Agric. Rev., 26 (4) : 272 - 280, 2005 BIOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT OF L. - A REVIEW H. V. Nanjappa, P. Saravanane and B.K. Ramachandrappa Department of Agronomy, G.K.V.K., University of Agricultural Sciences, Bangalore - 560 065, India ABSTRACT Lantana camara L. (Family: Verbenaceae) considered as one of the ten world's worst weeds. It Is a weed of fence lines, pastures, rangelands, waste places and cultivated lands. It Is a perennial, erect shrub of 2 to 5 m taD with branches. Its seeds are dispersed by frugivorous birds. It Is found to be an alternate host of Dlaporthe sp., Physalopora fusca, Ascochyta phaseoJarom, Pratylenchus pratensls, HapJathrips navlceps and Thrips tabad. Lantana Is used far soil eroslan control, biogas production, fuel and medicinal purposes. lantana tops may be used as a plant nutrient source since It contains rich source of N, P and K, respectiwly. Management of lantana by mechanical and chemical control has not met with any reasonable success. So, lantana becomes a target for classtca1 bioIogtca1 control. Numerous natural exotic species and natural indigenous species were tried as bio control agents have also met with little or anly partial success. It can also be managed by utilizing as alIelopathlc source for weed management and as nutrient source for sustainable crop production. Thus, an Integrated management approach for the control of lantana should be evolved to control this noxious weed In the long run. Research Information on various studtes regarding the biology and management of this weed In India and allover world are reviewed In this paper.

Lantana camara L. (Family : 1917 and by 1941, it become serious problem Verbenaceae) is a perennial evergreen shrub on 40000 ha (Chakravarthy, 1963). At that spreads rapidly by its abundant seed and present, the total extent of lantana infestation shallow crown buds. Lantana is known by in the forests of Himachal Pradesh is to the several common names such as lantana, red tune of 1,30,000 ha. This weed has infested flowered sage, wild sage, white sage etc. around 55 per cent of the forestland in lower Lantana is an invasive plant originated in elevation «100 m) of Himachal Pradesh central and south America. However, a few (Ambika Sharma, 2002). Although no studies species of lantana are native to Africa and Asia. have been made on the exact area presently Lantana camara is the most common species under its domain, lantana has spread all over of lantana and it has been considered as one the country invading newer and newer areas of the ten worst weeds in the world (Holm and (Kazmi, 1999). Herberger, 1969). Description Lantana is a perennial, erect shrub or Historical background Lantana camara L. was introduced in in shady places, it is a straggling shrub, strongly odorous, 2 to 5 m tall with branches. 1809 at Calcutta botanical garden (Thakur et aJ., 1992) from Srilanka as ornamental Biology hedge bearing multicolour flowers. Because of a) , variation and plasticity its prolific seed production, it escaped to Lantana camara is highly variable cultivated land and now has become a serious species. It has been cultivated for over 300 weed in pastures, wastelands, road sides and years. These belong to the Lantana camara forests replacing local vegetation in most parts complex. Cultivars can be distinguished of India. This ~pecies was first recognized as a morphologically (variation in the flower size, serious weed in forested areas near Madras in shape, colour, leaf size, hairiness, and stem 1893. It had invaded 2000 hectares during thorniness), physiologically (Variation in the Vol. 26, No.4, 2005 273

Table 1. Description of Lantana camara and its parts Plant parts Description Stem Four angled, armed with recurved thorns Leaves Opposite, ovate to ovate-lanceolate, 2.5 to 10 em long, 1.75 to 7.5 cm wide, acuminate, the margins are crenate to dentate, upper surface is scabrous & rugose and lower surface is finely pubescent Petiole 2cmlong Inflorescence A dense, axillary, flat topped head-like spike, 1-3 cm across Calyx Cup shaped, 1.2 .:.. 2.2 mm long, shallowy 2 lobes, subtended by a bracteole Corolla Salverform, tube covered, 6-910ng,limb spreading, 4-8 mm across, yellow, orange, red or pink in the same head (generally yellow and pink on opening of corolla but changing to orange and red, sometimes blue or purple) Petals Four Peduncle 2.5 to 7.5 em long Fruit A drupe, globular, dark purple to black, 4-6 mm across at maturity, borne In clusters Seed One, about 1.5 mm long growth rates, toxicity to livestock) and by their. toxic-~ompound, Lantad-C, which caused chromosollle number and DNA content. hepatic lesions and changes in blood plasma b) Reproduction of compelled to graze upon It (Gupta, Rowers are yellow, later turning 1999). orange then red and remain on the axillary Ecology inflorescence for three days. The flowers when It Is a weed of cultivated land, fence yellow, produce nectar and are pollinated by lines, pastures, range lands and waste places. butterflies. The species is an obligate It thrives in dry and wet regions and often grows outcrosser. It Is unclear whether apomixis In valleys, mountain slopes and coastal areas. occurs. The fleshy drupe is 3-6 mm in diameter It is highly light-demandlng species and thrives containing 1-2 seeds (1.5 mm long). Fruits good on well drained soils with sufficient mature rapidly and change colour from dark moisture and with climate comparatively green to black. The seeds were dispersed by without extremes of heat and cold (areas with frugivorous bit'ds such as bulbul, sparrow, 1250 - 3750 mm rainfall). mynah, parrot, crow and ringdove and also by It can tolerate both humid and dry heat sheep and goats. Aowering and fruiting takes but cannot survive very low temperatures. It place throughout the year with a peak during Is slightly shade-tolerant and therefore can the first two months of the rainy season. Heavy become the dominant understorey In open fruit production takes places yearly. forestry or In tropical tree crops. However, Lantana may also.asexually reproduce excessive shade such as dense forests inhibits through cuttings taken In the summer time. its growth. It has low tolerance for boggy soils, c) Resilience and resistance saline soils and is susceptible to frost. Lantana regenerates quir.kly from the Distribution crown buds after cutting, trampling or burning Lantana camara can grow from to form dense, Impenetrable thick lets. Stems latitude 45° Nto 45°5, although it is most and roots coppice freely following herbicidal serious in the Caribbean area in Eastern Africa, treatment. South Africa, Southern Asia, and the The alkaloid rich leaves are virtually Pacific Islands. Its presence is noticed in Pacific Immune to herbivory. These leaves contain a islands, Pacific rim and-Indian ocean islands. 274 AGRICULTURAL REVIEWS It attained the status of obnoxious weed in the tse - tse fly infected with trypanosomes of Australia, South Africa and India. It is also domestic animals. The leaves and seeds are recognized as noxious weed in New Zealand toxic to many animals. Photosensitivity, gastro and banned from sale in that country. intestinal disturbances and death have followed Rao (1920) gave a detailed account the ingestion of these plant parts by sheep and of its distribution in India from the Himalayan calves. foothills to cape camorin. It has adapted well This species has been detrimental to to tropical and subtropical climatic conditions sandal wood forests in India, both through the and semiarid to humid regions. Tadulingam competition it offers and through its role in and Venkatnarayana (1932) mentioned it to the spread of sandal spike disease (Nayar and be a very troublesome weed in Coorg, Srimathl, 1968). Lantana acts as alternate host Travancore, Cochin, Tirunelvely, Yercaud, for several and diseases (Table 2). parts of Coimbatore and upto 5000 feet in Economic importance the Nilgris in south India. Lantana is often used for hedges and The lantana has adopted itself to soil erosion control. Twigs are used as fuel. conditions in Rajasthan, Himachal Pradesh, Number of minor uses includes seeds as lamb Assam, Bihar, Jammu & Kashmir, Delhi, Uttar food, blogas production when its tender twig Pradesh etc. is mixed with cowdung and medicinal purpose. Lantana has been used to treat ailments such Agricultural importance as the common cold, chicken pox, chest cold, Lantana camara is mainly a weed of fever, flu, fresh cuts, tooth aches and plantation crops and pastures. It is ranked inflammation in human beings. among the three most serious weeds in coffee in Indonesia. It is a principal weed of coconut Recently, Himalayan environmental in Rji and Trinidad and cotton in Turkey. studies and conservation organization (HESCO) of Himachal Pradesh started many It is troublesome in pastures in projects to utilize lantana by making incense Australia, East Africa, , Hawaii, India, sticks, incense cakes and mosquito repellents Philippines, South Africa and . (Kazmi, 1999) since their mosquito repellents It is a weed of banana in Samoa, Pine were found to have 70% effectiveness against Apple in Philippines, Sugarcane in Australia, mosquitoes. India and South Africa, tea in India and Lantana has a high coloriflc value and Indonesia, rubber in Malaysia, Cotton in carbon content which on partial burning Nicargua and rice in Indonesia (Holm et al., produces coal which would be made into 1977). briquettes for use in rural home as fuel. This In , the weed provides a could help to reduce the burden that is now favourable environment and breeding areas for being placed on the fuels. Moreover, lantana

Table 2. Role of Lantana as an alternate host for some important insects and diseases Weed Pest and diseases References Lantana camara Diaporthe sp. and Physa/opora fusea Stevens and Shear, 1929 Ascochyta phase%rum Alcorn, 1968 Praty/enchus pratensis Raabe, 1965 Hop/othrlps flaviceps and Thrips tabaci Carter, 1939 Vol. 26, No.4, 2005 275 tops may be used as a nutrient source, since it and the area to be planted with suitable species contains 2.5, 0.25 and 1.4% of N, P and K like Bahumia, amla, jamun, shlsham, slris, respectively (Sharma and Verma, 2000). bamboo, behesa etc. Few shoots that may Management emerge In the subsequent year may again be I) Physical methods: Conventional uprooted similarly. control methods such as burning, slashing and II) Chemical methods: Herblcldial digging result in the regrowth of larger number control of lantana, though possible, has not of roots. However, Himachal Pradesh State met with great acceptance. Lantana is Silviculture Department experimented the susceptible to translocated herbicides Including method of uprooting the lantana using a simple glyphosate, 2,4-0, fosamlne, dichlorprop and device called "Monkey Jack", which works on triclopyr, In which, glyphosate is found to be the principle of lever. This method includes the most effective as an overall spray. Probably, cutting the lantana above ground level initially lantana may also be susceptible to residual and then uprooting from the root system herbicides Including hexazinone and bromocil (Amblka Sharma, 2002). The cost of uprooting (Swarbrick, 1997). works out to be around Rs. 7400 per hectare

Table 3. Effect of herbicides on lantana management Herbicides Effects References Glyphosate Controls the new growth of lantana occurring Gupta, 1999 after burning or slashing its thickness Glyphosate Application at vigorous leaf initiation and Ambika Sharma, 2002 flowering stage kills the weed Metsulfuron Effective on lantana, if applied before annual Motooka et a/., 2002 droughts Glyphosate Foliar application is effective Motooka et a/., 2002 2,4- D and Dicamba Foliar application is ineffective Motooka et aI., 2002 Triclopyr ester Application on basal bark is effective but not Motooka et a/., 2002 in foliar application PIcloram Foliar application is effective Motooka et aJ., 2002

Further, Indepth studies are needed Chatterjee, 1940; Fullaway, 1958; Krauss, regarding the chemical control in lantana. 1962; Greathead, 1968; Harley, 1971; III) Biological methods: Physical Varma and Sadatullah, 1973; Julien, 1982; control and use of herbicides have not met with Muniappan and Virktamath, 1986 and Thakur any reasonable success. Keeping this in mind, et al., 1992). Lantana camara has become a target for Natural enemies of Lantama camara classical biological control (Muniappan and are found locally and the species introduced, Viraktamath, 1993). However in 1916, established and distributed in India can be Government of India c-acided to initiate classified into two categories for discussion. investigations on biological control of this weed a) Introduced species: Natural Exotic and appointed Ramachandra Rao, an eminent Species (NES), which have been either been entomologist, to carry out this work introduced into India by the human agency or (Muniappan and Viraktamath, 1986). have got introduced through other dispersal Biological control of lantana in India and all agencies, particularly air currents. over world was well documented (Beeson and 276 AGRICULTURAL REVIEWS

Table 4. Insects introduced into India for the biological control of Lantana camara Source Year Orthezia insignis Mexico (unintentional and accidental introduction from Sri Lanka) 1915 Epinotia lantanae Mexico (unintentional and accidental introduction) Lantanaphaga pusilJidactyla Mexico (unintentional and accidental introduction) Pre 1919 Ophiomyia lantanae Mexico via Hawaii 1921 Teleonemia scrupuJosa Mexico via Fiji, via Australia 1941 Salbia haemorrhoidalis West Indies 1969-70 Leptobyrsa decora Peru and Columbia via Australia 1971 Uroplata glrardi Brazil via Hawaii, via Australia 1971 tigris Mexico via West Indies 1971 Octotoma scabripennis Mexico via Hawaii, USA via Australia 1972 (Ramani, Pers. Comm., 2003) i) Plume , Lantanaphaga (Platyptilia) on teak leaves under h4nger stored conditions. pusillidactyJa (Walker) ( : .Non-host specificity of this bug was found to Pterophoridae) be a serious disadvantage to consider It as an The dark brownish plume, a native of biocontrol agent for lantana (Sen-Sarma and central and tropical South America, has been Thapa, 1981; Mishra and Sen- Sarma, 1986). introduced into India accidentaUy due to upper iv) Lantana lace bug, TeJeonemia scrupulosa air currents (Beeson and Chatterjee, 1940). Stal. (Hemiptera: Tingidae) However, its efficiency to check lantana was The lantana lace bug was the first not really of higher order (Rao, 1920). insect to have ever been tried for biological Interestingly, it proved as a promising control of lantana. It was first introduced to biocontrol agent in Hawaii. Hawaii in 1902 from Mexico. A colony of 80 ii) Lantana soft scale insect, Orthezia insignis adults was imported from Canberra (Australia) Douglas (Homoptera : orthezidae) to India in 1941 by the Forest Research This species is polyphagous and found Institute. This tinged bug is probably the most to attack number of economically important useful and potential agent for the suppression plants as well as weeds such as chromolaena of lantana, particularly in drier, low rainfall and mikania (Muniappan and Viraktamath, areas in arid and semiarid zones of the country. 1986) but, it is particularly common in lantana This bug feeds on young and tender leaves of (Thakur et al., 1992). In view of its lantana which lead to complete defoliation, polyphagous nature, this species does not resulting in temporary recession of the weed prove as a successful biocontrol agent of to newer areas (Thakur et aI., 1992). lantana, except under the most strictly v) Chrysomelid leaf miner, Octotoma supervised experimental conditions (Beeson scabripennis Guer and UropJata girardl Pic. and Chatterjee, 1940). (Coleoptera : Chrysomelidae) iii) Tingid bug, Leptobyrsa decora Drake The studies carried out in the past by (Hemiptera : Tingidae) Department of Agriculture, Hawaii, clearly This bug feeds on mature and hard indicated that both are host-specific to lantana leaves of lantana and can successfully thrive and could play an useful role in biocontrol under shadwed moist conditions of forest (Harley, 1969). Subsequently, these insects canopy (Thakur et aI., 1992). This bug found were introduced to Australia. Introduction into to feed on the teak and also able to complete India by Forest Research Institute in 1971 have its life cycles consecutively for two generations followed their success in Hawaii and Australia. Vol. 26, No.4, 2005 277

Urop/ata girarcli favours cooler semi-shaded x) Salbla (= Syngamia) haemorrholdalis conditions and Octotoma scabripennis can Guenne (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) withstand host exposed situations. Both these Species with high potential as bio species are also free of parasites and predators. control agents. Though initial attempts have vi) Stem and root borer, Plaglohammus failed, but it needs to be reinvestigated· under splnlpennls (Thoms) (Coleoptera : Indian conditions (Thakur et aI., 1992). Cerambycidae) B) Natural Indigenous Species (NIS): Natural A native of Central and South Indigenous Species (NIS), which were screened America has high biotic potential and climatic by earlier workers and found useful bio control adaptability makes this species an ideal agents (Table 5). biological control of the weed. It is very IV) Management by utilization destructive to host, if maintained for several a) AIlelopathy: Achhireddy and Singh years. This species is an ideal candidate for (1984) reported that lantana residues are reintroduction in India to reinforce the existing al1elopathic to milk weed vine (Morrenla spectrum of natural enemies of the weed odorata Undl). This al1elopathic effect might (Thakur et a/., 1992). be due to release group of phenolic compounds vii) Lantana seed fly, Ophlomyia Jantanae viz. p-hydroxybenzoic, syringic, ferulic, p­ (Frog.) (Diptera : Agromyzidae) coumaric, m-coumaric, protocatechuic, Lantana seed fly, a native of Mexico, gentisic, vanillin and methyl coumarin (Jain accidental1y introduced along with lantana etaI., 1989). Umapathi eta/. (2000) indicated (Subramaniam, 1934) and playa role of minor that Incorporation of lantana combined with economic value in preventing the dispersal of hand weeding resulted in effective control of the seeds by birds by way of rendering the sedges due to release of allelochemlcals. The berries unattractive to them (Thakur et aJ., al1elopathlc effect of lantana may also utilized 1992). for the non chemical weed management In the viii) Lantana fruit borer, Eplnotia Jantanae present day crop production (Nanjappa and (Busk) (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) Saravanane, 2003). Larvae of lantana fruit borer were b) Source of nutrients: Sharma and found to· bore the berries and receptacle of Verma (2000) reported that lantana contains lantana. Continuous boring by the larvae makes 52.5, 2.5, 0.25 and 1.4 % of C, N, P and K the berries hollow and used as shelter by them. respectively. Long term addition of lantana The population occurs inside the berries improved the physlco-chemical properties of (Muniappan and Viraktamath, 1986). soil (Sharad and Verma, 2001a), soil nitrogen Recently, it was found that Eplnotia lantanae (Sharma and Verma, 2001), total and available and Ophiomyia lantanae affect over 95% of phosphorus (Sharma and Verma, 2000) and lantana berries around Bangalore, India zinc fractions (Sharad and Verma, 2001a). (Rabindra et a/., 2003). At present, a detailed study of utilizing ix) Hypena strlgata (Fabr.) and Diastema lantana as green biomass or compost In Potato tigris Guenne (Lepidoptera : Noctuiclae) • Anger millet sequence under alflsol condition This species should be searched in Is carried out by the authors in Department of North India which can be exploited for Agronomy, G.K.V.K., VAS, and Bangalore. biological control of this weed (Thakur et a/., Thus lantana may also managed by 1992). utilizing for the soil improvement and crop 278 AGRICULTURAL REVIEWS

Table 5. Indigenous lantana Insects having good potential as bio-control agents Name of Species Remarks References Asphondylia lantanae Felt. Destroys flowers and inhibits seed production. Rao, 1920 (Lantana gall fly) Lantana indica acts as alternate host. Thakur et a/., 1992 Hypena sp. (Near abyssinalis) Larvae feed on flowers and skeletonize the leaves. (defoliator) Heavy rains in Western Ghats adversely Thakur et aI., 1992 affects the population. Needs to be introduced and disseminated to new areas. Archips micaceana (Walk.) Feeds on the ripe fruits but with negligible effect Muniappan and (Homona micaceana) (borer) Viraktamath,1986

Table 6. Effect of lantana incorporation on the yield of different crops Crops Yield (t ha· 1) Yield increment References

l) Without lantana With lantana Increase (I ha° Increase l%l 0 Rice 1.81 2.20 0.39 21.55 Sharma et a/., 1988 3.65 4.29 0.64 17.53 Sharma and Verma, 2000 4.84 6.01 1.17 24.17 Sharad and Verma, 2oo1b Wheat 4.84 5.90 1.06 21.90 Sharma and Verma, 2000 4.75 5.92 1.70 30.51 Sharad and Verma, 2001b Maize 2.27 3.47 1.26 57.00 Kayuki and Wortmann, 2001 Groundnut 1.41 1.75 0.34 24.11 Mishra et aI., 1998 production in sustainable basis. However, there is an urgent need to develop Future strategy effective biological agents to manage the . In India, though the dimensions of the lantana. Moreover, development of useful lantana problem are fully realized, but our technology for its economic utilization can help efforts in this direction have not been matching in the management of this noxious weed. the magnitude of the weed problem by the Thus, effective management of policy makers and planners. There is every lantana with available techniques on campaign reason to be optimistic about the eventual basis with active participation of public, successful control of lantana. There is a room development departments of the government, for introduction of increased number of natural scientists and policy makers (Angigras and enemies to suppress this weed· in India Suresh, 2003) is a must for controlling the (Rabindra et al., 2003). For that matter, even weed in long run. other noxious weeds such as chromolaena and CONCLUSION mikania in India provided concerted and Not withstanding all the research sllstained inputs for research, training and efforts to contain the spread and encroachment extension are made available (Mishra and Sen­ of new areas by lantana dUring the last nine Sarma, 1986). decades, the weed has defied man and To control this weed in an effective continues to be one of the most challenging manner, integrated approach is suggested problems of the 20th century. The problem has rrhakur et aI., 1992). The major aspect of attained a global status and competing man integrated approach is the mechanical removal for every inch of the available space under most of weed followed by the treatment of herbicides of the agroclimatic zones of the world, and subsequent release of bio-control agents. particularly in drier areas. -

Vol. 26, No.4, 2005 279 Mechanical control and use of utilized for the non-chemical weed herbicides, have not met with any reasonable management in the present day crop success. Attempts to employ bio control production. agents, particularly exotic natural insect Taking all these factors into enemies, mostly from Tropical America, have consideration, it appears that if an integrated also met with little or only partial success. Most management approach for control of lantana of the insects, considered as potl'mtial is evolved, that will prove most effective in the biocontrol agents under simulated experimental long run. The lantana manag~ment process trials and causing severe damage to weed are shouldnot be stopped at once after the season known to have performed very poorly in the but continued till existing weed menace is field condition. Field-oriented intensive appreciably reduced. researches regarding biocontrol agents should ACKNOWLEDGEMENT be carried out in coming days. The authors are very grateful to Dr. However, the use of lantana as a S. Ramani, Senior Scientist, Project nutrient source has been found to give Directorate of Biological Control (PDBC), promising results in the recent days. Lantana Bangalore for providing valuable information improves the soil properties and increases the regarding the biological control of lantana crop yield in sustainable manner. The camara. allelopathic effect of lantana may also be REFERENCES Achhlreddy, N.R. and Singh, M. (1984). Weed Sci., 32: 757-761. Ambika Sharma (2002). The Tribune, Chandigarh, Jan 15. Angiras, N.N. and Suresh, K (2003). National Seminar on Allen Invasive Weeds in India, Jorghat, Assam, April 27- 29, pp 75-76. Alcorn, J. (1968). Aust. J. BioI. Sci., 21: 1143-1151. Beeson, C.F.C. and Chatterjee. N.C. (1940). Indian For. Rec. (Ent.) 6: 41-84. Carter, W. (1939) J. Ecol., 8: 261- 276. . Chakravarthy, S. (1963). Indian Agric., 71: 23-58. Fullaway, D.T. (1958). Hawaii Board Agric. and Forestry Bien. Rept., 1955-58: 70-74. Greathead, D.J. (1968). PANS, 14: 167-175 Gupta, D.P. (1999). Modern Weed Management. Agrobios (India), Jodhpur, India, 388p. Harley, KL.S. (1969). Bull. Ent. Res., 58: 835-843. Harley, K.L.S. (1971). PANS, 17: 433437 Holm, L. and J. Herberger, J. (1969). Proc. 2nd Asian Pacific Weed Control Exch., University of Wisconsin, Madison, pp.1-14. . Holm, G.L. et a/. (1977). In: The University Press of Hawaii, Honolulu, pp. 299-302. Jain, R. et a/. (1989). Weed Sci., 31: 302-307. Julien, M.H. (1982). Commonwealth Agricultural Bureau, Slough, U.K.: 108 Kayuki, KC. and Wortmann, C.S. (2001). Agron. J., 93: 929-935. Kazmi, S.MA (1999). Indian Express, Sep 9. Krauss, N.L.H (1962). Proc. Haw. Ent. Soc., 18: 134-136. Mishra, S.C. and Sen-Sarma, PK (1986). Indian Forester, 112: 1088-1093. Mishra, B. et a/. (1998). Bull. Indian Inst. Soil Sci., 2: 124-129. Muniappan, R. and Viraktamath, CA (1986). Crop. Pest Mng., 32: 40-42. Muniappan, R. and Viraktamath, CA (1993). CUrT. Sci., 64: 555-558". • Motooka, P. et al. (2002). Weeds of pastures and natural areas of Hawaii and their management. In press. Nanjappa, H.v. and Saravanane, P. (2003). National Seminar on Alien Invasive Weeds in India, Jorhat, Assam, April 27-29, pp. 75-76. Nayar, R. and Srimathi, RA (1968). Curro Sci., 31: 567-568. 280 AGRICULTURAL REVIEWS Raabe, R. (1965). Plant Disease Rep., 49: 583-585. Rabindra, R.J. et aI. (2003). National Seminar on Alien Invasive Weeds in India, Jorhat, Assam, April 27-29, pp. 38-39. Rao, Y.R. (1920). Mem. Dept. Agrlc. India (Ent. Series), Calcutta, 5: 239-314. Sen-Sarma, PK and Thapa, R.S. (1981). 'Recent Advances in Entomology in India'. (Ananthakrishnan, T.N. Ed.), Entomology Research Institute, Madras: 21-36. Sharad, N. and Verma, T.S. (2001a). J. indian Soc. Soil Sci., 49: 462-466. Sharad, N. and Verma, T.S. (200lb). J. indian Soc. Soil Sci., 49: 467-470. Sharma, S.K. et al. (1988). indian J. Agron., 33: 225-226. Sharma, R.P. and Venfla, T.S. (2000). J.lndlan Soc. Soil Sci., 48: 107-112. Sharma, R.P. and Verma, T.S. (2001). J. indian Soc. Soil Sci., 49: 407-412. Stevens, N. and Shear, C. (1929). Mycologla, 21: 313-320. Subramanlam, T.V. (1934). Indian J. Agrlc. Sci., 4: 468-470. Swarbrick, J.T. (1997). Weeds of the Pacificlslands. Technical paper No. 209. South Padflc Commission, Noumea, New Caledonia. 124 p. Thakur, M.L. et a/. (1992). indian Forester, 466-488. Tadulingam, C. and Venkatnarayana, G. (1932). A Hand Book of Some South indian Weeds, Government Press, Madras, 356pp. Umapathi, K. et aJ. (2000). Madras Agrlc. J., 87: 10-14. Varma, DK and Sadatullah, M. (1973). Indian J. Plant Protection, 1: 8-15.