57 394.799 -0.087 1.041 9 49625.685 419.115 -0.092 1.184 10 50137.671 511.986 -0.112 1.01 11 50654.539 516.868 -0.113 1.06 12 51199.595 545.056 -0.12 1.249 13 51838.472 638.878 -0.14 1.057 14 52497.557 659.085 -0.145 1.049 15 53173.337 675.78 -0.148 1.087
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raph 1: - Significant factor variables for each cluster
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GENDER DISCRIMINATION AND THOUGHT-PROCESS
Dr. R.P. Gangwar Associate Professor C.M.P. Constituent College of Alld. University
This paper is an attempt to focus on thought-process to be the main reason of gender injustice against women. Despite several efforts at government and non- government level to attain the gender justice, equality between males and females, we are not successful to get the desired result. Being the human resource, men and women both of them, it is must to utilise their talents and efficiency hundred percent to make the family, society, nation and world as a whole, prosperous, progressive, healthy and developed. The progress and development of a nation is determined by the status of the women living there.
Nowdays, we look at newspapers full of atrocities, crimes like rape, eveteasing, dowry-death, foeticide etc women related happenings.1 As it is proved that women are not behind men in any intellectual and emotional qualities if given fair and free opportunities to contribute. Then why are they being misbehaved and biased on the basis of gender ?
In Indian society, patriarchal specially brahmanical patriarchal2 system kept all privileges and facilities safe for their own development which resulted in women as extra facility of their enjoyment. She had no separate independent entity and identity. Other tools of system also help to maintain its supremacy. Be it literature, religion, politics, economy, philosophy etc. they all were used intellectually, emotionally, spiritually, and philosophically for the male gender by the male gender to establish and maintain males’ superiority and hegemony and domination over women.
As in other countries, so in India makers of our cultural and civilisational constitutions were men. They were founders- fathers and fountain heads of our thought-process. All, the value system, Samskara, Purusarthas (for men), Philosophy— were made by men for men and that is anti-women, gender biased.And this is alive even today. It is right that time and again country has welcomed urbanisations and reform movements but they all were inspired and led by men and aimed at attainment of betterment of society but under the will and desire of the men. The women voices were not given importance and remained unheard and sometimes Gargi like voices were terrorised by the males.
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Unfortunately, the judges could not remain unbiased and just. So they decided the matter of humanity, being biased, in favour of their fellow men colouring it with religion and culture. They moulded our thought- process.So we were taught importance of Brahma to be supreme and acceptable but Maya being scornful, chain and unacceptable, abondonsome.3 Why are we inspired by so called characters of Ramayana, Mahabharata, Abhigyanshakuntalam, Ramcharitmanas etc even today ? Because they are transplanted in our thought- sources conditioning the whole processes during our learning period as syllabus and other ways.
They don’t let us study the real Shakuntala, Draupadi and Supnakha in Mahabharata and Ramayana respectively.4 The male dominated ideology was propounded by each next generation of those thinkers. The women could not face them as they were latecomers, not on their own choice but of patriarchal system. The powerful patriarchy used all means perpetuate their domination. The first generation of women was fully conditioned by the male ideas of suzerainty. Several next generations were lagging much behind because of the male system of anti-women gender. A few women stood against this but they too or their ideas also were appropriated-women against women; more rightly to say women in favour of male supremacy.
Due to all these anti-women treasures of thoughts, values and samskars in our thought-process, women is prey to gender- bias and related crimes, doesn’t matter how much she is rich and qualified. We are people of dichotomic mentality. In the present, we are slave to our medieval feudal mentality. Despite some genuine efforts by society, we fail to fight this mentality and are promoting that thought-process. Reason behind this is the powerful power-structure of anti- women agencies.2they are more active and dedicated to their mission.5 anybody can find these thought-processing books and booklets in Hindi belt anywhere at subsidised rate.6
The anti-gender and anti-social justice missions can be challenged successfully by awakening the masses through the joint effective efforts at the government and administrative levels. But ruler is itself not interested in awakening. Lastly, ruler has masculine character which never prefers to awake and arise them against his power. Actually rationalist thought-process never allows superstitions and blind faiths and it uses brain which challenges the anti-human power structure. That is why rulers never do their best to eradicate illiteracy, poverty, unhealthiness as all these promote blind faiths.And blind faiths are worst enemies of women.Being sufferer, she lacking all, goes to the leaders of religion, black
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VOLUME 8, ISSUE 10(3), OCTOBER 2019 magic, temples, priests, babas, etc. where she is exploited in thousands of ways(modern, un-modern and ultramodern).7
Defective thought-process is not because of only men but women are also responsible to some extent. The female gender has all other than male and transgender but gender has its individuality of caste, colour, creed etc. what has the urban educated women in her agenda of justice for rural uneducated women ? The agenda of justice differs from women to women. It is right that they all are sexually insecure, vulnerable and exploited on gender basis but the range of insecurity, vulnerability and exploitation is not equal and same. Remember that there happens no basic change in thought-process because of having and aspiring more and more means of comfort and luxury. That is why woman, the mother of man, favours her male child more than a female child in family. The question arises that being brought up by woman as mother, why does that child as a grownup misbehaves his mother gender ? Why he stands against women in his thought-process ? Who isn’t responsible in his anti-gender activities ?8
Economic autonomy is the answer for all gender questions (Anamika in Triya Charitram: Uttarakhand, P. 14 ). It is right that economic empowerment is essential but merely economic progress cannot make revolutionary changes in thought process to be emancipation. Despite having achieved higher postings in media, film, T.V. national and multinational corporations, has she been successful to bring gender-justice or equality ?9 Actually it is must to renounce all odd anti women conscience- keepers-books and icons.But problem is that we have no alternative of old, neither new conscience keeping books nor icons; whatever available, their life is very short.10 Has the woman so far any modern book11 and icon12 so stable and powerful to change thought process in her favour or the men have even greater than that? Always pretention of being late -comers cannot be justified that’s women are able and competent to contribute in that field .The new women prefer study of science but not interested to be scientist.13 In place of it , she jumps into package system after doing engineering or MBA. Here she wastes her best role for money and luxury and lags behind bearing and healthy bringing up her kids seeding values and samskara of gender equality .Her family and children are looked after by either servants and maidservants or by her or his mother of patriarchal mentality.Thus next generation thought process is polluted in several ways- like out dated stories and gender-biased T.V. serials.14 Thus thought process remains at stage of mother’s mother, unchanged and woman unfriendly. So long as, there is no wide proper education, health care intelligence and employment with scientific attitude and approach , there would be no marked and in-depth changes in the system of thought that is anti-women.15 And it will continue to inspire as ‘old is gold’, then ‘jimiswatantra hoi vigrah www.ijmer.in 89
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VOLUME 8, ISSUE 10(3), OCTOBER 2019 naari’ ‘na stree swatantramaharti’ ‘naari vishamvikaar’ will continue to prove their relevance.16 No marked change in thought-process and no gender justice. So it is must to change and curb all these anti women traditions, trends and attitudes, values and learning system.
Reference:
1. More than four times of increasement of crimes related to minor children especially girl children from 2008-2014. See JANSATTA, the Hindi daily 20/12/2015. According to Shiv Sunny, ‘through entire last year 2012, Juveniles were nabbed for the city (DELHI) for various crimes. That was 18% increase compared to the number in 2013. Across India 36800 juveniles have been apprehended between January 2012 to June 2015 reveals the National Crime Record Bureau Data’ The Hindu English daily 19/12/2015 For your kind information there are 37% people below poverty line who drink. JANSATTA 20/12/15 2. We generalised that when we indict the patriarchy but it was only and only Brahmanical Patriarchy. All the values and cannons were of Brahmanical Varnasharam System. There is no place for equality(samata) and Mudita of the non-brahmanical value system. Popularise only Vedic women, among them no Dalits or OBC’s and S.T. women. The liberated Theri women are given no place in their galaxy of women scholars. See for more details ‘Ambedkar, Gandhi Our Dalit Patrakarita’. Shyrojsingh Bechaian, Anamika Pub. Ist edition 2014, P. 321 and Dr. Ambedkar Ke Patra, edi. By Bhagirath, Samyak Pub. 2015 3. Brahma is purush(male) and Maya as Prakrit(nature,female). Here all the women were presented as Maya(Bandhana).See Medieval Bhakti poetry for wide study. 4. Sita, Savitri, Sati. So many related stories by Geeta Press on subsidised rate are available. Shakuntala of Mahabharata is quite different from that of Kalidas’s Shakuntalam. She isn’t emotionally exploited by Dushyanta. She is very calculative and intellectual as after settlement of her terms and conditions of her future son for kingship, she fell in love. But man did not prefer such a wise girl. So got rebirth as an innocent, emotional, shy girl in Kalidasa’s book. 5. Gita Press and their publications; for details see book ‘Gita Press and making of Hindu India’, Akshya Mukul, Harper Collins publishers India, 2015 6. Ibid, p-23,24; circulation of copies, Ramayana 2.08 millions: Mahabaharata, Purana, upanishads, and Ancient scripture 19 millions; Gita 6.157 millions; Stri- shiksha related copies of Kalyan(Hindi) 2 lac ; Kalyan Kalptaru(English) 1 lac; Ramcharita Manasa and Tulsidas’s other works 70 millions; till Feb. 2014, 94.8 million copies of tracts and monographs on duties of ideal Hindu women and children have been circulated. 7. Dabholkar in his Marathi works translated into Hindi in three parts, Raj Kamal Prakashan, second edit. 2016. In third part, andha vishwas unmoolan siddhant his views: ‘stree andha vishwas ke soshan ka sarvadhik shikaar hoti hai fir bhi uske virodh me veh ek shabd bli nahi kehti, striyon ke jeevan me dukh, asafalta vifalta adhik hai isliye andha vishwas ahdik hai. …inse mukti hetu unme navin aatma gyan ke beejon ko bona padega, use sanscriti parakhne pur nirmaan ke adhikaron se lash karna hoga kyunki uski saari chetnaiyen sadiyon se atyadhik asastriya pothi purano ke aadhar par bani hain… vahi shiksha aur aadhunikta ke saat aayi punji vaadita ne swayam ke laabh ke liye stree virodhi paramparaon ka bejaropan kiya hai jinse maansik gulami janma leti hai. Pg-93,100,101’ 8. Increasing juvenile crimes; age of juvenile has been reduced to control. Why these boys misbehave and involve in atrocities like Nirbhaya Kand. Why ‘maan ki karuna ke bhitar phoot rahi hai bechaini / pitah ki chattani chati me / dikhne lage darkane ke nishaan / badi ho rahi beti (hindi poem Apna Hi Desh, Madan Kahyap, Kitab Ghar)’
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9. Commodification is being promoted indirectly. The whole south Asia is increasing its IND by selling the body and labour of women. In Thailand and Philippine more than 2 million women were sold and among them 8 lac were girl children… women do 2/3rd work of world but got only 1/10th i.e. 2%of total property.(triya charitram: uttarkand, Anamika, Aadhar Prakashan, Haryana, 2012 pg-24 and pg-31) 10. Challenges of 21st century can be faced and solved only by 21st century means. It requires: new books of samata value system just like constitution; gender equality should be subject of all knowledge areas; scientific learning and movement against superstitions; child literature in regional languages; new expositions of myths in favour of women. See an article’The moderns of Ancient India’, Dr. Brishti Guha, JNU, TIMES OF INDIA 24th December,2015. She writes, “Society of the scriptures stigmatised neither rape survivor nor children born as a result of rape. Nor did marriages gave men an inalienable right to his wife’s person— though marital rape is not criminalised even in modern society”. 11. The only book Constitution of India should be widely propagated ,but the patriarchic power has very cleverly diluted it and even 90% people do not know anything about Constitution.(Subhash Kashyap).See also two prominent autobiographies of famous Hindi authors:Prabha Khetan’s Anya Se Ananya and Mannu Bhandari’s Ek Kahani Yeh Bhi . Both are unhappy with their life(live-in - Relationship and confluent-love respectively).Both are prey to ‘Good girl syndrome’. Prabha is deprived of being a good girl and Bhandari is deprived of ‘Good boy’ despite being ‘Good girl’.Even they questioned the family life .(Hindi Me Ham,Abhay Kumar Duwe, Vani Prakashan 2015,pp227-301).Actually they need as Fuller said, “what women need is the freedom to act, to grow and intellect to discern, soul to live freely and unimpeded, to unfold powers, soothe the earth and correct the wrongs.” 12. Patriarchy has in every age in in every case its forefathers and father of nation but woman is probably not even today interested in mother of nation. Why ? Why does she fail to accept that ? Why is for masculinism? 13. ‘Women in Science, H.J. Mozans, Vani Prakahan, 2015, P-373,374,375,391. Also see ‘Yes there’s Sexism in Science’, an article by G.Sampath, The Hindu English daily, 24 June 2015 14. It is 21st century and the new trend that children of children are being brought up by grandmother, or mother’s mother as husband and wife have neither time nor even money to keep them personally.See JANSATTA Raviwari 27 Dec. 2015 Article of Mrinal Ballari “Andha Vishwas Ka Parda” where she makes critical study of serials on T.V. channels like ‘Devon Ke Dev Mahadev’, ‘Ganga’, ‘Dar Sabko Lagta Hai’ etc and she concludes that they are serving all outdated, irrational anti-women blind faiths for which many people made sacrifices to emancipate from dark age. 15. National Security is one component of human security, Interview: Amartya Sen, G.Sampath, TIMES OF INDIA, 24/12/2015. Essence of his interview is that he is in favour of humanity, equality and justice but also in favour of intelligence and opposed neglect of education, healthcare and social safety net and interests of poor. 16. Akshya Mukul’s conclusion,”Through a detailed analysis of primary and secondary sources- Mostly of the phamphlets, pedagogic in nature, that were brought out by Gita Press and Kalyan- we are able to appreciate the important role that Gita Press(1920) played in creating unified face of Hinduism.This was done without diluting its stance on core principles of SANATAN Hindu Dharma such as caste division and the responsibilities of women that included grounding the male child in Hindu Morality so that he would not lose his bearings in the outer world. Integral to the narrative was the depiction of Muslim man as the ‘other’— lividinous, sexually dissipated and voluptuously lustful—from whom Hindu women had to be protected.”(Gita Press and Making of Hindu India, Akshya Mukul, Harper Collins publishers India, 2015, p-29.)
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VOLUME 8, ISSUE 10(3), OCTOBER 2019
THE CONCEPT OF MAN IN SARVĀSTIVĀDA: A CRITICAL APPROACH
Dr.Bishnu Borah Assistant Professor Department of Philosophy Jiadhal College, Dhemaji Assam, India
Abstract Vaibhaṣika developed a selfless concept of man which is a collection of aggregates. That man is not a distinct entity, but a collection of aggregates. For them self is only an idea(vijñaptisat) that is compound of skandhas and has no reality apart from them. Rejecting the Pudgalvādins and Nyāya-Vaiśeṣika view about self, Vaibhāṣika holds that all phenomena areselfless. They argue that if self is conceived as person, it has to independently identified, butthere is nothing exist apart from the aggregates. Suffering arises from the mistaken view of thecollection of impermanent aggregates. This mistaken view attaches with the false appearancethat we are selves and of our aggregates as possession of selves. And Nirvāna can be achieved by the understanding of teaching of Buddha about selfless person, which lead to free from suffering in saṃsāra. In this article, I intend to present the concept of selfless person in Vaibhāṣika and that man is aggregates of five skandhas on the basis of their understanding of Dharma theory.
Keywords: citta, nirvāna, person, self, skandha, suffering.
Sarvāstivāda is a Hinayāna school of Buddhism, which was branched off from the Theravāda, the most orthodox school of Buddhism. It is also known as the Vaibhāsika on account of its relying on the Vibhāsās -the fundamental works of the Sarvāstivādin School and specially the Mahāvibhāsāstra, an encyclopedia of Buddhist Philosophy. This school with realistic trend maintains that everything, external as well as internal is real. Sarvāstivāda believed in non-existence of soul, impermanent material composites and the law of karma. For them the nirvāna is “the cessation of passions (kleśas), which can be attained by transcendental knowledge. Sarvāstivāda has own literature and interpretation and divisions of Sūtrapitaka , Vinayapitak and Abhidharm text, yet it is difficult to get a consistent view of Sarvāstivāda philosophy from the text. The main texts for the study of Sarvāstivāda are Vasubandhu’s Abhidharmakośa, its Bhāsya and Vyākhyā written by Yaśomitra, Kathāvatthu and Jñānaprasthana of Kātyāyaniputra. www.ijmer.in 92
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According to Sarvāstivāda, man is constituted by the five Skandhas, the twelve Āyatanas and eighteen Dhātus, all these include Dharma. Like all other Buddhist Schools, Sarvāstivā also maintains that ātman is unreal. “It is a mere name for a multitude of interconnected facts, which Buddhistic philosophy attempting to analyses by reducing them to real elements.”1Āyatanas are the bases of our cognition and field of our activities. It includes the five bases of senses (indriyātanas), the corresponding five bases of object (Viṣayātanas), the basis of mind (manaindriyātana) and the basis of non-sensuous objects (Dharmāyatana). This Dharmadhātu is importantfrom the Buddhist psychological point of view. Dharmadhātu according to Vasubandhu is substantial, and commentary adds it as the essence and eternal, it is true as an entity and it alone exist (kosa p- 16).2Dhātus are those elements that constitute our personality. The eighteen dhātus are- the twelve Āyatanas, the five sense organs and the Manovijñāna. Thus, Dhātu includes the six senses including mind, the six vijñanas including manovijñāna, the dharmadhātu and the five sense objects.
Five Skandhas The Skandhas are the aggregates that compose the self. Abhdharmakośa interpreted Skandhas as Rāśi (cllection). There are five Skandhas and all 72 Saṃskṛta Dharmas are the constituted form of five Skandhas. They areRūpa Skandha (The matter formation),Vedanā Skandha (The feeling composition),Sanjñā Skandha (The perception formation), Vijñāna Skandha (The Conscious formation) and Saṃskāra Skandha (The impression Formation). Thus for Buddhism the personality is the aggregate of matter, feeling, ideas, Saṃskāras and consciousness.
Rūpa Skandha: Rūpa is combination of the four ultimate properties, water, air, fire and earth, and their special characteristics are humidity, motion, heat and hardness respectively. These ultimate properties are characterized by collection (Saṃgraha), motion (Vyūhan), maturation (Pāka) and capacity to bear (Dhṛti). In a wider sense, Rūpa Skandha attributes the combination of all external objects to mind or citta. In a limited sense it denotes all the matter items which are visible. The five sense organs, the faculties of male and female organs and the faculty of vitality are the different constituted form of Rūpa or matter. In the Buddhists view, “rūpa is something which is resistible (Spratgha) or obstructing in nature and also as the support of mind, both in manifest and subtle form. Thus, it is difficult to maintain a clear cut separation of Rūpa, or matter, and Citta, or mind, in Buddhist Psychology; they are inseparably harnessed together in both knowing and being.”3
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The five sense organs, their five respective field and Avijñapti constitute Rūpa Skandha. It is the composition of all matters including both, the concrete or manifest (Prasāda Rūpa) and subtle (Sūkṣama) items. Rūpas have different variation according to their coloure and form. Rupa items are long, short, round, circular, high law, wide and very wide. It has 8 kinds of sound, 6 kinds of tastes and 4 kinds of smell. Rūpa objects are known as Sparaṣtavay for the ultimate properties of water, air, fire and earth and seven kinds constituted objects, which are smoothness, roughness, heaviness, lightness, coldness, hunger and thirst. Avijñaptiis an unmanifested dharma, which is cause of the Mahābhūtas and is a continuous stream. The Avijñapti is non-mentaux in nature, which is originates in rūpa and is devoid of consciousness. In wider sense Rūpa Skandha indicates the combination of all external objects to mind or citta. In limited sense it denotes all the matter items which are visible. In Buddhist point of view rūpa is something which is resistible (Spratghā) or obstructing in nature and also as the support of mind, both in manifest and subtle form.
Vedanā Skandha: Vedanā or feeling is produced by the connection of particular sense organs with the corresponding objects. Feeling is manifest in a localized part of the body, but it is not spatial.4We have six senses including mind and accordingly six different feelings roused by means of different sense organs. 1. Feeling arising out of eye contact (Cakṣu-Saṃsparśaja Vedanā) 2. Felling arising out of ear contact (Śrota- Saṃsparśaja Vedanā) 3. Feeling arising out of Nose contact (Ghrāna- Saṃsparśaja Vedanā) 4. Feeling arising out of Tongue contact (Jihvā- Saṃsparśaja Vedanā) 5. Feeling arising out of Body contact (Kāya- Saṃsparśaja Vedanā) 6. Feeling arising out of Mind contact (Mana- Saṃsparśaja Vedanā) (Kośa 3, Kā 31) Feeling or vedanā is a biological phenomena which may be either bodily (Kāyiki) or mental. It indicates the upabhuga (enjoyment), anubhava (affection) and vitti (experience).
Saṃjñā Skandha Saṃjñā is a meaningful sensation which differentiates the character of the objects. It is like determinate perception of Naiyāyika. “Saṃjñā may be also understood as Caitta or Mental Derivative present in the basic mind or Mahābhūmika citta.”5It is universal. Saṃjñā is groping of data or sensation, so it precedes Vijñāna (sensation). The function of Saṃjñā is to channelizing of particular name and form together. It is subtle stage of mind and is found in the Ārūpya (non-corporal) sphere. It is also six in kind. Cakṣu- Saṃjñākāya (visual www.ijmer.in 94
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VOLUME 8, ISSUE 10(3), OCTOBER 2019 perception) Śrota- Saṃjñākāya (Auditory perception), Ghrāna-Saṃjñākāya, (Olfectory perception), Jihvā- Saṃjñākāya (Gastatory perception), Kāya- Saṃjñākāya (Tactile perception) and Mana-Saṃjñākāya(Mental perception). As Buddhist concept of Saṃjñā indicates determination or interpretation of sensation, so it is a presentative–representative process which combines the different items of memory, imagination, recognition, comparison, discernment and symbolic expression. In a visual perception the eye contacts with an object and produces Caksu- vijñāna (visual consciousness). Then it transformed into mind element or Monadhātu, this past content or Monadhātu now acts as the stimulus for the present mind. The resultant consciousness is mind consciousness or Manovijñāna, which already is preceded by Manosaṃjñā. (Bhāsayam p-11, Kośa 1, Kā 17). Thus Saṃjñā is as per cognitive stage and followed by Vijñāna (cognition). Then Saṃjñā proceeds to reflecting phase of mind. It consists of selecting and organizing process like past consciousness (smṛti), image (rūpa saṃjñā), recognition (saṃjñā comprasion), examination (vitaraka), discernment (vicāra), Judgment (Viniścaya), relationing (Saṃbandha), symbolic expression and communicated awareness (Vijñapti). Saṃjñā also presents the relational and symbolic mode of thought. As it is a determining process, it includes the symbolic and relational nature of thought expressed as Sabdagahana, Arthagrahan, Namagrahana and Saṅketa (symbol). Another phase of Saṃjñā is communication of awareness. This is ‘grasping the sing’. It indicates that perception of an object may be also communicated through the organism to the individual and others. Thus Saṃjñā or perception has three representational aspects, first the selection, second reflection and third that is expression (vijñapti).
Vijñāna Skandha The entire formation of mind and its functions are presented in Vijñāna skandha. It is called mana Āyatana (total mind’s field). In limited sense it indicates the sensations of six organs, but in wider sense it covers the whole range of consciousness and its aspects. It is seven kinds- Caksu-Vijñāna (Eye consciousness), Śrota-Vijñāna (Ear consciousness), Ghrāna-Vijñāna (Olfactory consciousness), Jihvā-Vijñāna (Gustatory consciousness), Kāya-Vijñāna (Body- consciousness), Mano-Vijñāna (Mind consciousness) and Mano-Dhātu (Mind potential). Consciousness or Vijñāna (Āśrita Dhātu) is a complex mental function, which is produced by the contact of sense organs (Ālambana Dhātu) and the respective objects (Āśraya Dhātu). Like modern psychology, Sarvāstivāda maintains that all the five sense organs are known by the respective sensations and mind consciousness (Mano vijñāna). So cognition means the relation between mind www.ijmer.in 95
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VOLUME 8, ISSUE 10(3), OCTOBER 2019 consciousness and five sensations. “It seems that, from the Buddhist point of Vijñāna has been used in two different meaning, it is prativijñapti or reaction to object and cognition of object”.6 Particular sensations obtained by the particular sense faculties and cognized by Manovijñāna is common for cognizing all sensations. This shows the dynamic nature of consciousness where two processes are present: sensation and understanding. First, the sensation is produced by the interconnection of senses and objects and then the mind as a whole cognizes the object by applying its reflections. “Sensation immediately followed by its feeling tone (Vedanā) and becomes cognized as a whole (Saṁjñā), the process is experienced repeatedly till it is pushed into impression or Saṃskāra.”7 In sensation Mano-vijñāna (mind consciousness) plays an important rule. The respective object is known by the respective organs, which in turn become the object of mind consciousness. Each of the particular faculties does its respective functions in relation to the respective object, but mind in general cognized all.
Saṃskāra Skandha TheSaṃskāras are psycho-physiological material, which are used for making up the organic objects. The Cittasika Dharmas (mind derivatives) and Citta- Viprayukta Dharmas (mentally dissociated) are included in saṃskāras skandha. It is non-sensuous and different from Rūpa and Vedanā skandhas. Saṃskāras are very important for the constitution of man. The consciousness is directed by the Cetanā or volition and in Saṃskāra skandha includes six fold formation of cetanā. The Buddhist Saṃskara can be recognized as ‘Instincts’ or series of unlearned activities in the light of modern Biology and Psychology.
Two significant functions of Saṃskāra skandha are (1) As non material nature it works together with every mind as the associations, instincts and attitudes. Thus Saṃskāras precedes every other mantel functions. And (2) Saṃskāras act as convergent and divergent suggestions with regards to a particular mental state, so saṃskāras are preceded by Vijñāna.
Saṃskāras are generic; they remain as either active (Pratyutpannaḥ) or dormant (Anāgata) or inactive (Atita) in every human nature. The manifestation of a particular Citta, to a large extent, is determined by the joint cooperation of the Citta (consciousness) and Saṃskāras. “The different patterns of combination of the saṃskāras appear in different make up of a particular moment of citta or functioning state of consciousness.” 8
Saṃskāras are present from the time of birth, up to death, and also during the intermediary state of existence (pratisandhi citta). “The Saṃskāras of different www.ijmer.in 96
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VOLUME 8, ISSUE 10(3), OCTOBER 2019 types of combination, in different pattern in the different stages are constituted of objects (Saṃskṛtas). Thus by means of Saṃskāra the subtle and abstract nature becomes manifest and concrete, the simple become complex or a pṛthak-jñāna becomes ārya.”9
According to Abhidharmakośa, Saṃskāras are volitional in nature. It is not merely conscious and prepared mental attitude, but very deeper organic experience. Saṃskāras as volitional in nature, these have moral judgment i.e. they can be morally judged. Saṃskāras form the nature of an individual; all actions based on Saṃskāras naturally are to be judged.
According to Sarvāstivāda there are 46 Caitta items, but they are not simultaneously presented. They function in different teams and produced a particular of mind state Citta. Only 6 groups, 6different mind states of cittas are grasped in those 46 caitta items of Citta saṃprayukta Saṃskāras. There are other Saṃskāras which function inspite of mind, which known as citta- Viprayukta Saṃskāras or item dissociated from the mind or citta and they are 14 in number. These indicate basic bio-psychological attitudes of a personality. All impressions are non-spatial and internal in nature and these are found either in active or in dormant state.
Conclusion According to Sarvāstivāda the subject or man is combination of twelve Āyatans, eighteen Dhātus and five Skandhs. Among the twelve Āyatans eleven i.e. five sense organs, their corresponding objects and mind are familiar to us but dharmadhātu’s explanation is important as it is non-sensuous, substantial, essence and eternal. Thus, Sarvāstivāda by accepting some non-sensuous thing opens the way to idealism, though they are regarded as realists. Sarvāstivāda made a distinction between citta or mind and Manovijñāna. Vasubandhu holds mind as the seven vijñāna and alsoas the āśraya or locus of manovijñana (Kośa p-8). The commentator says that mind is the antecedent of all the six vijñānas, just as the same man is called the father and son, so the same vijñāna is different manovijñānas. (Raju IV-212) The Rupaskandha represent the physical combination and other four constitute the mental state of an individual. The Vedanā, Saṃjñā and Vijñāna are the three different states of mind. Vedanā is the vague sensation or indeterminate perception of Naiyāyikas. Saṃjñā is the determinate perception and the Vijñāna is the conscious state or cognition. The saṃskāras are psycho-physiological material, which are used for making up the organic objects. As non-sensuous and non material nature it works together with every mind as the associations, instincts and attitudes. Saṃskāras act as www.ijmer.in 97
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VOLUME 8, ISSUE 10(3), OCTOBER 2019 convergent and divergent suggestions with regards to a particular mental state, thus it precedes all mental states. Thus for Sarvāstivāda man is combination of body and mental states and in the formation of mental states the non-sensuous and non-material saṃskars have significant role, as it precedes all mental states.
Reference:
1. Stacherbatsky, Thomas,(1988), The central Conception of Buddhism and the Meaning of the Word “Dharma”, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishe, p, 25. 2. Raju, P. T.(1953) Idealistic Thought of India, London: George Allen & Unwin Ltd. p, 213. 3. Haldar, Arun,(1981) Some Psychological Aspect of Early Buddhst Philosophy Based on Abhidharmakośa of Vasubandhu, Calcutta: The Asiatic Society,p-28 4. Ibid p-31 5. Ibid p-51 6. Ibid p-79 7. Ibid p-53 8. Ibid p-78 9. Ibid p-79
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CREUTZFELDT-JOAKOB AND VARIANT CREUTZFELDT-JOAKOB DISEASE
Deepa J Nursing Tutor Sree Balaji College of Nursing Chrompet
Abstract Creuzfeldt- Jakob disease and variant Creuzfeldt- Jakob disease belong to a group of degenerative infectious neurologic disorders called transmissible spongiform encephalopathies commonly known as mad cow disease.
Keywords: Creuzfeldt - Jakob, encephalopathies, Spongiform, Degeneration.
Definition: Creuzfeldt- Jakob disease and variant Creuzfeldt- Jakob disease belong to a group of degenerative infectious neurologic disorders called transmissible spongiform encephalopathies (TSE).
Casuses:- Ingestion by humans of prions in infected meat. TSE are caused by prions which are particles smaller than a virus. Those are resistant to standard methods of sterilization. Assessment And Diagnostic Findings:- EEG. MRI. Immunologic assessment of CSF detects a protein kinase inhibitor indicates neuronal cell death. The MRI scan demonstrates symmetric or unilateral hyper intense signals arising from the basal ganglia. Clinical Manifestation:- Cognitive: Amnesia, Delusion, Dementia, Disorientation, Inability to speak or understand language, lack of concentration or mental confusion. Muscular: Jerking muscle spasms, overactive reflexes problems with coordination, rhythmic muscle contractions.
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Mood: Anxiety or apathy. Psychological: Depression. Also common blurred vision, difficulty speaking insomnia, personality change or involuntary eye movement.
Pathophysiology:-
The prion is a unique pathogen. because it lacks nucleic acid. Which enables the organism to withstand conventional means of sterilization? How the prion replicates absence of nucleic acid is unknown. In both CJD and VCJD the prion crosses the blood brain barrier and deposited in brain tissue and causes degeneration of brain tissue.
Cell death occurs and spongiform changes (sponges vacuoles) are produced in the brain.
The spongiform vacuoles are surrounded by amyloid plaque.
Medical management:- Aften the onset of specific neurologic symptoms progression of disease occurs quickly. There is no effective treatment for CJD or VCJD. The care of the patient is supportive and palliative. Goals of care include prevention of injury related to immobility and dementia. Promotion of patient comfort and provision of support and education for the family. Nursing management:- The nursing care of patients is primarily supportive and palliative. Psychological and emotional support of the patient and family throughout the course of the illness is needed. Prevention of disease transmission is an important part of nursing care. Institutional protocols are followed for blood and body fluid exposure and decontamination of equipment. The WHO has guidelines that outline the stringent sterilization methods that must be used to destroy prions on surfaces. Reference:- Brunner and Suddarth’s text book of Medical Surgical Nursing 13th edition page no. 1021 to 1024. Linda s .Williams paula D .Hopper Jaypee Medical Surgical nursing fourth edition published by medical publishers Newdelhi. Page no. 109
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HEAD-HUNTING AMONG THE NAGA TRIBES AND NIETZSCHE’S MORAL RELATIVISM: A CRITICAL STUDY
Avothung Ezung Research Scholar Department of Philosophy North-Eastern Hill University Shillong Meghalaya, India
Abstract—Nagas beliefs the practice and based on ‘relative’ conceptual. I of “cut off enemy’s head” has been also believe that Nietzsche’s view I originated with the idea regarding the develop here can contribute to head as a seat of the soul, functions the contemporary philosophical display of manhood, as a triumph in discussions in tribal culture. hunting, show of magnitude, prestige Keywords—Head-hunting, Herd- by taking on a rival’s spirit and power, Morality, Individual, Nagas, and as a means of acquiring the Nietzsche, Relativism services of the victim as a slave in afterlife. In the past, headhunting has I. INTRODUCTORY its own standards, acceptable norms REMARKS and agreements concerning the The term ‘head-hunting’ commonly actions, interactions that pertain to describes the practice of removing and moral values and issues. In this paper, preserving the human head, usually a I shall apply Nietzsche’s critique of fallen enemy. It was a common belief culture and morality in some of the that the soul was concentrated in the beliefs and practices of head-hunting head and that taking an enemy's head among the Naga tribes.From the weakened the enemy's entire perspective of Nietzsche’s moral community. The Naga tribal relativism, moral systems and cultural people are various folks or ethnic norms are more often relative. Moral groups associated to the North Eastern values are not eternal and immutable. part of India and northwestern They entirely depend upon the Myanmar.In Naga culture, taking the geographical and historical conditions head was considered as a proof of of a people. The methodology will be manhood, reward and proof of killing, mainly work out on historical, and a person were forbidden to marry empirical, and critical studies. The until they had claimed one. Naga historical background of head-hunting warriors often collected the heads as will be examine in this work. I argue trophies and display them prominently that the practice of head-hunting seem to increase their personal reputations to be an organized of herd-morality and that of the tribe as a whole. There www.ijmer.in 101
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VOLUME 8, ISSUE 10(3), OCTOBER 2019 were some good reasons, such as II. CONCEPT OF HEAD- refusal to pay the agreed bride price, HUNTING AMONG THE shelter to a culprit, insult to a village, NAGA TRIBES as a social defence are some of the According to the traditional incitements that led them into the war belief of the Nagas, the head-hunting path. was a fertility rite, which was A principal aim of this paper is supposed to bring soul substance, to philosophize and to critically which, in turn, fertilized the soil. The understand of the tribal practices of head-hunting of the Nagas might have headhunting among the Nagas – Is originated from the popular belief of head-hunting still relevant today? soul matter which lies in the human What are its prerequisites? Why has it head. The motivation behind a head- declined in modern times? Are there hunting amongst the Nagas is believed any actions, moral values, cultural that all the strength and force of a beliefs that are always and everywhere person is concentrated in the head and right or wrong, good or bad? Is head- this is transferable. To bring an hunting “relative” to the culture one enemy’s head into the village it is lives in? Or is it “relative” to the believed that the soul of the dead individual? Incidentally, what does it would be transferred to the village, mean to say that head-hunting is and bring prosperity to the people. The “relative” to something? What would practice continued in the Naga Hills Nietzsche have to say about things like district in 1886. The head-hunter was murder, violence, and killing? given maximum honour for successful annihilation of the enemy. J. P. Mills Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche writes, “A Naga who takes a head (1844–1900) is arguably the most certainly wishes to bring home important German philosopher and tangible proof of his valour; but he cultural critic who published also wishes to add to the soul-force of intensively in the 1870s and 1880s. his village by bringing home the head, Nietzsche saw truth as a social in which it resides”. (A. Nshoga 165) construction. Social construction is an Naga head-hunting was a idea related to the social beliefs, fundamental and of religious values, and benefits of the actors. significance. The other speculative Nietzsche argued that social norms, motive of head-hunting is the belief of cultural values, and morality are not remedy and prevention of death from universal and immutable, but are the practice of soul hunting. therefore contingent creations of Traditionally believe that in the past particular people at particular times when illness swept through the village, with particular purposes. they bring the enemy heads, offered and sacrificed to the deity and sickness stopped. This belief is deeply rooted www.ijmer.in 102
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VOLUME 8, ISSUE 10(3), OCTOBER 2019 among the Nagas. The Nagas also had the head-taker indicated his ceremonies (gennas) attached to the achievement. He was entitled to head-hunting. A Naga warrior who has special reception by the villagers and taken the head, has to observe a genna received presents from them. The for some days, abstaining from sexual drum beating signified success in relations, so as to ward-off the evil head-hunting. The number of girls spirits from the victims. willing to marry a successful warrior The Chang Nagas used to cut used to increased manifold. Some and bring the heads of their own men other reasons of head-hunting were killed by enemy during expedition in urge for revenge, anger due to casual the latter’s village so that to avoid or deliberate insult, dispute over land, their falling in the enemy’s hands. fishing and hunting in enemy’s Among the Chakhesang tribe, tall territory, etc. wooden carvings are found with pear- In Lotha Nagas, only the person shaped faces long vertical noses, was allowed who are strongly square shoulders and long arms which determined would go for battle. The are dressed with warrior costumes. weapons used for Head-hunting’s They have been said to have been were Spear, bamboo spikes, dao, and erected in the name of a particular shield etc. Heads were taken in raids, successful warriors after his death and ambush and surprise attacks. placed over the grave, indicating the According to P.T. Philip, “often the head-takers, which invoke the spirit heads were taken in a treacherous and for fertility of the men and crops, bravery way” (P. T. Philip 10). Head- represented by effigies. A Rengma hunting was considered as a proof of warrior must sleep apart and cannot achievement, and it was believed eat the food cooked by his wife, and ensued fertility and agricultural eat separately from his wife for some prosperity. When a battle had been days after returning from successful fixed upon, a warrior has to sleep apart raids to observe the ritual and taboos. from their wives for some days. In the The Angamis buried even the head of morning, they would gather in the their enemies. The Angami women house of a champion in head-hunting usually feed the skull with the rice of that village. There a cock and a pig beer and utter these words in their was killed and ate together. While rituals, “let the enemy be lazy and killing, if the cock make a sound it sleepy; kill them and let me do this was considered as a bad sign and again!” (A. Nshoga 164) would not go the trip that time. The head-hunter was entitled to Likewise any person who hiccoughed wear special ornaments and traditional when he was eating the meat stayed attire. Head-hunter was specially back for bad luck would fall upon him. tattooed among the Konyaks tribe. The A person who is capable in decorations on the corpse platform of head-hunting had better chance to www.ijmer.in 103
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VOLUME 8, ISSUE 10(3), OCTOBER 2019 become the chief of the village in the head-hunter’s village by him. So, Ao tribe and Lotha tribe societies or at head-hunting was performed on least, to have a better say in the strangers and enemies, because they political affairs of the village in the would not allow anyone to rob them of Range councils of the areas or of the their prosperity. whole clan. The special effect of the Today head-hunting was head-hunter was so immense that one prohibited due to British intervention. might have to remain a bachelor But the same continued in during his life, if he failed to capture unadministered area upto the dawn of enemy heads. Randip Kanwar Singh independence and even during 1990. writes: “Amongst Ao Nagas, a belief Cultural changes came with British prevails that the prosperity of the rule and the inevitable Christian villages depends on the “Aren” (the missionaries and head-hunting was spirit of fortune) they contain. Crops, banned in the late 19th Century, lifestocks, progeny, health and although it was not until the early 20th prosperity depend on the quality of century that the practice finally ended. “Aren” a village is able to obtain. By But the mock head-hunting was head-hunting the village drags the practised, for example among the “Aren” of the other villages to itself Lothas, at Rangendri genna and thus it prospers. Among the Ao (ceremony). The performance of this tribe, the famous warrior shawl “genna” did not permit a man to wear “Tsungkotepsu” can only be worn by a any of the ornaments of a warrior, but person who has taken head and giver entitled him to have one representation of “feast of merit”. On the of a head put on his grace for each “Tsungkotepsu” shawl is imprinted or time he performed it. painted the figure of elephant, tiger, III. NIETZSCHE’S CRITIQUE mithun (bison), spear and human OF CULTURE AND head.” (Randip Kanwar 27) MORALITY In the essay, Ethos and Moral relativism1 claims that Postulates of Nagas, C.P. Alexander moral judgements, settlements of right gave two purpose of head-hunting: (I) and wrong, good and bad, just and Ontological, and (II) Existential. It unjust, etc., are rooted in specific was ontologically believed that in the historical backgrounds, and that their world of spirits, the spirits of all the authority is restricted and relative to heads being hunted would be slaves to the one who hunted them. From the 1 According to the Oxford English Dictionary, the existential point of view the head- first use of the term ‘relativism’ can be traced to J. hunters were the soldiers, and head- Grote’s Exploratio Philosophica (1865): The notion hunting was one of the defence of the mask over the face of nature is…what I have called ‘relativism’. If ‘the face of nature’ is reality, mechanisms. Head-hunting was not to then the mask over it, which is what theory gives us, be performed on the members of the is so much deception, and that is what relativism really comes to. See Grote 1865:I.xi:229. www.ijmer.in 104
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VOLUME 8, ISSUE 10(3), OCTOBER 2019 their context. In other words, the The problem of culture, moral relativist rejects that there is a according to Nietzsche, is the single true morality. Nietzsche’s disintegrating effects of nature, and remarks on morality and culture the barbarous tendencies to human frequently have a strong relativistic society. Culture describes the core. In the second section of Human, collection of activities, attitudes, forms All Too Human, On the History of of conduct and institutions adopted by Moral Feelings, Nietzsche criticizes human societies in the face of nature. the Christian idea of good and evil, as Nietzsche rejected the ancient and it was philosophized by Arthur medieval view of nature, according to Schopenhauer. Nietzsche contends: which human beings possessed a ‘The hierarchy of the good…is not natural function or end in virtue of our fixed and identical at all times. If position within a hierarchically or someone prefers revenge to justice, he teleologically ordered universe. For is moral by the standard of an earlier Nietzsche, culture, more precisely, the culture, yet by the standard of the human being as a product and a present culture he is immoral’ (HH II: producer of culture. In the human 45).Moral systems are consequently being nature becomes culture. This relative to history, culture, and social transitory state of the human being group they are meant to serve. Moral makes it both the most interesting and evolution is a predetermined. There is the sickest part of nature. Culture no “absolute goal” and there can be cannot be understood as something therefore no “absolute morality”. that aims to lead man back to a In Beyond Good and Evil, normative model called his ‘true Nietzsche divided three historical nature’: that is just an ideal. Nietzsche periods in the moral development of writes: Man’s true nature: a forbidden humankind: pre-moral period, moral turn of phrase! What is good to a period, and extra-moral period (BGE being? The achievement of his ends. II: 41): (I) pre-moral stage is the What are a being’s ends? The longest period of human history. development of his nature . . . that Value of an action depended entirely means that man’s ends are the on its consequences. (II) Moral period development of his nature. (Sean Hand last ten thousand years, value is 45) dependent on the intention of the Another fundamental problem is action. (III) Extra-moral: Nowadays, that, Nietzsche identifies the among immoralists (Nietzsche dehumanizing tendency of modern Ubermensch), or in the near future. society. “Blood, torments and Value of action is outside of moral. sacrifices,” Friedrich Nietzsche Value of an action lies in that which is claimed in On the Genealogy of not intentional. Morals (1887), are essential ingredients for the rise of any www.ijmer.in 105
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VOLUME 8, ISSUE 10(3), OCTOBER 2019 normative social order(GM II: 3). For it, perishes by it—the custom must be Nietzsche, these normative maintained, the sacrifice offered up. foundations are less based on (HH II: 89; KGW 4.3: 48) individual’s autonomy, or the From this priority of the autonomy of reason, and they are not community over the individual the result of a contractual relationship intrinsic to custom, there follows the between members of such emergence of morality, which is communities. The moralization of the nothing other than simply a feeling for culture is, for Nietzsche, moral groups the whole content of those custom that constantly perceive themselves as under which we live and have been endangered by an external evil allow raised – and raised, indeed, not as an for the violent sacrifice of the individual, but as a member of the individual in the service of what is whole as a cipher in a majority. For regarded as a legitimate greater good. Nietzsche, each person must have his Nietzsche’s critique of morality own opinion about everything about is essentially a social and cultural which it is possible to have an opinion, product because it reflects the because each individual is a special, coherence of a people and its ‘herd unique that holds a new, previously morality’. Thus, all forms of morality non-existent view about all other derive from either the integration or things. Nietzsche thus describes the the disintegration of a people or individual in a certain manner: “We community. Morality in its most care about the good opinion of others rudimentary form as the prehistoric first because it is profitable, and then labour of the human race emerges because we want to give others joy”. from custom as the morality of (HH II: 89) custom. Nietzsche described this phenomenon: The origin of custom IV. HEAD-HUNTING AS A lies in two ideas: “the community ‘RELATIVE’ CONCEPT (Gemeinde) is worth more than the Head-hunting is a matter of individual” and “an enduring ‘relative’ to the culture one lives in. It advantage is to be preferred to a is ‘relative’ in the sense that the moral transient one”; from which it follows percepts, which are considered to be that the persisting advantage of the virtue in a society, at a particular community is to take unconditional period of time, may not be so, in precedence over the advantage of the course of time in the same society. individual, especially over his The removal of the head taken varied transient wellbeing, but also over his from tribe to tribe. Some tribes enduring advantage and even over his exposed the head in front of their survival. Even if the individual suffers morungs (youth dormitory), while from an arrangement which benefits others hung it on the head-tree. Some the whole, even if he languishes under even buried the head of their enemies. www.ijmer.in 106
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Head-hunting was considered a virtue, Head-hunting was restricted to enemy among Nagas, at one time in history, heads only. The head-hunting culture has been rejected in the present times. of the Naga is not a culture of dead but This occurs not only due to the a culture of life, seeking new grounds interaction between people of different and new heights, whereby the Naga cultural setups, but also because of can hold his head high equal with some irreversible mutational changes others without fear’ (p, 158-160). brought about by the interaction Perhaps, we are morally relativistic between man and nature. Therefore, about ‘killing’. These arguments lead neither is any culture stable nor is us to believe in moral relativism. there any socio-cultural values V. HEAD-HUNTING AS A superior or inferior to each other. They HERD-MORALITY are all in the process of evolution. So The practice of head-hunting also in the case of tribal cultural may appear to be an organized of values. herd-morality. According to Even the authors have a quite Nietzsche, herd morality is a growth of different notions of head-hunting. For the original slave morality2. Herd instance, A. Nshoga writes, Naga morality often refers to the common, head-hunting was not a kind of war or mediocre masses. Nietzsche sees them fighting but it involved as a fine as herd instinct, individuals with lower indigenous sports, which was not abilities or capacities and living by necessarily the outcome of the hatred group instincts. The herd morality is or treachery but was used to build the well-defined as the obedience of the social status of manhood in the individual to the mediocrity, society. B.B. Ghosh term the practice conformist coexistence, blindly of head-hunting as an act of and without any reflection. Nietzsche ‘uncivilized barbarism’ and strongly criticized the herd morality in ‘anarchism’. Authors such as C.P. the modern civilization: “Whenever Alexander and B.B. Kumar also hold we encounter a morality, we also that head-hunting provided as a encounter valuations and an order of mechanism of social defence. In the rank of human impulses and actions. thesis, ‘A Philosophical Analysis of These valuations and orders of rank Religion and Morality in Tribal are always expressions of the needs of Culture: With Special Reference to Ao a community and herd. Morality trains Naga Tribe’ (2013), Subonglemba the individual to be a function of the Aier argues that ‘the term “Head- hunting” does not mean wanton killing 2 of anybody, because the rule of the On The Genealogy of Morals, Nietzsche defined ‘slave morality’ based on resentment and give birth hunting is to cut off the head of the to values. It is herd morality, conventional morality. enemy only, and not each and every Slave morality does not aim at exerting one's will by one on whom one can lay hands on. strength, but by careful subversion.
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VOLUME 8, ISSUE 10(3), OCTOBER 2019 herd and to ascribe value to himself uniqueness once they have been only as a function. Morality is the transformed into a collective system of herd-instinct in the individual” (GS signs of generalizations. III: 116). The individual herd obeyed without thinking himself to be led like VI. CONCLUSION a sheep in a herd, which At present, many tribal cultures Nietzsche criticizes: people are not, hold sub-communities that disagree and should not be equivalent. sharply on matters such as polygamy, In Will to Power, Nietzsche abortion, euthanasia, women’s rights, identifies herd mentality as established homosexual, drug use, or animal’s by the collective morality. As rights. One good reason for thinking Nietzsche wrote: “Collectives were that Nietzsche’s relativistic approach invented to do that for which the on morality might encourage tolerance individual lacks the courage. For this is that it aspire us to be more self- reason all communities and societies critical. Nietzsche speaks of culture to are a hundred times more conform by submitting man’s drives, straightforward and instructive about not to the false necessity of the true the nature of man than the individual, nature of men, but to the tragic who is too weak to have the courage to necessity of reality as the innocence of act upon his own desires” (WP III: becoming. Culture therefore 716). This is how a collective morality designates all of the processes by is established and they ought to obey which nature, in itself, tries to the morality of the collectivism. This overcome its inner gap, whether these type of morality impacts on others. are called desire or will to power. The individual becomes Nietzsche wants to promote a society Heerdenmensch – ‘herdman’ –, losing whose individuals focus on themselves and separating his own personality in in an effort to self-overcome and will an unidentified, coercive whole. not dominate and harm others as a According to Nietzsche, means for strength. individuals create and formed a Nietzsche does not propose community and from this raise a violence, killing, murder, or torture of communal feeling and a common others as a viable or worthwhile form consciousness. Nietzsche argues that of the will to power. Instead, he custom creates civilization and culture. inspires us to become Overman, who The idea is that customs bring about are individuals strongly determined communication, which leads to and who aspire to live in a society. concepts, and a form of stability built Nietzsche highly esteems those being on the dependable of communal life. with more capacities in comparison As soon as collectivism translate them with those being who possess fewer into consciousness, individual do not capacities. Nietzsche values having perform so any longer, lose their capacities, e.g., being strong, noble, www.ijmer.in 108
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VOLUME 8, ISSUE 10(3), OCTOBER 2019 powerful, strong-willed, and an Transformation. Anshah Publishing accurate sense of one’s self-worth House, 2009, pp. 145-173. which affirm life. [6] Nietzsche, Friedrich. Beyond Good and Evil: Prelude to a REFERENCES Philosophy of the Future. Trans., by Walter Kaufmann. Random House, [1] Aier, Subonglemba. A Inc., 1966, pp. 41-43. Philosophical Analysis of Religion [7] Nietzsche, Friedrich. Human, and Morality in Tribal Culture: With All Too Human. Trans., by Marion Special Reference to Ao Naga Tribe. Faber and Stephen Lehmann. University of Madras, 2013, pp. 158- Penguin Books, 1994, pp. 14-67. 159. [8] Nietzsche, Friedrich. On The [2] Blondel, Eric. Nietzsche: The Genealogy of Morals. Trans., by Body and Culture: Philosophy as a Walter Kaufmann and R.J. Philological Genealogy. trans., by Hollingdale. Vintage Books, 1989, Sean Hand. The Athlone Press pp. 3-43. London, 1991, pp. 45-57. [9] Nietzsche, Friedrich. Thus [3] Kumar, B. B. Naga Identity. Spoke Zarathustra. Trans., by Concept Publishing Company, 2005, Alexander Tille. Macmillan & Co., pp. Ltd., 1896, pp. 84-86. [4] Miri, Sujata. Rational and [10] Nietzsche, Friedrich. Will to Tribal Thought. Mittal Publication, Power. Trans., by W. Kaufmann and 2004, pp. 121-130. R. J. Hollingdale. Random House, [5] Nshoga, A. Traditional Naga 1968, pp. 127-716. Village System and its
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A STUDY ON SOCIO-ECONOMIC STATUS OF DHEMAJI DISTRICT WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO LAKHIPATHAR VILLAGE, ASSAM, INDIA
Achinta Saikia Pinku Gohain Department of Statistics Department of Commerce Dibrugarh University Dibrugarh University Dibrugarh Dibrugarh Assam, India Assam, India
Abstract In this era education is seems to be most important part of a human being. In the words of Nelson Mandela, “Education is the most powerful weapon which you can use to change the world.” So, being a change to the world everyone else lives here should have well educated. This paper focus on establishing the level of education of people lives in Lakhipathar Village of Dhemaji district, Assam. For this purpose of data collection, different sampling methods have been used and other related variables are also analyzed by using a pre-tested questionnaire. Chi- square test has been used as statistical technique for analyzing the data to pertinent the present study.
Keywords: Education, Socio-Economic, Lakhipathar, Chi-Square, Sampling.
Introduction Education is the process of facilitating learning, or the acquisition of knowledge, skills, values beliefs and habits Educational methods include story telling discussion teaching, training, and directed research. Education frequently takes place under the guidance of educators, but learner may also educate themselves. Education can takes place in formal or informal settings and any experience that has a formative effect on the way one thinks feels, or acts may be considered educational. The methodology of teaching is called pedagogy. Education commonly is divided
Formally into such stages as pre-school or kindergarten, primary school, secondary school and then college, university, or apprenticeship. Education began in pre-history, as adults trained the young in the knowledge and skills deemed necessary in their society.
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The importance of Education Education is most important among all of us. Education plays a very important role in your life. For living a luxurious life or for living a better life, you should be educated. Educated is that which transforms a person to live a better life and even in a social well- being. Education is the one that doing something constructive in our best future. In helps a person to show their best by their best by their mind and spirit. It gives you a lot of knowledge in whatever aspects. Education plays a vital role in your success in the personal growth. The more you have knowledge the more you grow. Being educated and earning a professional degree prepares you to be a part in reputed organizations, companies or institutions. For determining what is good Education will become good citizen, more dependable worker. Without education person is incomplete, so education makes man a right thinker and a correct decision-maker.in today’s competitive world education is necessarily for man after food, clothing and shelter, education is the solution of any problem, it is the only education which promoter good habits, values and awareness towards anything like terrorism, corruption and much more. Education is the strength to a person and education need to a person. Now a day’s technology plays an important role in continuing the communication of education though known and unknown persons. It is the only fundamental way by which a desired change and upliftment in the society can be taken into effect.
Education in India Education in India is provided by the public sector as well as the private sector, with control and funding coming from three levels central, state, and local. Under various articles of the Indian constitution, free and compulsory education is provided as a fundamental right to children between the ages of 6 and 14. The ratio of public schools of private schools in India is 7:5.
India has made progress in terms of increasing the primary education attendance rate and expanding literacy to approximately three quarters of the population in the 7-10 age groups, by 2011. India’s improved education system is often cited as one of the main contributors to its economic development. Much of the progress, especially in higher education and scientific research, has been credited to various public institutions. While enrolment in higher education has increased steadily over the past decade, reaching a gross enrolment Ratio of 24% in 2013, there still remains a significant distance to catch up white tertiary education enrolment levels of developed nations, a challenge that will be necessary to overcome in order to continue to reap a demographic divided from India’s comparatively young population.
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At the primary and secondary levels, India has a large private school system compensating the government run schools, with 29% of students receiving private education in the 6 to 14 age group. Certain post-secondary technical schools are also private. The private education market in India has revenue of US$450 million in 2008, but is projected to be a US$40 billion market. As per the annual status of Education report (ASER) 2012, 96.5% of all rural children between in the ages of 6-14 were enrolled in school. This is the fourth annual survey to report enrolment above 96%. Another report from 2013 stated that there were 22.9 cores students enrolled in different accredited urban and rural school of India, form class 1 to 12, representing an increase of 23 lakes students over 2002 total enrolment, and a 19% increase in girl’s enrolment. While quantitatively India is inching closer to universal education, the quality of the reasons for the poor quality include absence of around 25% of teachers every day. States of India have introduced tests and education assessment system to identity and improve such schools. It is important to clarify that while there are private school in India, they are highly regulated in terms of what they can teach, in what form they can operate (must be a non-profit to run any accredited educational institution) and all other aspects of operation. Hence, the differentiation of government schools and private school can be misguiding. In India’s education system, a significant number of seats are reserved under affirmative action policies for the historically disadvantaged Scheduled castes and Scheduled Tribes and Other
Backward Classes. In universities, colleges, and similar institutions affiliated to the federal governments there is a maximum 50% of reservations applicable to these disadvantaged groups, at the state level it can vary. Maharashtra had 73% reservation in 2014, which is the highest percentage of reservation in India. The central and most state boards uniformly follow the “10+2+3” pattern of education. In this pattern, study of 12 years is done in schools or in colleges, and then 3 years of graduations for a bachelor’s degree. The first 10 years is further subdivided in to 5 years of primary education, 3 years of upper primary, followed by 2 years of high school. This pattern originated from the recommendation of the education commission of 1964-66. The National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT) is the apex body for curriculum related matters for school education in India. The NCERT provides support and Technical assistance to a number of schools in India and oversees many aspects of enforcement of education policies. Other curriculum bodies governing school education system.
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The state government boards: Most of the state governments have one state board of secondary education. However, some states like Andhra Pradesh have more than one. Also the union territories do not have a board, Dadra & Nagar Haveli, Pondicherry, Chandigarh, Lakshadweep; Daman & Diu share the services with a larger state. Central board of secondary education (CBSE) which conducts examinations at the 10th and 12th standards. The Council of Indian School Certificate Examination (CISCE). CISCE conducts three examinations, namely, the Indian Certificate of Secondary education (ICSE Class/ Grade 10 ) ; the Indian school certificate (CID-Class/ Grade 12) and the certificate in vocational education ( CVE-Class/ Grade 12) International school affiliated to the international Baccalaureate programmed and/ or the Cambridge International Examinations. Islamic Madras schools, whose boards are controlled by local state governments, or autonomous, or affiliated with Daru UloomDeoband,. Autonomous schools like Woodstock school, the sri Aurobindo International center of Education Puducherry, Auroville Patha Bhavan and Ananda Merga Gurrukula. International schools, which of 10th and 12th standard examination under the International Baccalaureate, or the Cambridge senior secondary examination systems. In addition, NUEPA (National University of Educational Planning and administration) and NCTE (National Council for Teacher Education) are responsible for the management of the education system and teacher accreditation.
Education in Assam Assam is a state in northeastern India. In 2011, the literacy rate of Assam was estimated to be 73.18% (73.18% make and 67.27% female). The literacy rate of Assam is slightly below the national average of 74.04%. In the Northeast region of India, Assam occupies a distinct place in the field of Education. The overall literacy rate of Assam is 64.28%, where the literacy rate of male is 71.93% and female 56.03%. huge numbers of Educational installations are established here imparting Education to the students of entire, Northeastern region. Formal education starts in schools with elementary, secondary, higher secondary. Then the students move to a college and pursue education in a stream he is interested in. The Directorate of Elementary Education of Assam organizes numerous activities to Universalize Elementary education (UEE). The Elementary education in Assam includes classes from class 1 to 12, within the age group of 6-14 years of students. Secondary and Higher Secondary school in Assam
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VOLUME 8, ISSUE 10(3), OCTOBER 2019 covering class tenth and twelfth respectively, finally prepares the child for higher education.
Assam has set up many educational institutions for higher studies following higher standards to impart education in the field of engineering and management. The government of Assam provides free and compulsory education for children till the age of 14. The requirement for technical education has been increasing gradually as a result the government has paid due attention in this field and set up many esteemed institution in Assam.Assam Agriculture University (Jorhat), Dibrugarh University (Dibrugarh), Guwahati University (Guwahati), Tezpur University (Tezpur), and Assam University.
The Study Area (Lakhipathar)
The study is carried out at Lakhipathar, Moridhal, under Dhemaji District in Assam. Among all the communities living in the District, Missing are the largest in terms of population concentration with 220,042 persons (i.e., 31.98%). According to 2011 census of India 686,133 people live in District covering a geographical area of 3237.00 Sq.km. out of this 351,249 are male and 334,884 are female. Lakhipathar is one of the Village of Dhemaji block, in Dhemaji District of Assam. Male and Female literacy rate is average, but people are very active and always making efforts in knowing the works of government Officials. There are so many problems that Lakhipathar Village is facing, like electricity outage, water supply shortage, rationing of food grains issues unemployment etc. Health problem is rampant in this Village. People have to travel several kilometers to reach hospital for treatment of patients.
Brief Overview of Dhemaji District
District Dhemaji is one the remotest district of India situated at the eastern most part of Assam with an area of 3217 sq. kms, bordering Arunachal Pradesh to its north-west and the mighty Brahmaputra to its South-cost. It situated in the foothills of the lower Himalayas, Dhemaji is abundant with convergence of rivers with the mighty Brahmaputra River and is perennially affected by floods. The course changing Tributary Rivers bring in heaps of sans to the agricultural land and turns the lands into barren and unproductive. The district has four revenue circles namely Dhemaji, Sissibor Gaon, Jonai, and Gogamukh. The total population of the district was 686133 persons (as per census 2011).
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Table 1- Profile of Villages in Dhemaji District, Census-2011 Type In number Total number of villages 1319 Total number of inhabited Villages 1264 Total number of uninhabited Village 55 Total number of households 129,504 Source: District Census Hand Book Dhemaji, Assam 2011 The table shows the total number of village in Dhemaji is 1319. Out of this 1264 villages are inhabited villages and 55 villages are found to be uninhabited villages. The total number of households in the district is 129,504 in number.
Table 2- Literacy Scenario in Dhemaji, Assam Census-2011 Dhemaji Schedule Caste Schedule Tribe Total (%) 423,028 44,225 325,560 (72.70) (6.45) (47.45) Male (%) 237,761 23,006 165,449 (79.84) (6.55) (47.10) Female (%) 185,267 21,219 160,111 (65.21) (6.34) (47.81) Source: District Census Hand Book Dhemaji, Assam 2011 Table 2 reveals the literacy condition of the district. 423,028(72.70%) of the population has been found to be literate, out of which 237,761 (79.84%) are males and 185,267 (65.21%) are females. In case of schedule caste and schedule tribe population 44,225(6.45%) and 325,560 (47.45%) are literate respectively.
Objective the present study We are all familiar with the solving statistical problems with complied data, using any means of calculation. But problem arises when are asked to solve some real life problems faced by any section of the society. Because we are to first translate the problem in to a statistical problem. i.e., we have to translate the problem on our own. Another only we can apply some suitable statistical techniques and inference. So the general objectives of the present study are:
To learn how to formulate a real life problem. How to translate the problem to a statistical problem. How to collect data, though primary. To be familiar with handling large data using software. Analysis of data using statistical methods. How to interpret the findings. www.ijmer.in 124
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The topic we have chosen for our present study is “A STUDY ON THE EDUCATIONAL STATUS OF DHEMAJI DISTRICT WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO LAKHIPATHAR VILLAGE, ASSAM, INDIA”. The objectives of the present study are:
To set the education level of Lakhipathar Village of Dhemaji District.
Materials and Methods A sample is a part of universe. More specifically is a group of item selected from the population for the purpose of getting information about the characteristic of the items of the population. It is known that if the sampling is not done using a standard statistical procedure, then the statistical technique cannot be used to infer about the population. We have to use that technique is relevant to our study. After going through the literature and preliminary investigation we have decided to use systematic sampling. Clearly use circular Systematic sampling. The topic we chosen for our present study is “A STUDY ON SOCIO ECONOMIC STATUS OF DHEMAJI DISTRICT WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO LAKHIPATHAR VILLAGE, ASSAM, INDIA”.
Statistical Modeling Chi-Square Test for Independence of Attributes One of the most frequent uses of Chi-Square is testing the null hypothesis that two criteria of classification are independent. They are independent if the distribution of one criterion in no way depends on the distribution of the other criterion. If they are not independent, there is an association between the two criteria. To conduct the test, a sample is drawn from the population of invest and the observed-Frequencies are cross-classified according to the two criteria. This cross-classification can be conveniently displayed by means of a table called contingency table. Let us designate the two attributes as A and B where attributes A is assumed to have r categories and attribute B is assumed to have c categories. Furthermore, assume the total number of observations in the problem is N. A representation of these observations is shown below in a table where Oij represents the observation in the ith row and jth column. Such a table in the matrix from is called a contingency table and is shown below.In the table R, is the total th th of i row and Cj is the total of j column. The frequencies in these cells are termed as cell frequencies.
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Table 3: r×s Contingency table Attribute Attribute B Total A B1 B2 B3 ...... Bj ...... Bp
A1 O11 O12 O13 ...... O1j...... O1p O21 R 1 A2 O22 O23 ...... O2j...... O2p R2 A3 O31 O32 O33 ...... O3j...... O3p R3 ...... Ai Oi1 Oi2 Oi3 ...... Oij...... Oip Ri ...... Ar Or1 Or2 Or3 ...... Orj...... Orp Rr Total C1 C2 C3...... Cj ...... Cp N
Chi-Square Test for Goodness of Fit A very powerful test for testing the significance of the discrepancy between theory and experiment was given by Prof. Karl Pearson in 1900 and is known as “chi-square test of goodness of fit”. If fi(i= 1,2,3,,…,n) is a set of observed (experimental) frequencies and ei (i=1,2,3,…,n) is the corresponding set of expected frequencies , then Karl Pearson’s chi-square distribution with (n-1) d.f. Analysis of Data Analysis of data is the main part of any scientific investigation. After collecting the data, the data must be scrutinized, edited and tabulated and then a very careful statistical analysis is to be made and finally a report cooperating detailed statement of different stages of the survey should be prepared. The present study includes a total of 101 households from Lakhipathar village of Dhemaji District. The demography characteristics of the study are presented in the table. Table 4: Family member Highest Qualification Frequency percent Valid percent Cumulative Percent
Valid High School 9 8.8 9.0 9.0 HSLC 21 20.6 21.0 30.0 HS 52 51.0 52.0 82.0 Graduation & Above 18 17.6 18.0 100.0 Total 100 98.0 100.0 Missing System 1 2.0 Total 101 100.0
Analysis for Chi-Square Tests: Table 5: Family Member Highest Qualification Observed N Expected N Residual High School 9 25.0 -16.0 HSLC 21 25.0 -4.0 HS 52 25.0 27.0 Graduation & Above 18 25.0 -7.0 Total 100
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Table 6: Sex of the Respondent Observed N Expected N Residual Male 61 50.0 11.0 Female 39 50.0 -11.0 Total 100
Table 7: Test Statistics Family Member Sex of The respondent Highest Qualification Chi-Square(a,b) 42.00 4.840 d.f. 3 1 Asymp. Sig. .00 .028
a) 0 cells (.o%) has expected frequencies less than 5. The minimum expected cell frequency is 25.0. b) 0 cells (.0%) have expected frequencies less than 5. The minimum expected cell frequency is 50.0.
Discussion and Conclusion
The present study is conducted to estimate the education level of missing people of Lakhipathar in Dhemaji District of Assam. We collect 101 household in the present study.
Education is an important tool for human development. It spreads awareness in a society and better education can make a person more civilized and useful for the society.
Assam is states in northeastern India, in 2011; the literacy rate of Assam was estimated to be 73.18% (78.81% male and 67.27% female. The literacy rate of Assam is slightly below the national average of Education. The overall literacy rate of Assam is 64.28%, where the literacy rates of male is 71.93% and 56.03%. Although the Education coverage in Lakhipathar village is found to be much better than the District, states and National level. Here we found 91% of literate missing people in Lakhipathar where male and female literate is 94.07 and 73.62 respectively. In this study the education level of missing people in Lakhipathar village is better than Dhemaji District.
Reference 1. Ansari and Rao (2011): Advanced Educational Statistics, Himalaya publishing House. 2. Chaudhary, B. (Ed) (1982), Tribal Development in India, problems and Prospects, Inter-India Publication, New Delhi.
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3. Fabri, M.Y. 1978. “The Relationship between Demographic and Socio- Economic Factors in the Context of Development.” Population Bulletin of the United Nations 10: 1-13. 4. Gupta, S.C. and Kapoor V.K. (2005): Fundamentals of Applied Statistics, Sultan Chand and sons Educational Publishers, New Delhi. 5. M.L.Patel, Changing land problems of Tribal India, Progress Publishers, Bhopal, 1973 and Agro-Economic Survey and Agro-Economic problems of Tribal India (Ed). 6. Roy Burman, perspectives for Administration and Development the Scheduled areas, Ibid, pp: 48. 7. Sen, A. 1997. “Indian Development: Selected Regional Perspectives.” 8. Sen, A. and Jean Dreze. 1998. India: Economic Development and Social opportunity. 9. Singh, K.S., (1985), Tribal Society in India, Manohar, Delh
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ANALYSIS OF THE FINANCIAL PERFORMANCE THROUGH SOLVENCY RATIO OF SELECTED PETROCHEMICAL INDUSTRY IN INDIA
Dr.A. Antoniammal Assistant Professor Department of commerce St. Peter's Arts and Science College Melaneduvai, Andimadam
Abstract Solvency ratios measure the extent of the firm’s total distribution. They reflect the company’s ability to meet its short and long term debt obligations. These ratios are computed either by comparing fixed charges and earnings from the income statement or by relating the debt and equity items from the balance sheet.
Debt Equity Ratio The debt equity ratio is determined to ascertain the soundness of the long term financial policies of the company. It is the measure of the relative claims of creditors and owners against the fixed assets. It is also known as external internal equity ratio. External equities consist of all debts, whether long terms or short term or whether in the form of mortgages, bills or debentures. Internal equities consist of preferences shares, equity shares, capital reserves, retained earnings and any reserves representing earmarked surplus like Reserve of contingencies, Reserve for Plant expansion etc. This depicts the relationship between the lenders contribution and owner’s contribution. Debt Debt equity ratio = ------Equity The ratio indicates the proportion of owner’s state in the business. The ratio indicates the extent to which the firm depends upon outsiders per its existence. The purpose of debt equity ratio is to derive an idea of the amount of capital supplied to the firm by the owners and of asset cushion available to creditors on liquidation. The interpretation of the ratio however depends almost entirely on the financial and business policy of the enterprise. The standard ratio of 2:1 is acceptable. Theoretically, higher the interest of the proprietor as compared with that of the creditors the sounder would be the financial structure but this should not be treated as a generalization. A high ratio shows that the claims of creditors are greater than those of owners and this introduces inflexibility in the firm’s operations due to the increasing interference and pressure from creditors. A low debt equity ratio implies a greater claim form owners than creditors. From the www.ijmer.in 129
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VOLUME 8, ISSUE 10(3), OCTOBER 2019 creditor’s point of view, it represents a satisfactory capital structure of the business since the high proportion of equity provides a large margin of safety for them. The debt equity ratio of Select petrochemical units for period from 2003-04 to 2014-15 have shown in the Table 1. The debt equity ratio shows fluctuating trend over the period of study. It fluctuates in between the low of 0.29 in 2011-12 and high of 1.02 times in 2008-2009 in the IOC. In GAIL, it falls in between the low of 0.08 in 2008-09 and high of 0.49 in 2013-2014. Debt equity Ratio of HPCL fluctuates in between the low of 0.22 in 2003-04 and high of 2.12 in 2008- 2009. In case of BPCL, it fluctuates in between the low of 0.14 in 2011-12 and high of 1.75 times in 2008-2009.
Table 1 DEBT EQUITY RATIO OF SELECT PETROCHEMICAL UNITS Years IOC GAIL HPCL BPCL 2003-04 0.62 0.29 0.22 0.42 2004-05 0.74 0.23 0.26 0.42 2005-06 0.90 0.19 0.86 0.92 2006-07 0.78 0.12 1.15 1.05 2007-08 0.86 0.10 1.59 1.29 2008-09 1.02 0.08 2.12 1.75 2009-10 0.88 0.09 1.84 1.70 2010-11 0.95 0.12 1.99 0.19 2011-12 0.29 0.23 0.48 0.14 2012-13 0.35 0.34 0.65 0.33 2013-14 0.53 0.49 1.87 0.61 2014-15 0.53 0.43 2.05 0.52
Mean 0.71 0.23 1.26 0.78 SD 0.24 0.14 0.74 0.56 CV 33.86 61.57 58.55 71.74 CAGR 1.15 0.69 0.13 0.82 Source: Annual Reports of Select petrochemical units Highest Debt equity Ratio of HPCL shows the grater the solvency. The mean of debt equity ratio of IOC is 0.71, GAIL 0.23, HPCL 1.26 and BPCL 0.78. All most all the selected companies are having debt equity ratio less than the standard norm of 2. It is suggested that the all the companies may make use of the more debt fund for the purpose of achieving the trading on equity. The co-efficient of variation of debt equity ratio endowed by 33.86 per cent in IOC followed by 58.55 per cent in HPCL, 61.57 per cent in GAIL and, 7 1 . 7 4 per cent in BPCL. It is noticed that that the debt equity ratio of IOC is constant and on the other hand fickle in BPCL. All other www.ijmer.in 130
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VOLUME 8, ISSUE 10(3), OCTOBER 2019 select petrochemical industrial units’ debt equity ratio is low during the study period. The CAGR of debt equity ratio of all the petrochemical industrial units are positive. It is low in GAIL and high in IOC.
Table 2 ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE FOR DEBT EQUITY RATIO Sum of Mean Source of variation Squares DF Square F F crit Between years 8.81 11 0.80 2.64 2.09 Between companies 40.39 3 13.47 44.42 2.89 Residual 10.00 33 0.30 Total 59.21 47 Source: Computed The analysis of variance result given in Table 2 shows that the F value for between years is 2.64 which is higher than the table value 2.09 at 5 per cent level indicating significant difference for between years and for between companies, it is 44.42 which is more than the table value 2.89 indicating significant difference at 5 per cent level. Hence, the null hypothesis is rejected both between years, and between companies. The decreasing trend in the lost four years shows the industrial unit functioning with more equity funds. It may not be possible to made trading on equity.
Proprietary Ratio It is a variant of debt equity ratio. It establishes relationship between the proprietors (or) share holders fund and total tangible assets. It is a measure of long term solvency. The proprietary ratio is calculated by dividing the proprietor’s funds by total assets. This ratio focuses the attention on the general financial strengths of the business enterprise. The ratio is of particular importance to the creditors who can find out the proportion of the share holders fund in the total assets employed in the business. A high proprietary ratio indicates relatively a little risk to the debenture holders, creditors, etc. in the vent of winding up of the company. On the other hand a low ratio indicates a greater risk to the creditors and others. Since, they may have to lose heavily in the vent of the company’s liquidation on account of heavy losses. It is an important ratio for determining long-term solvency of a firm. The higher the ratio of the shareholders in the total capital of the company the better is the long-term solvency position of the company. This ratio indicates the extent to which the assets of the company can be lost without affecting the interest of creditors of the company. The desirable position is 0.75:1. Table 3 indicates the proprietary ratio of select Petrochemical industrial units from the period 2003- 04 to 2014-15.
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Table 3 PROPRIETARY RATIO OF SELECT PETROCHEMICAL UNITS Years IOC GAIL HPCL BPCL 2003-04 0.88 0.83 1.09 0.78 2004-05 0.90 1.06 1.09 0.77 2005-06 1.18 1.22 0.80 0.82 2006-07 1.05 1.21 0.67 0.87 2007-08 1.26 1.33 0.69 0.92 2008-09 1.28 1.29 0.64 0.87 2009-10 1.23 1.18 0.60 0.81 2010-11 0.97 1.05 0.56 0.88 2011-12 0.98 1.39 0.63 0.96 2012-13 1.05 1.28 0.61 1.00 2013-14 0.92 1.00 0.39 1.03 2014-15 0.89 0.88 0.36 1.11
Mean 1.05 1.14 0.68 0.90 SD 0.15 0.18 0.23 0.11 CV 14.31 15.57 33.65 11.70 CAGR 0.99 0.95 2.76 0.73 Source: Annual Reports for Select petrochemical units The proprietary ratio shows fluctuating trend over the period of study. It fluctuates in between the low of 0.88 in 2003-04 and high of 1.28 in 2008-2009 in the IOC. In GAIL, it falls in between the low of 0.83 in 2003-04 and high of 1.39 in 2011-2012. Proprietary ratio of HPCL has decline from 1.09 in 2003-04 to 0.36 in 2014-15. In case of BPCL, it has been increased from 0.78 in 2003-04 to 1.11 in 2014-2015. In comparison with all companies GAIL shows the highest proprietary ratio and the solvency of the company is appreciable. The mean of proprietary ratio of IOC is 1.05, GAIL 1.14, HPCL 0.68 and BPCL 0.90. All most all the selected companies are having proprietary ratio more than the standard norm of 0.75 except HPCL. It is suggested that the all the companies may make use of the more debt fund for the purpose of achieving the trading on equity. The co-efficient of variation of proprietary ratio endowed by 11.70 per cent in BPCL followed by 14.31per cent in IOC, 15.57 per cent in GAIL and, 33.65 per cent in HPCL. It is noticed that the proprietary ratio of BPCL is constant and on the other hand fickle in HPCL. All other select petrochemical industrial units’ debt equity ratio is low during the study period. The CAGR of proprietary ratio of all the petrochemical industrial units are positive. The growth rate of proprietary ratio of HPCL is high and all others are low. The result of analysis of variance given in Table 4 shows that the F value for between years is 0.73 which is less than the table www.ijmer.in 132
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VOLUME 8, ISSUE 10(3), OCTOBER 2019 value 2.09 at 5 per cent level indicating no significant difference between years. For between companies, it is 15.69 which are more than the table value 2.89 indicating significant difference at 5 per cent level. Hence, the null hypothesis is accepted on for between years, and rejected between companies. Table 4 ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE FOR PROPRIETARY RATIO Source of Sum of Mean F variation Squares DF Square F crit Between years 0.25 11 0.022 0.73 2.09 Between companies 1.48 3 0.494 15.69 2.89 Residual 1.04 33 0.031 Total 2.78 47 Source: Computed Fixed Assets to Net worth Ratio This ratio establishes the relationship between fixed assets and shareholder’s funds. It indicates the extent to which shareholder’s funds are sunk into the fixed assets. A fixed asset to net worth ratio is measuring the solvency of a company. This ratio indicates the extent to which the owners' cash is frozen in the form of fixed assets, such as property, plant, and equipment, and the extent to which funds are available for the company's operations (i.e. for working capital). Fixed assets to net worth ratio 0.75 or higher is usually undesirable, as it indicates that the firm is vulnerable to unexpected events and changes in the business climate. But the term "fixed assets" (GAAP term) has different interpretations so it's difficult to use and compare this ratio. That is why the researcher prefers to use similar ratio "Non- current assets to net worth” implicating IFRS term "Non-current assets". It is calculated with the following formula: Fixed assets to Net Worth = Net fixed assets / Net worth Table 5 indicates the fixed assets to net worth ratio of the select companies for the period 2003-04 to 2014-15. The fixed assets to net worth ratio shows fluctuating trend over the period of study. It fluctuates in between the low of 0.64 in 2007-08 and high of 1.03 in 2014-2015 in the IOC. In GAIL, it falls in between the low of 0.49 in 2005-06 and high of 1.04 in 2011- 2012. Fixed assets to net worth ratio of HPCL has decline from 0.75 in 2004-05 to 1.21 in 2011-12. In case of BPCL, it has been increased from 1.01 in 2003-04 to 1.10 in 2014-2015. In comparison with all companies BPCL shows the highest fixed assets to net worth ratio and the solvency of the company is appreciable. The mean of fixed assets to net worth ratio of IOC is 0.79, GAIL 0.83, HPCL 0.88 and BPCL 0.97. All most all the selected companies are www.ijmer.in 133
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VOLUME 8, ISSUE 10(3), OCTOBER 2019 having fixed assets to net worth ratio more than the standard norm of 0.75. It is suggested that the all the companies maintain the same in future. The co-efficient of variation of fixed assets to net worth ratio endowed by 18.28 per cent in HPCL followed by 19.50 per cent in GAIL, 20.05 per cent in IOC and, 24.19 p er cent in BPCL. It is noticed that the fixed assets to net worth ratio of BPCL is constant and on the other hand fickle in BPCL. The CAGR of fixed assets to net worth ratio of all the petrochemical industrial units are positive. The growth rate of fixed assets to net worth ratio of BPCL is high and all others are low.
Table 5 FIXED ASSETS TO NET WORTH RATIO OF SELECT PETROCHEMICAL UNITS Years IOC GAIL HPCL BPCL 2003-04 0.72 0.89 0.80 1.01 2004-05 0.67 0.74 0.75 0.87 2005-06 0.66 0.49 0.77 0.74 2006-07 0.73 0.75 0.90 0.83 2007-08 0.64 0.69 0.69 0.71 2008-09 0.79 0.74 0.80 0.85 2009-10 0.62 0.81 0.82 0.71 2010-11 0.65 0.89 0.76 1.36 2011-12 0.98 1.04 1.21 1.38 2012-13 0.95 1.00 1.15 1.18 2013-14 1.00 0.96 0.92 0.92 2014-15 1.03 1.01 0.95 1.10 Mean 0.79 0.83 0.88 0.97 SD 0.16 0.16 0.16 0.24 CV 20.05 19.50 18.28 24.19 CAGR 0.73 0.90 0.86 0.93 Source: Annual Reports for Select petrochemical units
The analysis of variance result presented in Table 6 shows that the calculated F value for between years is 8.32 which is higher than the table value 2.09 at 5 per cent level indicating significant difference between years and for between companies, it is 6.36 which is more than the table value 2.89 indicating significant difference at 5 per cent level. Hence, the null hypothesis is rejected for between years, and between companies.
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Table 6 ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE FOR FIXED ASSETS TO NET WORTH RATIO Sum of Mean Source of variation Squares DF Square F F crit Between years 1.07 11 0.097 8.32 2.09 Between companies 0.22 3 0.074 6.36 2.89 Residual 0.39 33 0.011 Total 1.68 47 Source: Computed Current Assets to Proprietors Fund Ratio Current Assets to Proprietors' Fund Ratio establish the relationship between current assets and shareholder's funds. The purpose of this ratio is to calculate the percentage of shareholders funds invested in current assets. This ratio tells us, how much shareholders funds has invested in current assets by the management. Shareholder can get both items from current balance sheet. It is not wrong to invest shareholders money in current assets. But after a limit, it is not good to invest in short term or current assets. It is calculated with the following formula: Current Assets to Proprietors Funds = Current Assets / Proprietor's Funds Table 7 indicates the Current Assets to Proprietors' Fund Ratio of select Petrochemical industrial units from the period 2003-04 to 2014-15. It fluctuates in between the low of 1.01 in 2008-09 and high of 2.12 in 2013-2014 in the IOC. In GAIL, it fluctuates in between the low of 0.29 in 2011-12 and high of 1.23 in 2005-2006. Current Assets to Proprietors' Fund Ratio of HPCL fluctuate in between the low of 1.13 in 2004-05 and high of 3.29 in 2013-2014. In case of BPCL, it fluctuates in between the low of 1.26 in 2008-09 and high of 2.48 2011- 2012. The mean value of Current Assets to Proprietors' Fund Ratio of IOC is 1.47, GAIL 0.64, HPCL 1.93, and BPCL 1.80. Mean of Current Assets to Proprietors' Fund Ratio has increased for all select companies above the base year level. The co-efficient of variation of Current Assets to Proprietors' Fund Ratio endowed by 24.17 per cent in BPCL followed by 26.81 per cent in IOC, 36.87 per cent in HPCL, and 40.7 3 per cent in GAIL. All select petrochemical companies Current Assets to Proprietors' Fund Ratio is moderate change during the study period. The CAGR of Current Assets to Proprietors' Fund Ratio of all the select companies is positive. The positive CAGR shows the solvencies of the select companies are good.
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Table 7 CURRENT ASSETS TO PROPRIETORS FUND RATIO OF SELECT PETROCHEMICAL UNITS Years IOC GAIL HPCL BPCL 2003-04 1.21 0.55 1.22 1.43 2004-05 1.37 0.74 1.13 1.63 2005-06 1.25 1.23 1.33 1.46 2006-07 1.12 0.68 1.28 1.33 2007-08 1.29 0.80 1.83 1.69 2008-09 1.01 0.83 1.49 1.26 2009-10 1.17 0.82 1.79 1.80 2010-11 1.51 0.58 2.12 2.19 2011-12 2.09 0.29 2.80 2.48 2012-13 2.04 0.37 2.79 2.31 2013-14 2.12 0.42 3.29 2.39 2014-15 1.49 0.42 2.12 1.61 Mean 1.47 0.64 1.93 1.80 SD 0.39 0.26 0.71 0.43 CV 26.81 40.73 36.87 24.17 CAGR 0.83 1.27 0.60 0.89 Source: Annual Reports for Select petrochemical units The analysis of variance result presented in Table 8 shows that the F value for between years is 2.70 which is more than the table value 2.09 at 5 per cent level indicating difference between years. It is 24.80 for between companies, which is also more than the table value 2.89 indicating significant difference at 5 per cent level. Hence, the null hypothesis is rejected between years and between companies.
Table 8 ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE FOR CURRENT ASSETS TO PROPRIETORS FUND RATIO Mean Sum of Squar Source of variation Squares DF e F F crit Between years 4.796 11 0.436 2.70 2.09 Between companies 12.017 3 4.006 24.80 2.89 Residual 5.329 33 0.162 Total 22.142 47 Source: Computed
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Fixed Assets to Long Term Funds Ratio
This ratio indicates the extent to which the totals of fixed assets are financed by long term funds of the firm. Generally, the total of fixed assets should be equal to the total of the long-term funds i.e., the ratio should be 100 per cent. But in case the fixed assets exceed the total of the long-term funds it implies that the firm has financed a part of the fixed assets out of current funds or the working capital which is not a good financial policy. And if the total long-term funds are more than total fixed assets, it means that a part of the working capital requirements is met out of the long-term funds of the firm. Table 9 indicates the fixed assets to long term funds ratio of select petrochemical industrial units from the period 2003-04 to 2014-15. The fixed assets to long term funds fluctuates in between the low of 0.42 in 2007-08 and high of 0.91 in 2014-2015 in the IOC. In GAIL, it fluctuates in between the minimum of 0.72 in 2008-09 and high of 0.94 in 2003-2004. Fixed assets to long term funds of HPCL fluctuate in between the low of 0.50 in 2008-09 and high of 1.36 in 2011-2012. In case of BPCL, it fluctuates in between the low of 0.42 in 2008-09 and high of 1.38 in 2011-2012. The mean value of fixed assets to long term funds ratio of IOC is 0.62, GAIL 0.79, HPCL 0.80, and BPCL 0.83. Mean of fixed assets to long term funds ratio has increased for all select companies above the base year level. The co- efficient of variation of fixed assets to long term funds ratio endowed by 10.01 per cent in GAIL followed by 30.81 per cent in IOC, 34.92 per cent in HPCL, and 40.91 per cent in BPCL. All select petrochemical companies fixed assets to long term funds ratio is moderate change during the study period. The CAGR of Current Assets to Proprietors' Fund Ratio of all the select companies is positive. The positive CAGR shows the solvencies of the select companies are good.
Table 9 FIXED ASSET TO LONG TERM FUND RATIO OF SELECT PETROCHEMICAL UNITS
Years IOC GAIL HPCL BPCL 2003-04 0.67 0.94 0.75 0.87 2004-05 0.60 0.77 0.73 0.81 2005-06 0.45 0.69 0.68 0.63 2006-07 0.54 0.74 0.70 0.56 2007-08 0.42 0.68 0.56 0.48 2008-09 0.39 0.72 0.50 0.42 2009-10 0.43 0.78 0.58 0.46 2010-11 0.53 0.85 0.60 1.36 www.ijmer.in 137
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2011-12 0.82 0.82 1.36 1.38 2012-13 0.79 0.80 1.29 1.18 2013-14 0.89 0.88 0.94 0.83 2014-15 0.91 0.86 0.95 0.99 Mean 0.62 0.79 0.80 0.83 SD 0.19 0.08 0.28 0.34 CV 30.81 10.01 34.92 40.91 CAGR 0.76 1.07 0.80 0.89 Source: Annual Reports for Select petrochemical units
Table 10 ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE FOR FIXED ASSET TO LONG TERM FUND RATIO Sum of Mean Source of variation Squares DF Square F F crit Between years 1.684 11 0.153 5.49 2.09 Between companies 0.331 3 0.110 3.96 2.89 Residual 0.921 33 0.028 Total 2.949 47 Source: Computed The analysis of variance result presented in Table 10 shows that the F value for between years is 5.49 which is more than the table value 2.09 at 5 per cent level indicating significant difference between years and for between companies, it is 3.96 which is more than the table value 2.89 indicating significant difference at 5 per cent level. Hence, the null hypothesis is rejected both between years and between companies.
Conclusion
Solvency ratios are important to creditors, since they reflect the capacity of firm’s revenues to support interest and other fixed charges, and whether there are sufficient assets to pay off the debt in the event of liquidation. Shareholders are concerned with solvency, since interest payments are an expenses to the firm that increases with greater debt. It the borrowings and interest are excessive the company can even experience bankruptcy. The more predictable are the return of the firm, the more debt will be acceptable, since the firm will be less likely to be surprises by circumstances that prevent fulfilling debt obligations.
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References
1. Dr.A.Muthusamy, M. Gowri. Performance Appraisal of Hindustan Petroleum Corporation Limited. International Journal of Research in Finance & Marketing. Vol. 2, Issue – 6, June - 2012, pp. 18-24. 2. Ganapathy. R.S. Sep. 20. 1975. The Indian Petrochemicals Corporation Limited Story. Economic and Political Weekly. Vol: X No. 38. Pp: 1495- 1496. 3. Dr.Uttam Kumar Dutta and Amit Basak, Mar – 2008. Appraisal of Financial Performance of Urban Co-Operative Banks – A Case Study. The Management Accountant. Vol. 43, No. 3, pp. 170-174.
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IMPACT OF GLOBAL TERRORISM ON INTERNATIONAL PEACE AND SECURITY Dr. Rajvinder Kaur Assistant Professor Centre for Public Policy & Governance Punjabi University, Patiala
Human rights have become an international issue not only because the violation may negatively affect relations between states. Though the improvement of human rights situations in some countries and regions may been necessary component of the movement towards more stable international relations, the ultimate aim of the human rights movement in the world is not to be instrumental for peace and stability but to promote and protect human rights and fundamental freedoms. This means that sometimes, in order to achieve improvements in the field of human rights, governments may have to be ready to risk certain deterioration of interstate relations.1 Mass media and public opinion, at home as well as abroad, forces governments, at least democratic ones, to react when gross and massive human rights violations occur in other countries. This reaction is usually rather cautious and in sufficient in order to put an end to most human rights emergencies. On the other hand, it should be recognized that often no outside reaction is able to radically change a human rights situation for the better. However, governments need to the call that something has to be done often simply because they do not want to be embarrassed by completely ignoring most egregious cases of human rights violations abroad. Sometimes in order to be seen decent one has to behave decently. Therefore, we may conclude that there are imperatives of realpolitik as well as humanitarian concerns which induce many governments to have human rights diplomacy as it component of their foreign policy. Recent developments, especially in Africa, have shown that all talk about human rights or justice without peace and order may turn out to e a mockery of human rights, though current difficulties with human rights in many African countries are not due exclusively to the lack of peace and order (the lack of economic and social development is one of the important factors negatively affecting human rights as well), the absence of domestic peace in many parts of the continent is the major direct cause of most human rights emergencies not only in Africa but in many other parts of the world as well. It may not be so surprising that in the mid-1990s Mazrui writes that only parts of Africa can govern themselves'. Now he is more concerned with order and peace in Africa, than with human rights. He even proposes to establish a kind of 'African concert' to police the continent. External recolonization under the banner of humanitarianism is entirely conceivable', writes Mazrui and continues: 'Although colonialism may be resurfacing, it is likely to look rather different this time around. A future trusteeship system will be more genuinely international and less western than it was under the old guise. His fellow-African, Mauritanian diplomat Ahmedu Ould Abdallah, also feels that only a form of recolonisation can save Africa from itself.
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Be that as it may, one thing seems to be clear: the lack of peace, stability and order also means the lack of human rights and freedoms. Without peace, both international and domestic, we may be concerned not so much with human rights as with humanitarian law, i.e. the laws and customs of war, be it domestic or international. And we know that there are even more problems with the implementation of humanitarian law than human rights law. This all may sound like an apology for order and stability at the expense of justice and human rights. And it certainly would be, had we stopped here.2 Domestic and international stability, which are often closely interlinked, may be both also rather ephemeral without at least a certain degree of justice, including human rights. This is especially true in the post-Cold War would where discipline imposed by competing power blocks has vanished. Many Third World dictators whose hold of power was legitimized by external either Easter or Western, support are now on their own. Dictators left on their own may constitute a serious threat to the stability of their own countries which, .under certain conditions, may have serious repercussions on international stability as well. We have seen that some manifestly unjust regimes which seemed to be rather stable, like for example the Soviet Union or South Africa, collapsed. This happened not only because these regimes were economically ineffective. Their unjust, inimical to human rights, character was an even stronger factor contributing to their fall. Stability is possible without justice, it is hardly, like diamonds, forever and that often, in order to last, injustice has to the eventual explosion. A more profound definition of stability would sometimes require support for change to prevent some drastic upheavals later. Social stability, be it domestic or international, often calls for changes, especially when society is fraught with them. Resistance to such changes and attempts to maintain status quo may, in such circumstances, serve as destabilizing factors. It seems that stability in the world is often like the stability of a bicycle: it does not fall only while it moves. Similarly, the world can be relatively stable passing of course through periods of instability, when constantly changing and one of the directions of these changes seems to be towards the enlargement of democracy and promotion of human rights.3 Most contemporary threat (nuclear proliferation, drugs, terrorism, civil wars and human rights violations), in contrast to the threat of a nuclear conflict between the superpowers during the Col War, do not put the survival of most states (or, let us say, stable states) directly in danger. These amorphous challenges, as they were called in the Strategic Survey for 1994-95 prepared by the International Institute on Strategic Studies, have crept up in the present era and they are not easily counted, or conquered, by simple direct actions. However, these threats, if not curtailed, constitute the biggest danger to domestic as well as international stability. Therefore, active human rights diplomacy is important not only for human rights but for international stability as well. In human rights diplomacy, like in many others foreign policy areas, there is a choice between bilateral and multilateral efforts. Human rights situations can be dealt with by applying measures against violators by individual states or, alternatively, human rights issues can be raised in different international for a such as the UN General Assembly or the UN Commission on Human Rights, in universal or regional. treaty bodies or even in the Security Council if a human rights situation constitutes a threat to international peace and security. Bilateral
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VOLUME 8, ISSUE 10(3), OCTOBER 2019 human rights diplomacy will certainly remain an important means of the promotion of human rights, though there should be closer co-operation among like-minded states on measures undertaken against human rights violators. Human rights issues can and should be raised in bilateral relations because sometimes measures applied on bilateral bases, especially if co-ordinated by other states, may be more effective than discussions and even resolutions adopted in a multilateral forum where those states which have serious problems with human rights, even if they are not in majority, may have at last a substantial voice in the decision-making process. However, multilateral human rights diplomacy has several advantages over bilateral measures. First their decisions carry greater legitimacy and are seen to be more impartial than unilateral acts of states. Secondly, measures undertaken by international bodies also affect less rather sensitive bilateral relations in other areas of co-operation. Institutionalization of human rights at the international level also gives them additional stability makes them less vulnerable to inevitable political fluctuations. Finally, though human rights may seriously affect inter-state relations and have, therefore, acquired a steady place in bilateral diplomacy, they are, by their very nature, not a bilateral issue but a universal one, an issue to be dealt with by the world community as a whole. Human rights violations, especially gross and systematic ones, are erga omnes violations of international law which are not committed against a specific foreign state. They are violations which affect the world community of states as a whole and are committed against the interest of all peoples in the maintenance of the international human rights regime. When states individually raise issues of human rights in other countries they are acting as if on behalf of the world community. That is why, individual acts of states on human rights are usually effective only when supported by strong international mechanisms and procedures, which means that it will be important to give a radical boost to these mechanisms and procedures, especially to those which function in the UN framework and concern ail states. It is undeniable that there has been considerable progress in the domain of, what is called in the UN parlance, international standard- setting on human rights.4 The UN can credit some success also in the domain of the promotion of human rights. It has certainly contributed to the promotion of rights consciousness and has facilitated the adoption of national norms and the establishment of national institutes on human rights in many countries. But the UN has been quite weak in the domain of protection or enforcement of human rights standards. One example is the so-called 1503 procedure under which the UN Commission on Human Rights and its Sub- Commission on Prevention of Discrimination and Protection of Minorities can consider individual petitions on human rights violations, if such petitions help to identify situations involving 'a consistent pattern of gross and reliably attested violation' of human rights. It is difficult not to agree with Philip Alston who writes that: the shortcomings of the procedure are so considerable, its tangible achievements so scarce, the justifications offered in its favour so modest and the need for an affective and universally applicable petition procedure so great, that it is time to reevaluate its future.
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There are some other UN human rights procedures which deserve similar assessment. At the same time, the end of the Cold War has brought about some positive, though very modest, changes in the UN approaches to human rights. One of the measures in the UN High Commissioner for Human Rights who has a mandate to play an active role in removing the current obstacles and in meeting the challenges to the full realization o fall human rights and in preventing the continuation of human rights violations throughout the world.5 In the implementation of his mandate the High Commissioner has to engage in dialogue with all Governments. The High Commissioner, whose task, inter alia, is to coordinate human rights activities within the UN system, has defined his priorities as following: a) early warning on emergency human rights situations; b) field mission by the various special rapporteurs or working groups; c) follow-up action of the High Commissioner or recommendations made by special rapporteurs and working groups; d) the work of other implementation mechanism and the provision of advisory services and technical assistance to member states. Another positive step in the UN human rights activities have been the transfer of quite a substantial part of its efforts from Geneva or New York to the field where human rights violations occur. The High Commissioner himself has visited many areas of human rights emergency such as Rwanda or Burundi (in 1994-95 he payed three visits to both of these countries). The offices of the High Commissioner have been created in Bujumbura (Burundi) and Lilongwe (Malawi). There are country programmes of advisory services and to technical assistance on human rights for dozens of countries currently administered by the United Nations. The High Commissioner, who has already been active in different crisis situations, should attempt even more to focus UN attention to human rights situations which may eventually lead to humanitarian catastrophes or emergencies and undermine international stability.5 Currently, various UN human rights bodies, which have multiplied as a result of the adoption of different human rights instruments, duplicate their efforts and disperse time and resources often dealing with issues which can be better dealt with the regional or domestic level. Concentration of 'routine' monitoring functions over the implementation of UN human rights instruments in a permanently functioning super-committee and focusing attention of the other bodies and the High Commission on human rights situations which can serve as an early warning for humanitarian catastrophes and security risks should be one of the important trends of development of international human rights mechanisms. The word has faced threats to security as a result of military action, policies and diplomacy. But in the modem age there are non-traditional threats to the survival and development of a sovereign state, and even mankind. These non-traditional threats come in the form .of terrorism, dmg trafficking, serious communicable diseases, privacy, illegal immigration, environmental security, economic and financial security, and information security.
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The catastrophic consequences that non-traditional threats to serenity can inflict on world peace and stability should not be understimated. The September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks in the United States claimed that lives of nearly 3000 people. Non- traditional threats to security have surpassed conventional notions of security, which are generally thought of a being geographically confined the nation's frontiers. These new dangers are highly transnational, and as such have a bearing on the interests of mankind as a whole. The crime of terrorism is one of the most serious common challenges facing the international community today. Terrorism constitutes an acute threat to internal and external security, to peaceful relations between states and to the development and functioning of democratic institutions and principles. The threat to international peace and security caused by terrorism has serious consequences for humanity. It debases the traditional ethos on which states and societies are founded. It seeks to put asunder well- established norms and institutions of governance. Most importantly it denies people their basic rights and fundamental freedoms.6 The bigger threat that states and humanity face today, undoubtedly is global terrorism, which is widespread geographically and diverse ideologically. Global terrorism has come to be an alternative to war amongst adversarial status because the latter has become to be expensive and its outcome is unpredictable. The threat is multi- country and multi-nation and hence its menacing threat to international peace and security.7 Terrorism instills fear psychosis, insecurity, complex and a sense of uncertainty among the people. Due to the recent transnational networking of terrorist activities the issue of national and international security, underlying security concerns have a profound impact on the psyche of communities and nations.8 The truth is, terrorism has emerged as the gravest threat, not only to individual nations, but possibly, even to the long term survival of the human race itself.9 Peace processes and terrorism are very nearly opposites. Peace processes are associated with the strategy of accommodation towards political violence, including a readiness to enter into negotiations on the issues giving rise to the violence, while terrorism is commonly met by a strategy of suppression that affirms the absolute illegitimacy of those engaged in violence. Terrorism is only one of the a number of methods which a group may use as part of its strategy. Depending on their capabilities, their strategy may include other violent methods ranging from riots to conventional warfare, and non-violent methods such as civil disobedience and constitutional politics. The foundations of a terrorist group's strategy are often found in the world-view prescribed by their ideology. The Ideology lays down the political objectives towards which their strategy should be directed and shapes the way in which terrorists see the world around them. It therefore shapes their choice of the most appropriate strategy to adopt.10 Terrorism has become the new face of warfare in the present era, and warfare in 21st century has equipped itself with Weapons of Mass Destruction (WMD). The real danger is from the alliance of terrorist organizations and failed states that can draw nations into 'total wars' through WMD and especially nuclear terrorism.11
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The incidence and changing significance of terrorism has had some obvious effect. The most evident is the diversion of resources into internal security functions. Protecting political leaders, guarding vital locations, screening people at airports, and hardening targets all require increasing amounts of money, labour, and time. The most publicly visible security precaution is the screening of passengers at airports. Apart from the time and incontinence costs to the public, the financial costs of screening precautions have been enormous.12 There has been a rapid increase in internal security budgets, which shows no sign of abating, and the private security industry is increasingly involving itself in internal security-type operations. This later trend is particularly worrying in view of the comparative nature of the private accountability. It can be seen as part of a major shift in society form viewing security in terms of secure national frontiers, clearly a national responsibility, to the defence of "inner perimeters" - guarded facilities privately patrolled communities, security buildings, alarmed homes - where the burden of defence is increasingly placed upon local government, the private sector, and the individual citizens.13 The basic objective of security system at both the national and international level is the preservation of order and stability. At some levels, the nature of threats to both national and international security has changed. Mechanisms to contain, control and deal with these new threats have yet to be evolved. Effective mechanisms can be created only after the nature and origin of such threats is understood. For instance, a number of threats to international security today are radically different from those of the Cold War period in which the enemy was known and control mechanisms to avoid open conflict has been installed. The 9/11 attacks were not simply, destructive of lives and buildings. The infected profound psychic damager damage that must be understood if we want to grasp the connections between terrorism and threat to human security.14 Terror has struck India all too often and at different places though attack in Mumbai on 26/11 was different. It brought global jihad to India's door, streets and neighbourhood. "The fact that jihadi terrorism-originating from Pakistan is part of a global problem was brought home brutally by Mumbai attack. In reality the implication of Mumbai attack on 26/11 exhibited a new model of terrorism which was a matter of concern to the global community. A group of ten terrorists from the global terrorists organization let reached Mumbai in the evening of November 26, 2008. The group divided themselves into four smaller groups of two each and proceeded to pre-selected targets, which included a cafe, two major star hotels, a railway station. The attack was conducted like a commando operation including that the perpetuators had received professional army like training.15
UN FIELD OPERATIONS There is a tendency for issues of human rights and of international peace to become more and more intertwined in operations on the maintenance or restoration of peace and security. As peace and security are often threatened not by overt cross- border attacks but by domestic violence and instability, there is no way of dealing with such threats without addressing underlying human rights issues. If absence of violation of human rights may play a role in the genesis of internal conflicts with international
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VOLUME 8, ISSUE 10(3), OCTOBER 2019 repercussions, measures aimed at improvement of human rights situation may become a necessary element of resolution of such conflicts.17 Security threats, which are caused, inter alia, by massive human rights violations, cannot be effectively dealt with without addressing human rights concerns. There are situations where the restoration of peace may be condition sine qua non for putting an end to human rights abuses, while, on the other hand, there are cases where without stopping human rights violation it is impossible to obtain a sustainable peace. Often these tasks (restoration of peace and protection of human rights) have to be implemented at the same time and are not always complimentary, particularly in the short-term. As the Secretary General has reported in his 1995 supplement to An Agenda for Peace, these elements have played an especially important role in the process of post- conflict peacebuilding measures, which he calls the institutionalization of peace. He has also emphasized the link between human rights and peacekeeping: 'La plupart des operation de maintain de la paix prevoient, en effect, a la fois la restoration de al democratic et la protection des droits de I'homme. The Paris Agreement on a Comprehensive Political Settlement of the Cambodia Conflict of 23 October 1991 provided, inter lia, that the UN Transitional Authority in Cambodia (UNTAC) shall be responsible during the transitional period for fostering an environment in which respect for human rights shall be ensured' and that 'after the end of the transitional period, the United Nations Commission on Human Rights should continue to monitor closely the human rights situation in Cambodia. The San Jose Agreement on Human Rights signed between the Government of El Salvador and the Frente Farabundo Marti (FMLN) of 26 July 1990 stipulated that the UN human rights verification mission would perform its functions with a view to promoting respect for human rights and their guarantee in El Salvador and helping to do away with those situations in which such respect and guarantees are not duly observed. ONUSAL (the United Nations Observer Mission in El Salvador) had the Human Rights Davison which monitored the compliance of the Government of El Salvador and FMLN with the Agreement on Human Rights. Even Americas Watch, which criticized the timidity of ONUSAL's approach to human rights issues and called for bolder pressure on the Government concluded nevertheless that ONUSAL's, impact in El Salvador has been extremely positive. A research by the Aspen Institute found that in El Salvador between 1992, when the ceasefire took effect, and 1994, there was a dramatic decrease in number of the most serious human rights violations, such as summary executions, torture, and improper treatment of detainees. Given countries previous record on human rights, these developments have been encouraging. Creating conditions for free elections and the organization or monitoring of elections in the process of Post-conflict peacebuilding (Namibia, Nicaragua, El Salvador, Cambodia, Mozambique) is an important human rights component of these processes. Not all of them have been successful. In some cases the jury is still out. However, it is clear that in all conflicts where human rights are often abused by all sides it is impossible to achieve any sustainable peace without a radical improvement of human rights situations.
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Gareth Evans, Minister for Foreign Affairs of Australia, writing of the lessons of the UN Transitional Authority in Cambodia (UNTAC) experience, emphasizes that 'the observation of human rights is critical to the comprehensive settlement of a conflict and this is arguably so in most operations' Traditional, so called first generation or pure peacekeeping operations did not have and, in principle, could not have any human rights components. While the earlier missions primarily sought to minimize external conflicts by monitoring cease-fires, the latest efforts have more intrusive mandates and ambitious goals and strive to advance more fundamental goals: free elections, civil order and domestic tranquility; human rights, from those most basic to human dignity to those empowering a people to choose its government; and economic and social development. The experience of UN missions in El Salvador, Namibia or Cambodia show that it is not easy to reconcile the impartiality needed for peace-building efforts with a human rights mandate which often calls, if not for taking sides in the conflict, then at least for taking steps against one of the sides. As the Lawyers Committee for Human Flights observes in the context of the UN operation in Haiti, the confusion between objectivity - as a monitor of human rights violations and neutrality - as the instrument of political settlement leading to the return of the constitutionally elected government-dogged MICIVIH (United Nations/Organization of American States International Mission in Haiti) at every step. Steven Rather writes about the ONSUAL, which has been so far one of the most successful missions on peacebuilding and human rights promotion: ONUSAL had a mandate as executor to promote human rights and report on violations. Yet this often proved hard to reconcile with its role as mediator to move the parties along in the implementation of all the accords (not merely the human rights agreement). ONUSAL needed the government's cooperation, yet also had a responsibility to challenge ongoing serious violations of human rights. An abstract 'either-or' approach to this dilemma would be wrong. It is equally impossible to recommend either that human rights tasks should always take precedence over political processes or that political solutions are so important that an humanitarian component of a mission should be sacrificed for the sake of finding a political solution. It is necessary to remember not only that there are no human rights without peace but also that peace without justice is often fictitious. Compromises and accommodation between different tasks are usually needed. However, this necessity of compromises between humanitarian tasks and political settlement of a conflict cannot be stretched infinitely. If egregious human rights violations continue either from the part of a government (as it was in Haiti before the military junta was ousted by the Americans) or are committed by all sides of the conflict (as in Somalia), this usually means, inter alia, that the situation in a country is not ripe for a political solution. in El Salvador or in Namibia, though humanitarian tasks were sometimes at odds with the search for a political solution, there were influential political forces which had come to the understanding of the necessity of a political settlement, and therefore compromises in specific cases were possible and generally it was not necessary to sacrifice one task for the sake of the other one. At the same time, sacrificing human rights tasks in Haiti for the sake of reaching a political settlement did not contribute in
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VOLUME 8, ISSUE 10(3), OCTOBER 2019 any way to the success of the political mission of the MICIVIH which, finally, was forced to evacuate.18 Sometimes concerns for human rights and international stability are so closely interrelated that it may be rather difficult to distinguish a peace-making operation from a humanitarian intervention. Was, for example, the UN authorized US operation in Haiti an operation on the elimination of a threat to international peace and security or was it an intervention on the restoration of democracy and establishment of law and order on the island, i.e. a humanitarian intervention. The creation of safe area for the Kurds in Northern Iraq and the use of force to protect them were also in substance humanitarian operations . through references to international security were used to legitimize actions undertaken for humanitarian reasons. Security Council Resolution 688 of 5 April 1991 condemned 'the repression of Iraqi civilian population in many parts of Iraq, including most recently in Kurdish populated areas, the consequences of which threaten international peace and security in the region. The resolution further demanded that Iraq immediately end this repression and insisted that Iraq allow immediate access by international humanitarian organizations to the devastated Kurdish areas. The Resolution did not authorize the use of force to enforce its requirements. However, when the Iraqi repressions continued, the US, UK and France launched an operation 'Provide Comfort' to create safe areas for the Kurds in Northern Iraq and no- fly zones in Sourthem Iraq to protect Shiite Muslims. The situation in and around Iraq was rather unique, but it seems that in the post-Cold War world we have more and more unique situations calling for unique answers. The UN Security Council has started to use the concept of a threat to international peace and security' while dealing with grave human rights violations. Operations in Somalia, former Yugoslavia, Haiti, Northern Iraq and Rwanda have all been authorized by the Security Council because it has found that the situation in these countries, or in parts of them, constituted a threat to international peace and security. Some of these humanitarian' emergencies may really have had serious security implications (e.g., the situation in the former Yugoslavia), while other have hardly had any, especially in the traditional military sense (e.g. the situation in Haiti). As the Security Council under the Charter can use or authorize the use of force only in the case of threat to international peace or security, the Council has always used this concept while dealing with human rights emergencies under Chapter VII. How can we evaluate such a development? It generally corresponds to changes which are taking place in the post-Cold War international system. International bodies, as well as individual states, should be able to respond adequately to challenges such as terrorist acts, drug-trafficking or inter-ethnic conflicts which during the Cold War were suppressed or at least overshadowed by the East-West conflict and its most important component - a threat of a thermo-nuclear was. The use of old articles in changed circumstances may sometimes require some stretching of traditional readings of these articles. Moreover, even if we cannot say that developments in Haiti or Rwanda threatened international peace in the traditional military sense, they had significant destabilizing effect on International relations. John Vincent observed some time ago that the concept of security in foreign policy studies was at once too narrow and too broad.k It
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VOLUME 8, ISSUE 10(3), OCTOBER 2019 was too narrow in being concentrated on safety against military threats and too broad in having safety against military threats trumping all other considerations in the external relations of the state. Such a re-definition of international security threats is even more urgent in the post-Cold War world. According to Michael Clark, for the further, international security should not be so exclusively regarded as - by definition - the study of relationships between states. It must, instead, be defined as the study of those forces which affect the outbreak of violent conflict between any significant groups of people in the world. The means that non-military and as to their root, non- international threats to international stability, like human rights emergencies, have to be taken very seriously. A new and interesting link between human rights and international security, apart from their intermingling in the second- generation peacekeeping operations, is to be seen in the creation and functioning of two international criminal Tribunals —one for the former Yugoslavia', 'the other one for Rwanda" —which have to try persons accused of violation of international humanitarian law, genocide or crimes against humanity. If the immediate purpose of these two international ad hoc) judicial bodies is to try individuals for crimes against human rights, i.e. to do justice, their longer term declared aim is to contribute to the restoration and maintenance of international peace and security. The Security Council could, under its mandate, create these bodies only because it had established this link between justice and peace. The Resolution of the Security Council which contained the Statute of the Tribunal for Rwanda determining that the situation in Rwanda continued to constitute a threat to international peace and security was convinced that 'in the particular circumstances of Rwanda, the prosecution of persons responsible for serious violations of international humanitarian law would.... contribute to the process of national reconciliation and maintenance of peace'. It seems that at least in the short term the creation and functioning of the Tribunals will hardly contribute in any way to the restoration of peace and stability in the former Yugoslavia or Rwanda. The accusations against and trials of politicians or military leaders who may be negotiating partners in the peace efforts in the former Yugoslavia will hinder these efforts and create conditions for an all-out war in the region. Such tribunals do not have any impact whatsoever on on-going conflicts. However, they may have a of international peace and security raises an interesting issue of the interpretation of Article 39 of the UN Charter. Article 39 provides that the Security Council shall determine the existence of any threat to the peace, breach of peace, or act of aggression and shall make recommendations, or decide what measures shall be taken in accordance with Article 41 and 42, to maintain or restore international peace and security. In particular while deciding whether to act and how to act under the article, which opens Chapter 7 of the Charter and which may trigger a range of measures under this Chapter, there should be at least a threat to international peace, if not a breach of peace or act of aggression, but the Security Council, having reacted to a situation which threatens international peace, may, it seems, continue to apply measures provided for in Chapter VII until not only peace is restored but also any threat to international security is eliminated. Though notions of international peace and security are obviously closely
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VOLUME 8, ISSUE 10(3), OCTOBER 2019 related and often used together and even interchangeably, the ordinary meaning of security is usually wider. There may be peace but not security. Certain acts may not threaten peace directly but they may well undermine international security. This means that in situations where a threat to international peace is created, inter alia, by gross and massive human rights violations, the Security Council may continue to enforce measures against the state which has created such a security threat until the. human rights situation has improved to such an extent that it does not any more constitute a threat to international security. In some cases this may require a change not only of characteristics of the regime but the veiy regime itself whose human rights policy may threaten international security.20
References 1. Ashish Chandra, Human Rights, Conflicts and Resolution: Peace and Human Rights, p. 59 2. Ajitpal Singh, International Terrorism. Changing Dimensions of'Security, 2008, p. 110 3. Ibid, no. 1. p. 62 4. A Subbian, Human Rights and Terrorism, Deep and Deep Publications, New Delhi, 2005, p. 112. 5. Cindy C Combs, "Terrorism", in Mansback and Rhodes, No.20, See also, T.V. Paurl and Non in M. Ripsman, "Under Pressure, Globalisation and the National Security State, Millennium Journal of International studies, Vol.33, No. 2, 2004 p. 373 6. Stephanie Lawson, International Relations, Blackwell Publishing, USA, 2004. 7. GMC Balayogi, “Terrorism is a Scourge of Modem Civilization”, in Varinder Grover (Ed.), Encyclopaedia of International Terrorism, Vol. I, Deep and Deep Publications, New Delhi, p. 125. 8. Shahwar Junaid, Terrorism and Global Power System, Karachi: OUP, 2005, p. 128. 9. K.P.S. Gill and Ajay Sahni, The Global Threat of Terror, Institute of Conflict Management, New Delhi, 2002, p. 89. 10. Adrian Guelke, Terrorism and Global Disorder, IB Tauris and Co., Ltd., 2006, p. 211. 11. C.J.M. Drake, Terrorists’ Target Selection, St. Martin’s Press Inc., United States of American, 1998, pp. 35-36. 12. Shahwar Junaid, no. 2, p. 168. 13. W.M. Landes, “AN Economic Study of US Aircraft Hijacking, 1961-1976”, Journal of Law and Economics, 1978, p. 21. 14. B.M. Jenking - “International Terrorism: Trends and Potentialities”, Journal of International Affairs, 1978, p. 122 15. Ajit Pal Singh, International Terrorism: Changing Dimensions to Security, Asian Communication Centre, 2008, p. 132. 16. K. Shanker Shetty, Reign of Terrorism, K. Shanker Shetty Publications, 2009, pp. 246-248. 17. Astri Shuki, “Human Security and the Interests of States” Security Dialogue, Voh 30, No. 3, Sage London, 1999, pp. 138-14. 18. UN (1995). “An Agenda for Peace”, Report of Secretary General, New York, United Nations. 19. UN Security Council (1991), UNSC Resolution, New York, United Nations. 20. UN Security Council (2002), Measures to Eliminates International Terrorism, New York, United Nations.
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