U.N. SECURITY COUNCIL
Carter Smith
YMCA 2018 Southeastern High School Model United Nations YMCA Southeastern High School Model UN
Dear Delegates,
This year’s Staff would like to welcome you to SHSMUN 2018! With the belief in mind that MUN is FUN, we hope that you are as excited as we are for November 17-19. Our primary goal is to ensure that this Conference is the best one yet while maintaining the most authentic experience for you, our esteemed delegates. To accomplish our goal, we are constantly striving to evolve and improve in all the ways we can think of. For you, this means that General Committee procedure will run more smoothly, note passing will be easier, and committee sessions will be as amazing as they have always been, if you put the work in.
Hard work is a tradition at SHSMUN, so we hope to inspire you through these topic guides to be as prepared as possible to debate and collaborate on your topics. Most of the research and work of a Model UN delegate should come before the Conference in order to give your skill a chance to shine through in committee. We encourage you to really delve into your topics and country’s positions early on so that your Conference experience can be as fruitful as possible!
Whether this is your first year at SHSMUN or your fourth, no matter the committee you decide to participate in, you have the unique opportunity to learn about, understand, and advocate for another country’s position, one that you might not agree with. To be able to do this and do it well is a vital skill for the increasingly interconnected world we live in today, and what better place to practice it than right here at SHSMUN 2018!
With all of this in mind, please do not hesitate to contact your chair or any other Conference Staff members with your questions relating to topics, committee, or the Conference in general. We wish you the best of luck in your work, and we cannot wait to see all of your efforts pay off at the Conference come November!
Best of luck,
Lauren Tolbert Carter Smith Secretary-General Director-General [email protected] [email protected]
Emily Perez Karlyn Simcox Under-Secretary-General General Committee President [email protected] [email protected]
P.S. Make sure to keep up with the latest SHSMUN news and updates by following our social media accounts!
Instagram Twitter Snapchat @tnshsmun @tnshsmun @tnshsmun
UNSC | 1
YMCA Southeastern High School Model UN
Table of Contents
Parliamentary Procedure Cheat Sheets 3 Sheet 1: Overview of Common Points and Motions 3 Sheet 2: The Parliamentary Procedure Basics 4
Letter from the Chair 5
Committee History 6
Topic A: Integrating Human Capital into Conflict Transformation 7 Introduction 7 Background 8 Current Situation 10 Committee Directive and Jurisdiction 11 Questions to Consider 11 Suggested Sources 12
Topic B: The Situation in Yemen 13 Introduction 13 Background 13 Current Situation 15 Committee Directive and Jurisdiction 18 Questions to Consider 18 Suggested Sources 19
Topic C: Combatting Abuses in the Sinai Peninsula 20 Introduction 20 Background 21 Current Situation 22 Committee Directive and Jurisdiction 24 Questions to Consider 25 Suggested Sources 25
UNSC | 2
YMCA Southeastern High School Model UN
Parliamentary Procedure Cheat Sheets
Sheet 1: Overview of Common Points and Motions
May Requires Pro-Con May Be Vote Motion or Point Interrupt Second? Debate Amended? Required Speaker?
Chair’s Point of Order Y N N/A N Discretion
Chair’s Right of Reply Y N N/A N Discretion
Suspend the Simple N Y N/A Y Meeting Majority
Limit/Extend Simple N Y 1/1 Y Debate Majority
Limit Speaker’s Simple N Y 1/1 Y Time Majority
Introduce Simple N Y 1/1 N Amendment Majority
Introduce Simple N Y 2/2 N Resolution Majority
Enter Voting 2/3rds N Y 2/2 N Procedures Majority
Divide the Simple N Y 1/1 N Question Majority
2/3rds Table N Y 2/2 N Majority
Take from the Simple N Y 1/1 N Table Majority
Simple Caucus (ALL) N Y 1/1 Y Majority
Simple Roll Call Vote N Y 1/1 N Majority
Suspend the 2/3rds N Y 2/2 Y Rules Majority
UNSC | 3
YMCA Southeastern High School Model UN
Sheet 2: The Parliamentary Procedure Basics
Remember! 1. Any time you speak, you must begin by saying your name and country. 2. Before you ask questions to a delegate, you must say, “Does the delegate yield to a possible series of questions?” and if they yield, you may then ask up to three questions.
Speakers’ List: add yourself if you wish to speak on the topic. If you are on the docket, you are automatically added. When on the Speakers’ List, you may yield your time one of three ways: • To the chair: Chair absorbs the rest of your time. • To questions: Other delegates may ask you up to three questions. • To another delegate: Another delegate may speak for the rest of your time.
Caucuses: • Moderated caucus: a way to hear from multiple delegates for short periods of time; set a total speakers time, an individual delegate speaking time, and a topic • Roll Call Caucus: The Co-Chair will take roll, and every delegate will be given thirty seconds to speak on their position. • Unmoderated caucus: unregulated time to work on super-resolutions; stay on task.
Points: • Point of Order*: Used if a delegate incorrectly uses parliamentary procedure. • Point of Inquiry: Used to ask questions about parliamentary procedure or clarify what is going on; also used to ask for other delegates to speak louder, for boys to ask to remove their coats, to ask to change temperature of the room. • Right of Reply*: If another delegate directly slanders your country, you can use this to refute their claims and defend your nation.
*You may interrupt the speaker for these points
Introductions: • Amendments: In order to change or add anything to a resolution already introduced, you must send it to the dais and then move to introduce it. o Friendly amendments: The author(s) of the resolution(s) favor it and it is immediately added to the resolution. o Unfriendly amendments: The author(s) of the resolution(s) do not favor it, and it is put to a vote in committee. • Resolutions: 25% of the committee must be signatories, then send it to the dais and move to introduce it.
Ways to Vote (Resolutions and Amendments) • Simple Placard Vote: Delegates raise their placard to cast their vote (default). • Roll Call Vote: The Co-Chair will take roll and each country will say their response. • Vote By Unanimous Consent: If the entire committee is in favor of a resolution or amendment, you may suspend the rules and vote by affirmation.
UNSC | 4
YMCA Southeastern High School Model UN
Letter from the Chair
To the Security Council,
Hello! My name is Carter Smith, and I have the honor of being the President of the Security Council at SHSMUN 2018. This will be my fourth year at SHSMUN and second year on staff; prior to this, I served as the ECOFIN chair and was an ECOFIN delegate for two years (If you couldn’t tell, I really enjoy economics). Although I may not have conventional Security Council experience, SHSMUN 2017’s exhilarating SecCo crisis inspired me to pursue this position, and I hope that I can provide each you an unforgettable memory this November. However, when I’m not preparing for SHSMUN, I find time to pursue my love for consuming copious amounts of coffee, volunteering, Science Olympiad, Kanye West, and anything related to space. Narrowing down my list of favorite shows is difficult, but Seinfeld, The Office, and Black Mirror would definitely be my top 3. I cannot wait to meet each of you and bond over many hours of intense SecCo debate!
All committees at SHSMUN challenge you to think critically and to thoroughly understand your country’s position, but none compare to the added realism that comes along with the Security Council. As SecCo delegates, you must solve the most challenging and complex issues facing the international community, keeping in mind that your solutions that have legitimate, binding power. When I chose this year’s topics, I wanted to focus on emerging conflicts and issues that have a real possibility of evolving into a far worse problem. In the past, the Security Council has often only addressed global issues once they have reached a point of no return; however, this year’s topics present you with a unique opportunity to develop comprehensive solutions that confront the underlying tensions behind many conflicts.
Security Council demands unparalleled diplomatic and collaborative skill, something that I’m confident all of you will bring to SHSMUN 2018. I expect a strong understanding of your country’s positions, analysis of past SecCo decisions, and advanced knowledge of parliamentary procedure to allow for efficient debate to take place. Furthermore, thorough research of the topics and their international implications is necessary for SecCo to pass resolutions. If you have any questions or concerns, please contact me using the information I have provided below. I look forward to lively debate this November!
Sincerely,
Carter Smith 2018 Security Council President / Director-General [email protected] (423)244-1050
UNSC | 5
YMCA Southeastern High School Model UN
Committee History
The Security Council first convened in January of 1946 as one of the six principal organs of the United Nations (UN). Created as part of an effort to replace the ineffective League of Nations, the Security Council’s mandate is to maintain international peace and security. While its primary goal is to seek peaceful resolution to conflict, the Security Council is the only body of the UN which can create binding legislation for its member states. In addition, the Security Council is in charge of the establishment of peacekeeping operations, the imposition of military sanctions, and the authorization of military force.
The Security Council is comprised of 15 member states. These consist of the five permanent members (China, France, Russia, United Kingdom, and the United States) as well as ten rotating members. Five members are voted on annually, and they serve two-year terms. In order to achieve equal global representation, the rotating countries on the Council are broken down as follows: five total from Africa and Asia, one from Eastern Europe, two from Latin America, and two from any other regions of the world. Each member on the council receives a single vote, but a vote of “nay” from any of the five permanent members (colloquially referred to as the P5) serves as a “veto”; therefore, without the approval of all P5 nations, legislation cannot Pass.
Since its inception, the Security Council has played an active role in maintaining international security and peace. Beginning in 1948, the Security Council has conducted successful peacekeeping missions in Cambodia, Tajikistan, Guatemala, El Salvador, Namibia, and Mozambique. However, the Security Council has also experienced failures with peacekeeping, especially in Rwanda and Somalia where peacekeeping operations resulted in many unaddressed desires. These varying levels of success have led to modifications in the peacekeeping doctrine, most notably with the introduction of the robust peacekeeping mandate in MONUSCO, a peacekeeping mission based out of the Democratic Republic of the Congo.
In addition to peacekeeping, the Security Council is bestowed the power to use economic sanctions in concordance with Chapter VII of the UN Charter. The Council has used the power to sanction for not only countries, but also individuals and smaller entities from all parts of the world. As with peacekeeping, sanctions from the Security Council have a mixed record. Success stories can be seen in the former Yugoslavia, Liberia, and Libya, yet sanctions failures can be seen in Afghanistan, Iraq, and Angola. The Security Council’s attitude towards sanctions has shifted over the years, as sector-targeted sanctions are now considered to be more effective than broad measures, which crippled not only national economies but also adversely affected global growth. Additionally, the Security Council now accompanies these sanctions with supplemental support and investigative missions.
UNSC | 6
YMCA Southeastern High School Model UN
Topic A: Integrating Human Capital into Conflict Transformation
“Knowledge is power. Information is liberating. Education is the premise of progress, in every society, in every family.” - Kofi Annan, Former Secretary-General
Introduction
Human capital was first defined by Adam Smith in 1776 as “the acquired and useful abilities of all the inhabitants or members of the society”.1 To further expand this definition, human capital includes all skills and knowledge that citizens obtain through education, training, and first-hand experience. When analyzing the effects human capital has within the international community, one benefit becomes prominent: development.2 The development of a country can be broken down into two primary groups: developing and developed countries. Developing countries are more impoverished, have less social stability, and have a much lower Human Development Index (HDI) score when compared to developed countries.3 The Human Development Index, the universally accepted development indicator, shows the importance of human capital in development. Within the HDI, there are three main points that show the level of development: a long and healthy life, knowledge, and a decent standard of living. Human capital is a crucial component of a country’s HDI score and development, as it directly influences the knowledge and economic capacity of country.
There are two main ways in which development contributes to the stability of a country: better awareness of various cultures and the strengthening of the economy.4 Both of these involve human capital and help to prevent ethnic tension and violent anti-government conflicts. It has been well determined that poverty and limited job opportunities exasperate existing conflicts and make civil wars more likely to occur; a 2003 Harvard University study found that countries with high poverty are most susceptible to civil wars, that wars last longer in poor countries, and that development-based aid is crucial in post-conflict situations.5 Too often, international intervention in conflicts, including UN peacekeeping missions, neglects the role of human capital and development, leading to a post-conflict society highly vulnerable to further internal strife. Human capital is an essential aspect of the economic and social atmospheres in every country and must be improved in areas suffering from conflict to achieve long-term peace.
1 Task Force on Measuring Human Capital. "Guide on Measuring Human Capital" January 21, 2016. https://unstats.un.org/UNSD/nationalaccount/consultationDocs/HumanCapitalGuide%20Global%20Consultati on-v1.pdf 2 “The Human Development Index 2016." Human Development Index 2016 - HDI - Nations Online Project. Accessed March 18, 2018. http://www.nationsonline.org/oneworld/human_development.htm. 3 World Economic Situations and Prospects. "Country Classification." 2014. http://www.un.org/en/development/desa/policy/wesp/wesp_current/2014wesp_country_classification.pdf. 4 Debraj Ray and Joan Estaban. "Conflict and Development." April 28, 2017. https://www.nyu.edu/econ/user/debraj/Papers/EstebanRayAnnReviews.pdf. 5 Humphreys, Macartan. “Economics and Violent Conflict.” Harvard University, February 2003. https://www.unicef.org/socialpolicy/files/Economics_and_Violent_Conflict.pdf
UNSC | 7
YMCA Southeastern High School Model UN
Background
Over the past century, conflict has generally shifted from being an international issue involving multiple nations to a national issue characterized by civil war, terrorism, and internal strife. These conflicts often attack the fundamental governmental institutions of a country, severely limiting a country’s ability to fully recover by undermining education and industry. Believing that a strong foundation is necessary to peace, Former Secretary-General Boutros Boutros-Ghali issued a report highlighting the necessity to rebuild infrastructure and promote peaceful relations within a country, two aspects of conflict transformation that must be addressed when attempting to solve the problems associated with modern conflicts.6 Although it is not representative of modern conflicts, perhaps the most notable example of successful conflict transformation and the integration of human capital is the Marshall Plan, an economic plan designed to modernize industry, rebuild war-torn industry, and increase prosperity in Western Europe.7 The Marshall plan achieved tremendous success, eventually transforming Western Europe into one of the most prosperous and democratic regions of the world.
A prime example of the relationship between conflict and human capital took place during the Peruvian civil war. From roughly 1980-2000, Peru was involved in a prolonged war between the national army and the rebel group Partido Comunista del Perú-Sendero Luminoso (PCP-SL). The war resulted in the deaths of over 70,000 citizens, both combatants and non- combatants.8 Socially, there was a powerful and violent insurgency forming against the government, and economically, inflation rates had quadrupled, leading to increased poverty and economic disruption.9 In Peru, as well as other nations, conflict often coincides with decreased education and healthcare expenditures. From 1970 to 1985, secondary education expenditures in terms of the percentage of the per capita income decreased from 15.5% to 7.2%, and the number of hospital beds per 1000 people plummeted from 2.5 in 1975 to 1.3 in 1993.10 Such reductions in education and health expenditures has the potential of destabilizing a country for decades and contributing to worsening violence.
Similar to Peru, in 1970, during the Cambodian civil war, Cambodia's education system was placed under immense stress and ultimately collapsed under the new government. The rebel regime at the time, Khmer Rouge, focused their efforts on attacking school systems through both human and physical infrastructure. They targeted school teachers and administrators, intimidating and preventing them from teaching.11 Prior to the conflict, 1950-1969, there was a
6 Ghali, Boutros Boutros. "An Agenda for Peace." June 17, 1992. http://www.un-documents.net/a47-277.htm. 7 Lukacs, John. 1997. “A LOOK AT . . . THE LEGACY OF THE MARSHALL PLAN.” The Washington Post. WP Company. May 25. https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/opinions/1997/05/25/a-look-at-the- legacy-of-the-marshall-plan/47b5b44c-e1eb-4c68-bd46-5a29c5c76c73/?utm_term=.9d8d39743555. 8 “Peru.” n.d. CJA. https://cja.org/where-we-work/peru/. 9 Ibid 10 Nepal, Mani. “MAOIST PEOPLE’S WAR AND ITS SOCIO-ECONOMIC IMPACTS IN PERU.” Economic Journal of Development Issues, 2009. https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Mani_Nepal/publication/225291771_MAOIST_PEOPLE%27S_WAR_A ND_ITS_SOCIO-ECONOMIC_IMPACTS_IN_PERU/links/5584b01c08aeb0cdaddbcc7d/MAOIST- PEOPLES-WAR-AND-ITS-SOCIO-ECONOMIC-IMPACTS-IN-PERU.pdf 11 “Cambodia's Brutal Khmer Rouge Regime.” 2014. BBC News. BBC. August 4. https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-pacific-10684399.
UNSC | 8
YMCA Southeastern High School Model UN
steady increase in the years of schooling the average citizen received; however, when the regime overthrew the government and took full control over the country in 1975, there was a significant drop in total time spent in schooling and the number of intellectuals.12 The regime, fearful of an uprising, began a campaign of genocide and mass imprisonment aimed at eradicating all intellectuals and others suspected of overthrowing the regime.13 This example shows how conflict affects human capital and how, without sufficient knowledge, citizens can be prevented from making reforms and participating in the government.
Another instance of the relationship between human capital and conflict can be seen in Ghana, where the use of vocational training helped to rebuild the economy of the country after devastating violence in Northern Ghana.14 Vocational training is a form of education that focuses on teaching technical skills required for a specific occupation or sector of the economy. This type of training is extremely useful to those who do not have the time to spend years in school and must begin a career and make money immediately.15 In Ghana, vocational training is present for most sectors of the economy and is provided by NGOs and some universities.16 This has helped a struggling Ghana to improve their agricultural and business sectors, allowing them to reach a 2.5% GDP growth rate and 9.3% annual GDP growth rate.17 The use of vocational training to improve human capital in Ghana has greatly contributed to the development and current stability in Ghana. One of the major benefits that emerges directly from increased access to education are the greater demands for social and economic reforms within a country. Through these new reform movements, issues such as poverty, land rights reform, and women in society have been addressed, often resulting in drastic policy changes.18 Adult education initiatives have proven to be successful in bettering job opportunities, decreasing poverty rates, and increasing the standard of living, three crucial aspects to creating a peace, post-conflict state.19, 20 Overall, greater access to education and human capital provides the opportunity for advancements in adult education, decreasing a country’s likelihood of descending into violence or unrest.
12 UNESCO. "The Quantitative Impact of Conflict on Education." 2011. http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0019/001913/191304e.pdf. 13 Ibid 14 Sulemana, Mohammed. 2009. “Understanding the Causes and Impacts of Conflicts in the Northern Region of Ghana.” Africa Portal. Brookings Institution. August 1. https://www.africaportal.org/publications/understanding-the-causes-and-impacts-of-conflicts-in-the-northern- region-of-ghana/. 15 Bindir, Umar. "Vocational Training - WHAT IS VOCATIONAL TRAINING?, OTHER OPPORTUNITIES FOR VOCATIONAL TRAINING, CONCLUSION." Interview, Schools, and Programs - StateUniversity.com. Accessed March 19, 2018. http://careers.stateuniversity.com/pages/854/Vocational-Training.html. 16 Savion, Roy. "Vocational Training In Ghana." Vocational Training. February 10, 2018. Accessed March 19, 2018. https://www.vocationaltraininghq.com/vocational-training-in-ghana/. 17 "Ghana GDP 1960-2018 | Data | Chart | Calendar | Forecast | News." Ghana GDP | 1960-2018 | Data | Chart | Calendar | Forecast | News. 2018. Accessed March 19, 2018. https://tradingeconomics.com/ghana/gdp. 18 Walters, Shirley. "Social Movements, Class and Adult Education." 2005. https://www.academia.edu/19613090/Social_movements_class_and_adult_education. 19 Bray, M. et al. (eds) (2007). Comparative education research: approach and methods. Hong Kong: Comparative Education Research Centre, University of Hong Kong, Springer (CERC Studies in Comparative Education, 19). 20 Greinert, W.-D. (2004) European vocational training systems: some thoughts on the theoretical context of their historical development. European Journal of Vocational Training, No 32, p. 18-25.
UNSC | 9
YMCA Southeastern High School Model UN
Current Situation
In recent years, there has been increased focus around incorporating human capital into conflict resolution after decades of neglect. The most prominent of these systems would be the United Nations Seventeen Sustainable Development Goals, key goals that must be met in order to fully develop the world, most of which correlate with human capital.21 The specific goals that most directly apply to the application of human capital in conflict resolution are Quality Education; Gender Equality; Decent Work and Economic Growth; and Industry, Innovation, and Infrastructure.22 The main goal of SDG 4, Quality Education, is to “ensure inclusive and quality education for all and promote lifelong learning.”23 This specific goal captures the main ideals of human capital and provides opportunities for advancement and gender equality. By analyzing data from over 114 countries, it becomes obvious the extent to which education affects economic inequality; by increasing years of schooling by just one year, the Gini coefficient, a measurement of economic inequality, drops by 1.4 percent.24 Another important goal for human development, Decent Work and Economic Growth (SDG 8), focuses on “promot[ing] inclusive and sustainable economic growth, employment and decent work for all.”25 In order to maintain decent work and allow a state to grow economically, citizens must be given the highest quality of education and training in order to improve their knowledge. The last goal that heavily focuses on human capital is Industry, Innovation, and Infrastructure (SDG 9). This goal’s main focus is to, “build resilient infrastructure, promote inclusive and sustainable industrialization and foster innovation.”26 Insufficient infrastructure, lack of proper healthcare, and poor access to education and jobs significantly prohibits the growth of human capital and makes conflict between groups far more likely. Although these sustainable development goals outline the steps that need to be taken in order to achieve development and peace through human capital, countries and UN peacekeeping missions have not adequately implemented them into conflict resolution.
One significant example of using human capital for conflict transformation is the United Nations International Children’s Economic Fund’s School-in-a-Box program. This system deploys school supplies and teaching materials to regions suffering from conflict and allows their education to continue through the conflict.27 In theory, this gives children access to continuous education during long periods of conflict. While this system does work in a lot of ways, it is not sufficient to fix the issue of human capital and conflict because of three main issues: lack of content specific items, limited regional access, and their deployment during a conflict. Due to the
21 "#Envision2030: 17 Goals to Transform the World for Persons with Disabilities Enable." United Nations. Accessed March 19, 2018. https://www.un.org/development/desa/disabilities/envision2030.html. 22 Ibid 23 UNDP. "Why It Matters: Quality Education." http://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/wp- content/uploads/2017/02/ENGLISH_Why_it_Matters_Goal_4_QualityEducation.pdf. 24 Ibid 25 UNDP. "Why It Matters: Decent Work and Economic Growth." http://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/wp-content/uploads/2016/08/5_Why-it- Matters_DecentworkandEconomicGrowth_2p.pdf 26 UNDP. "Why It Matters: Industry, Innovation, and Infrastructure" http://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/wp-content/uploads/2016/08/9_Why-it-Matters_Goal- 9_Industry_1p.pdf 27 "School-in-a-Box." UNICEF. October 09, 2017. Accessed March 19, 2018. https://www.unicef.org/supply/index_40377.html.
UNSC | 10
YMCA Southeastern High School Model UN
fact that different countries and different age groups are learning various content, the individuality of the box is limited and does not focus on the educational content that is specific to every region. Also, some regions cannot be accessed due to safety concerns or, in certain cases, children being forced into labor or soldiery and not having access to safe locations for education. The biggest problem as it applies to the topic of human capital is that the help is often not given until a country has begun to experience a conflict. While this is beneficial in ensuring that children are provided a continuous education, it does not solve the root of the problem: inadequate integration of education and human capital into conflict resolution.28
It is necessary that actions taken by the Security Council, whether the use of economic sanctions or peacekeepers, is done with development and human capital at the forefront of the solution. Many current peacekeeping operations, such as UNMISS and MINUSCA, have been accused of inadequately resolving conflicts; often these missions are accused of not properly protecting the rule of law and educational institutions.29 If citizens are not provided with educational and job opportunities, they are more likely to turn towards organized criminal groups or militant groups as means to bring change or provide for themselves, resulting in a vicious cycle of violence and poverty. Due to this, existing and future UN peacekeeping operations must reevaluate the formulation of peacekeeping mandates as well as the role of deployed forces.
Committee Directive and Jurisdiction
The United Nations Security Council will convene in order to decide the means and methods in which human capital should be involved and implemented into the process of conflict resolution. The committee must decide the extent to which human capital assists countries after conflict and how best to integrate human capital, if at all, into conflict resolution around the world. Delegates should explore the many scenarios where human capital has either played a role in solving a conflict or been negatively affected by a conflict. They should evaluate possible solutions on how to minimize the effects of conflict on human capital and education. The delegates should also focus on developing a robust system through which human capital can be easy established within areas of conflict. A crucial aspect in doing that includes significantly improving the means and ways in which conflict transformation is handled. This should include a thorough examination of UN peacekeeping operations and how such missions are limited by the UN mandates. Delegates need to decide which aspects are most crucial to the wellbeing of a country and determine methods to implement this into conflict resolution. If the role of human capital in conflict resolution remains neglected, conflict and post-conflict zones will continue to be susceptible to unrest which threatens to undermine any gains that are made by the UN.
Questions to Consider
1. Has your country experienced conflict that threatened development of human capital? If so, how was the conflict dealt with? 2. Should UN peacekeeping operations reflect the use of human capital?
28 Ibid 29 Oladipo, Tomi. 2017. “The UN's Peacekeeping Nightmare in Africa.” BBC News. BBC. January 5. https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-38372614.
UNSC | 11
YMCA Southeastern High School Model UN
3. How should conflicts be resolved so that long-lasting peace can be established? To what extent should human capital be involved? 4. How can countries utilize human capital to prevent the outbreak of conflict in the first place? 5. What are the limitations to relying on human capital in conflict resolution? Are there any consequences to this approach?
Suggested Sources
1. Violent Conflict and Human Capital Accumulation | Households in Conflict Network http://www.hicn.org/wordpress/wp-content/uploads/2012/06/wp99.pdf 2. Assessing the State-of-the-Art in Conflict Transformation | Center for Constructive Conflict Management https://www.berghof- foundation.org/fileadmin/redaktion/Publications/Handbook/Articles/reimann_handbook.p df 3. Quantitative Effect of Conflict on Education | UNESCO http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0019/001913/191304e.pdf 4. Benefits of Vocational Training | CEDEFOP http://www.cedefop.europa.eu/EN/Files/5510_en.pdf 5. Sustainable Development Goals | UNDP http://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/sustainable-development-goals.html
UNSC | 12
YMCA Southeastern High School Model UN
Topic B: The Situation in Yemen
“My neighborhood looks like a ghost city, all my neighbors have fled because they were scared of the situation and of being bombed” - Anonymous Yemeni citizen
Introduction
Over the past decade, Yemen has gone from an impoverished nation dealing with rampant corruption to a battleground dominated by regional powers vying for political influence. With 17.8 million Yemeni citizens classified as food insecure, 2 million Internally Displaced Persons (IDPs), and over 16,000 confirmed civilian casualties, the Yemeni civil war is considered the worst ongoing humanitarian disaster.30, 31 In what began as a limited separatist movement following the Arab Spring, the Yemeni civil war has evolved into a regional proxy war involving neighboring states and non-state actors, dividing the Yemeni state into various Saudi-backed, tribal, or rebel enclaves. The conflict has brought prolonged suffering to Yemeni citizens - according to the UNHCR, 89% of IDPs are displaced for a period of time exceeding a year.32 To exasperate the humanitarian and economic crisis, clashes between the Houthi separatist movement and the Saudi-backed Abdrabbuh Mansour Hadi government have crippled Yemen’s existing infrastructure. Since the onset of the civil war, approximately 50% of healthcare facilities have been destroyed or left partially functioning, resulting in a cholera outbreak with 1 million suspected cases between 27 April and 31 December 2017.33 The Saudi- led coalition combined with Iranian support of the Houthi rebels has led to further escalation of the crisis, presenting the UN Security Council with a problem that only it is equipped to properly solve. All attempts at brokering peace, whether through NGOs or the United Nations, have failed to achieve change in Yemen. Prior approaches have lacked significant input from involved parties, and the majority have been piecemeal efforts aimed at providing humanitarian or economic aid, rather than addressing the root of the conflict. Without a comprehensive plan of action by the United Nations Security Council, the situation in Yemen has the possibility of expanding beyond the confines of Yemen and resulting in unbearable suffering for all parties involved.
Background
As with many modern conflicts, the situation in Yemen is rooted in ethnic and religious tension originating from the turn of the century. Dissatisfied with Yemeni President Ali Abdullah Saleh, a Shia religious-political group known as the Houthis launched an insurgency movement against the government in 2004.34 The Houthi insurgency remained a predominantly localized
30 “Yemen | UN News.” United Nations. United Nations, n.d. https://news.un.org/en/focus/yemen. 31 “OHCHR | Press Briefing Note on Yemen and Nicaragua.” OHCHR | Convention on the Rights of the Child. https://www.ohchr.org/en/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=22980&LangID=E. 32 “Yemen UNHCR Update, 15 - 31 January 2018.” ReliefWeb, UNHCR, 31 Jan. 2018, https://reliefweb.int/report/yemen/yemen-unhcr-update-15-31-january-2018. 33 “WHO Annual Report 2017 - Yemen.” World Health Organization, WHO Regional Office for the Eastern Mediterranean, 2018, www.who.int/emergencies/crises/yem/yemen-annual-report-2017.pdf?ua=1. 34 Hill, Ginny. “Middle East | Yemen Fears Return of Insurgency.” BBC News. BBC, February 5, 2007. Last modified February 5, 2007. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/6331149.stm.
UNSC | 13
YMCA Southeastern High School Model UN
conflict within Northern Yemen until 2009 when President Saleh initiated Operation Scorched Earth, a military campaign aimed at dislodging the Houthis from locations along the Southern Saudi border.35 Following a border attack by Houthi rebels in November 2009, the Saudi Arabian government began an official military campaign against rebels in Northern Yemen; Houthi rebels, however, accused the Saudi military of "flagrant aggression and dangerous intervention" in reaction to alleged prior Saudi intervention.36 This incident, alongside Yemeni seizure of Iranian armaments bound for Houthi controlled territory in late 2009, signaled the beginning of civil war that would eventually consume Yemen as Saudi Arabia and Iran attempted to expand their spheres of influence.37
Although the Houthi insurgency achieved moderate success in Northern Yemen, it initially failed to garner internal or external support for the cause; however, Yemeni citizens took to the streets in January 2011 following the successful Arab Spring protests that overthrew the Tunisian government.38 On 27 January 2011, 16,000 non-violent protesters gathered in Sana’a to protest President Saleh’s economic policies and demand for his resignation, a call that President Saleh rejected.39 A combination of high unemployment and government crackdowns on opposition leaders led to a series of larger demonstrations in early February, again calling for Saleh’s resignation. Between April and May 2011, the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) prepared plans for Saleh to relinquish his position as president on three separate occasions, all of which were rejected by Saleh after further consideration.40 In reaction to the collapse of the GCC’s third transition agreement, the Hashid and Bakil tribal federation initiated a week of opposition, ultimately culminating in a failed assassination attempt on President Sahel.41, 42
Calling for the adoption of the GCC agreement and condemning the human rights violations committed by Yemeni authorities, the UN Security Council unanimously adopted S/RES/2014 on 21 October 2011.43 S/RES/2014 urged President Saleh to finally adopt the GCC
35 Karam, Souhail. “Saudi Air Force Hits Yemen Rebels after Border Raid.” Reuters. Thomson Reuters, November 5, 2009. Last modified November 5, 2009. https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saudi-yemen- attack/saudi-air-force-hits-yemen-rebels-after-border-raid-idUSTRE5A41TF20091105. 36 Arrabyee, Nasser, and Gulf News. “Saudi Intervention in the War against Rebels Denied.” GulfNews. gulfnews, November 2, 2009. Last modified November 2, 2009. https://gulfnews.com/news/gulf/saudi- arabia/saudi-intervention-in-the-war-against-rebels-denied-1.522587. 37 “Yemenis Intercept 'Iranian Ship'.” BBC News. BBC, October 27, 2009. Last modified October 27, 2009. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/8327892.stm. ,Home.” LibGuides : ﻊﯿﺑﺮﻟا ﻲﺑﺮﻌﻟا * Arab Spring: A Research & Study Guide“ 38 https://guides.library.cornell.edu/arab_spring. 39 Ibid. 40 Sana'a, Tom Finn /. “The Specter of Civil War Grows in Yemen as Saleh Backs Out of Peace Deal.” Time. Time Inc., May 23, 2011. Last modified May 23, 2011. http://content.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,2073460,00.html. 41 “Saleh Loses Grip on Yemen's Tribes.” Public Radio International. PRI, n.d. https://www.pri.org/stories/2011-06-01/saleh-loses-grip-yemens-tribes. 42 Black, Ian. “Yemen Slides towards All-out War after President Saleh Survives Rocket Attack.” The Guardian. Guardian News and Media, June 3, 2011. Last modified June 3, 2011. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/jun/03/yemen-clashes-ali-abdullah-saleh. 43 UN Security Council, Resolution 2014 (2011) [on the situation in Yemen], 21 October 2011, S/RES/2014, https://www.securitycouncilreport.org/atf/cf/%7b65BFCF9B-6D27-4E9C-8CD3- CF6E4FF96FF9%7d/YEMEN%20S%20RES%202014.pdf.
UNSC | 14
YMCA Southeastern High School Model UN
agreement, stating, “[The Security Council] Reaffirms its view that the signature and implementation as soon as possible of a settlement agreement on the basis of the Gulf Cooperation Council initiative is essential for an inclusive, orderly, and Yemeni-led process of political transition.”44 In response to growing international pressure, President Saleh agreed to sign the GCC transfer agreement on 23 November 2011, officially transferring the presidency to Vice President Abed Rabbo Mansour al-Hadi and ending 33 years of rule.45, 46 The single- candidate presidential election which elected Abed Rbbo Mansour al-Hadi as president in February 2012 was initially welcomed by the international community - many states saw the election as the first step to transitioning into a proper democracy and preventing the outbreak of civil war.47 Despite early success, the election was soon followed by widespread violence and terrorist incidents which threatened to undermine any success achieved after former President Saleh’s resignation. By June 2012, violence committed by non-state actors prompted the UN Security Council to adopt S/RES/2051, which outlined the steps necessary to complete the political transition and established the Council’s willingness to implement Article 41 of the UN Charter if required.48
Between the 2012 Yemeni presidential election and the outbreak of civil war in 2015, the Houthi insurgency movement became increasingly emboldened and launched a series of attacks on military installations and civilian targets throughout Northern Yemen. The insurgency movement took advantage of President Hadi’s weak authority as well as general discontent with the dire economic situation - youth unemployment reached nearly 28% and GDP per capita was approximately $1400 USD in 2012 - to create an environment that was prime for a civil war.49, 50 In addition, the international community’s preoccupation with other conflicts in the region - most notably the Libyan civil war - damaged political developments following former President Saleh’s resignation and sparked the multi-dimensional conflict that is currently taking place.
Current Situation
The situation in Yemen devolved into its current form after the Houthi seizure of the Yemeni capital, Sana’a, in late 2014, allowing for the Houthi movement to increase their
44 Ibid. 45 Fahim, Kareem, and Laura Kasinof. “Yemen's Leader Agrees to End 3-Decade Rule.” The New York Times. The New York Times, November 23, 2011. Last modified November 23, 2011. https://www.nytimes.com/2011/11/24/world/middleeast/yemen-saleh-transfer-power-deal-saudi-arabia.html. 46 “Agreement on the Implementation Mechanism for the Transition Process in Yemen in Accordance with the Initiative of the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) | UN Peacemaker.” United Nations, Gulf Cooperation Council, https://peacemaker.un.org/yemen-transition-mechanism2011. 47 Al Jazeera. “Yemen Election Ends Saleh's 33-Year Rule.” Israeli–Palestinian Conflict | Al Jazeera. Al Jazeera, February 21, 2012. Last modified February 21, 2012. https://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2012/02/201222117511739757.html. 48 UN Security Council, Resolution 2051 (2012) [on the situation in Yemen], 12 June 2012, S/RES/2051(2012), https://www.securitycouncilreport.org/atf/cf/%7b65BFCF9B-6D27-4E9C-8CD3- CF6E4FF96FF9%7d/YEMEN%20S%20RES%202051.pdf. 49 “Youth Unemployment Rate for the Republic of Yemen.” FRED. Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis, April 25, 2018. Last modified April 25, 2018. https://fred.stlouisfed.org/series/SLUEM1524ZSYEM. 50 “GDP per Capita (Current US$).” GDP Growth (Annual %) | Data. https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.PCAP.CD?locations=YE.
UNSC | 15
YMCA Southeastern High School Model UN
political influence.51 In response, President Hadi and Prime Minister Khaled Bahah resigned on 22 January 2015, a move that preceded the Houthi dissolution of parliament and establishment of a Houthi government in early February.52, 53 Houthi consolidation of power drew unanimous UN Security Council condemnation in S/PRST/2015/8 and S/RES/2201 as well as accusations of a coup d'état from the GCC.54 Despite threats of international intervention, Houthi insurgents and defected government forces took control of Western Yemen in late March, captured the city of Taiz on 22 March 2015 with limited resistance, and on 24 March, launched an offensive against Southern Yemen aimed at capturing Aden, the temporary capital of the Yemeni government in exile.
Significant gains by the Houthi rebels prompted the Saudi Arabian government to organize Operation Decisive Storm, an air and naval military offensive involving the UAE, Bahrain, Kuwait, Qatar, Egypt, and Morocco.55 This coalition served as the first official military response to the Houthi coup d'état and signaled the beginning of a broader proxy war involving regional powers. Operation Decisive Storm, which lasted from 26 March 2015 to 21 April 2015, experienced widespread support from the Organization for Islamic Cooperation (OIC) and Arab League; the Arab League proceeded to organize a joint Arab military force which intended to prevent further land acquisition by the Houthis and limit the sale of arms to Houthi territory.56 International opposition to the Houthi rebels culminated in UN Security Council Resolution 2216 which established an arms embargo on the Houthis and demanded the rebels to “immediately and unconditionally withdraw their forces.”57, 58 Specifically, S/RES/2216 stated, “Calls upon Member States [...] to inspect [...] all cargo to Yemen, in their territory, including seaports and airports.”59 This resolution signaled a substantial increase in international pressure on the Houthi
51 “How Yemen's Capital Sanaa Was Seized by Houthi Rebels.” BBC News. BBC, September 27, 2014. Last modified September 27, 2014. https://www.bbc.com/news/world-29380668. 52 Bayoumy, Yara. “Yemen President Quits, Throwing Country Deeper into Chaos.” Reuters. Thomson Reuters, January 22, 2015. Last modified January 22, 2015. https://www.reuters.com/article/us-yemen- security-houthis/yemen-president-quits-throwing-country-deeper-into-chaos- idUSKBN0KV0HT20150122?feedType=RSS&feedName=topNews. 53 “Yemen Crisis: Houthi Rebels Announce Takeover.” BBC News. BBC, February 6, 2015. Last modified February 6, 2015. https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-31169773. 54 Ghobari, Mohammed. “Gulf Countries, Opposition Say Houthi Takeover in Yemen a 'Coup'.” Reuters. Thomson Reuters, February 7, 2015. Last modified February 7, 2015. https://www.reuters.com/article/us- yemen-security-idUSKBN0LB07220150207. 55 “Factbox: Saudi-Led Coalition against Yemen's Houthis.” Reuters. Thomson Reuters, April 10, 2015. Last modified April 10, 2015. https://www.reuters.com/article/us-yemen-security-coalition-factbox- idUSKBN0N11F220150410. 56 “Arab League Agrees to Create Joint Military Force.” BBC News. BBC, March 29, 2015. Last modified March 29, 2015. https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-32106939. 57 “Security Council Imposes Arms Embargo on Yemen Rebels, Demands All Parties Resume UN-Backed Talks | UN News.” United Nations. United Nations, n.d. https://news.un.org/en/story/2015/04/495802- security-council-imposes-arms-embargo-yemen-rebels-demands-all-parties-resume. 58 UN Security Council, Resolution 2216 [on cessation of violence in Yemen and the reinforcement of sanctions imposed by resolution 2104 (2014)], 14 April 2015, S/RES/2216 (2015), https://www.securitycouncilreport.org/atf/cf/%7b65BFCF9B-6D27-4E9C-8CD3- CF6E4FF96FF9%7d/s_res_2216.pdf 59 Ibid.
UNSC | 16
YMCA Southeastern High School Model UN
rebel movement, as it also extended previous sanctions to additional groups and increased the investigative capacity of the Sanctions Committee.
In addition to the coalition bombing campaign, warships from coalition states and non- Arab partners, such as the US, enacted a naval blockade of Yemen, searching for banned arms intended for the Houthis. Iran, long suspected of aiding the Houthi rebels, condemned the actions of the international community, stating, “This is a crime and genocide that can be prosecuted in international courts.”60 Although the Saudi-backed coalition claimed it achieved its military goals after halting Operation Decisive Storm on 21 April 2015, the Houthi movement continued its southern offensive and the Yemeni government had yet to be restored to its operating capacity.61 In response, Saudi officials stated that the coalition would begin Operation Restoring Hope, a campaign that would primarily consist of political and diplomatic efforts, and suspend most airstrikes in Yemen; however, the coalition began to once again increase airstrikes in an attempt to decrease weapons smuggling into Yemen, broadening their scope to target ports and airports.62
The humanitarian situation further worsened in late 2017, when Houthi rebels launched a series of ballistic missiles into Saudi Arabian territory. The attacks, aimed at the capital Riyadh, prompted an immediate tightening of the Yemeni blockade by coalition forces; nearly all inbound goods were subject to exorbitant restrictions or delays.63 Human Rights Watch documented a case where a ship containing fuel was held in a Saudi port for five months without explanation, and all ships containing cement or iron were diverted to the port of Aden, which was under Saudi control.64, 65 Despite being intended to halt the flow of arms into Yemen, the blockade prevented crucial food and medical supplies from reaching the citizens of Yemen, exasperating the dire humanitarian situation. Coalition airstrikes crippled the nation’s healthcare infrastructure, destroying 278 facilities and leaving 14.5 million citizens without access to regular clean water or sanitation.66 Between 27 April and 31 December 2017, more than one million cases of suspected cholera were reported, with most experts blaming the blockade for restricting access to medicine necessary to combat the devastating cholera outbreak.67 The
60 “Yemen Crisis: Iran's Khamenei Condemns Saudi 'Genocide'.” BBC News. BBC, April 9, 2015. Last modified April 9, 2015. https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-32239009. 61 “Yemen Conflict: Saudi Arabia Ends Air Campaign.” BBC News. BBC, April 21, 2015. Last modified April 21, 2015. https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-32402688. 62 Stephens, Michael. “Mixed Success for Saudi Military Operation in Yemen.” BBC News. BBC, May 12, 2015. Last modified May 12, 2015. https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-32593749. 63 “Saudi Arabia Intercepts Yemeni Missile, Second in a Month.” Reuters. Thomson Reuters, November 30, 2017. Last modified November 30, 2017. https://www.reuters.com/article/us-yemen-security-saudi/saudi- arabia-intercepts-yemeni-missile-second-in-a-month-idUSKBN1DU2VN. 64 “Yemen: Coalition's Blocking Aid, Fuel Endangers Civilians.” Human Rights Watch. Last modified September 27, 2017. https://www.hrw.org/news/2017/09/27/yemen-coalitions-blocking-aid-fuel-endangers- civilians. 65 Reports, Special. “Saudi De Facto Blockade Starves Yemen of Food and Medicine.” Reuters. Thomson Reuters, October 11, 2017. Last modified October 11, 2017. https://www.reuters.com/investigates/special- report/yemen-saudi-blockade/. 66 “Yemen.” UNICEF. https://www.unicef.org/yemen/media_12062.html. 67 “WHO Annual Report 2017 - Yemen.” Cairo: WHO Regional Office for the Eastern Mediterranean; 2018. http://www.who.int/emergencies/crises/yem/yemen-annual-report-2017.pdf?ua=1.
UNSC | 17
YMCA Southeastern High School Model UN
significant amount of IDPs, civilian deaths, and incapacitated infrastructure has left the Yemeni government unable to operate and has hindered its response to the Houthi movement.
Since the insurgency began in 2004, Saudi Arabia and western powers have suspected the Islamic Republic of Iran of intervening in Yemen through arms contributions in an attempt to undermine Saudi political influence in the Arabian Peninsula. The Panel of Experts on Yemen confirmed suspicions that Iran violated the Yemeni arms embargo on 9 January 2018 in report S/2018/68, a comprehensive report detailing the current state of the arms embargo and the challenges to peace in the region. According to the report, “The Islamic Republic of Iran is in non-compliance with paragraph 14 of resolution 2216 (2015) in that it failed to take the necessary measures to prevent the direct or indirect supply, sale or transfer of military related equipment to the Houthi-Saleh forces.”68 At the minimum, Iran has neglected to adequately stop the flow of arms into Yemen, but the nation may also be actively providing Yemen with weapons and supplies, indicating government support for the Houthi rebels. Although the civil war would have occurred without the Iranian-Saudi influence, the proxy war has intensified the humanitarian crisis and contributed to unnecessary search and seizure of goods bound for Yemen.
Committee Directive and Jurisdiction
The United Nations Security Council will convene to address the Houthi insurgency movement, the regional geopolitical conflict taking place within Yemen’s borders, and the repeated violation of UNSC resolution S/RES/2216 (2015) which, when combined, have created the world’s worst humanitarian disaster. Keeping in mind the existing arms embargo and sanctions regime, the Security Council may rely on any of the resources delegated to the UNSC by the UN Charter, including but not limited to additional sanctions, peacekeeping forces, and humanitarian aid. The situation in Yemen is multi-faceted and will require international cooperation to halt regional violence and reinstate a functioning government. It is imperative that the UNSC not only addresses solutions to mitigate the insurgency movement, but also undertakes a comprehensive plan for conflict transformation that allows for a peaceful, post-conflict state and prevents a broader regional conflict. Much of the current conflict can be traced to international coalitions and foreign involvement, a fact that delegates must fully understand before invoking the powers of the UNSC. Comprehending the regional and global power dynamic at play within Yemen is crucial to successfully solving this issue. Without Security Council intervention, the situation in Yemen threatens to further devolve as nations take advantage of Yemen’s ineffective government for their own gain.
Questions to Consider
1. How has your country been involved in the ongoing conflict with Yemen? Has it assisted the coalition forces or enforced S/RES/2216? 2. Has the arms embargo been effective at limiting the flow of arms into Yemen? a. If not, what can additionally be done to increase its effectiveness?
68 United Nations, Security Council, Final Report of the Panel of Experts on Yemen, S/2018/68 (9 January 2018), http://www.un.org/en/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=S/2018/68.
UNSC | 18
YMCA Southeastern High School Model UN
3. What has been the result of foreign involvement in Yemen? Is the conflict rooted in sectarian or geopolitical tensions? 4. Has your country attempted to provide aid to the citizens of Yemen? How can this process be improved? 5. How can sustainable peace be reached in Yemen? What role does the UNSC play in this process?
Suggested Sources
1. War in Yemen | CFR Global Conflict Tracker https://www.cfr.org/interactives/global-conflict-tracker#!/conflict/war-in-yemen 2. Annual Report 2017 - Yemen | World Health Organization http://www.who.int/emergencies/crises/yem/yemen-annual-report-2017.pdf?ua=1 3. UN Documents for Yemen | Security Council Report https://www.securitycouncilreport.org/un-documents/yemen/ 4. Final Report of the Panel of Experts on Yemen - S/2018/68 | Security Council http://www.un.org/en/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=S/2018/68 5. Yemen Timeline | BBC https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-14704951
UNSC | 19
YMCA Southeastern High School Model UN
Topic C: Combatting Abuses in the Sinai Peninsula
“Why do you punish the unarmed man in his house? This does not work. You create every day 100 terrorists. And if you kill people, you will create many terrorists.” - Ibrahim Menai, Head of the Sinai Tribes Union
Introduction
In 2004, a series of car bombings at tourist resorts along the coast of the Sinai Peninsula killed over thirty bystanders and injured dozens more.69 Similar bombings at resorts over the course of the next two years would amount to a combined death toll of 130, as well as a significant disruption to tourism, one of the region’s most important industries.70 While the attacks themselves were shocking, they were representative of a much larger problem within the region. The attacks were coordinated by militant Bedouin groups, a nomadic people group that has long been suffering immense discrimination from the Egyptian government.71 Especially under the administration of President Hosni Mubarak (1981-2011), native Bedouin people - of which there are approximately 400,000 within the Sinai Peninsula - have been prevented from adequate employment, access to water, and property registration.72 Indeed, there is a deep mistrust of the Bedouin within Egypt; as one articulated, “For years now life has been rendered unbearable for us and it seems that any Bedouin is considered suspect by default."73 As a result, there is deep poverty within the Bedouin community, and many Bedouin resort to human trafficking and illegal smuggling as their primary source of income. This high poverty and deep sense of injustice have been key motivators in the ongoing terrorist attacks, and militancy has only continued to increase with the 2011 overthrow of President Mubarak and the subsequent unseating of President Mohamed Morsi in 2013.74
To say nothing of the clear threat to human life and safety that these attacks incur, this instability is particularly important due to the role that the Sinai Peninsula plays in regional trade. The peninsula connects Africa and Asia, and with Gaza, Israel, and the Gulf of Aqaba to the east, the Suez Canal to the west, and the Mediterranean Sea to the north, the Sinai Peninsula is a critical stretch of land. In fact, approximately 8% of global trade passes through the bordering Suez Canal, a quantity which encompasses 3% of global oil, and the adjacent Gulf of Aqaba is
69 Urquhart, Conal. “Dozens Killed in Bomb Blasts at Sinai Resorts.” The Guardian. Guardian News and Media, October 8, 2004. Last modified October 8, 2004. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2004/oct/08/israel.travelnews. 70 “Security in Egypt's Sinai Peninsula.” Council on Foreign Relations. Council on Foreign Relations, n.d. https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/security-egypts-sinai-peninsula. 71 Ahmed, Akbar, and Harrison Akins. “No Arab Spring for Egypt's Bedouin.” Brookings. Brookings, July 28, 2016. Last modified July 28, 2016. https://www.brookings.edu/opinions/no-arab-spring-for-egypts-bedouin/. 72“The Sinai Bedouin: Political and Economic Discontent Turns Increasingly Violent.” Middle East Policy Council. http://www.mepc.org/commentary/sinai-bedouin-political-and-economic-discontent-turns- increasingly-violent. 73 “Bedouin Unrest Troubles Cairo.” Council for Security Studies. ETH Zurich, 2018. http://www.css.ethz.ch/en/services/digital-library/articles/article.html/51862/pdf. 74 Dewan, Angela. “Why the Sinai Peninsula Is so Dangerous.” CNN. Cable News Network, November 25, 2017. Last modified November 25, 2017. https://www.cnn.com/2017/11/24/africa/sinai-peninsula- explainer/index.html.
UNSC | 20
YMCA Southeastern High School Model UN
Israel’s only access to the Red Sea.75 The region also serves as something of a buffer between Egypt and Israel, as neither state retains full control over the peninsula.76 Because of the strategic importance of the Sinai Peninsula, it is particularly vital that the security concerns in the region be addressed swiftly and effectively, and that stability be restored.
Background
Tension in the Sinai Peninsula dates back to the Second Arab-Israeli War. Also known as the Suez Crisis, the conflict precipitated in July of 1956 when the Egyptian president, Gamal Abdel Nasser, announced the nationalization the Suez Canal.77 The Suez Canal was conceived to amplify trading potential between Asia and Europe, which also made it an important political tool to control. Until its nationalization in 1956, the Canal was owned and operated by British and French interests.78 After the Egyptian government took over ownership and operation of the crucial waterway, British and French forces mobilized to intervene in Egypt where Israel had already launched an attack.79 When the Security Council failed to adopt a decision to mitigate tension in the region, the issue was brought before an emergency meeting of the General Assembly.80 The result of this meeting was the creation of the first United Nations peacekeeping force, the UN Emergency Force (UNEF), tasked with supervising the withdrawal of the three occupying forces, Israeli, British, and French and providing impartial supervision in the ceasefire.81 The establishment of the UNEF and the uncertainty of the Bedouin community regarding the state of their land was pivotal in eventually forming later regional observation forces and causing tensions between Bedouins and the Egyptian government.
Following Israeli seizure of the Sinai Peninsula in the Six-Day war, Egypt responded in 1973 with the Yom Kippur War aimed at retaking the territories lost in 1967.82 The Yom Kippur war ultimately ended with an Egyptian-Israeli ceasefire that left much of the Israeli land in Sinai intact. However, on 4 September 1975, Egypt and Israel signed the Sinai Interim Agreement which called for additional withdrawal of forces in Sinai and the establishment of a UN buffer zone. This agreement played a critical step in reducing regional tensions and strengthening diplomatic and economic ties between Israel and Egypt.
75 Ibid. 76 Graham-Harrison, Emma. “How Sinai Became a Magnet for Terror.” The Guardian. Guardian News and Media, November 8, 2015. Last modified November 8, 2015. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/nov/08/sinai-magnet-for-terror. 77 U.S. Department of State. U.S. Department of State, n.d. https://history.state.gov/milestones/1953- 1960/suez. 78 Ibid. 79 “FIRST UNITED NATIONS EMERGENCY FORCE (UNEF I) - Background (Summary).” United Nations. United Nations, n.d. https://peacekeeping.un.org/mission/past/unef1backgr1.html. 80 Ibid. 81 Ibid. 82 Pike, John. “Military.” Vietnam War - American Return to Dog Fighting. https://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/war/yom-kippur.htm.
UNSC | 21
YMCA Southeastern High School Model UN
The transition of the Sinai Peninsula from Israeli to Egyptian control began with the 1979 Egypt-Israel Peace Treaty.83 This treaty, brokered by the United States, led to the normalization of Egyptian and Israeli relations, saw the withdrawal of Israeli military forces from Sinai, and, over the next several years, transitioned Sinai into an Egyptian controlled demilitarized zone.84 Fearing that the Soviet Union would veto the introduction of a UN observation force combined with the expiration of the Second UN Emergency Force in 1979, the United States, Israel, and Egypt established the Multinational Force and Observers (MFO) on 3 August 1981. This independent organization was tasked with upholding the Egypt-Israel Treaty by verifying compliance and observation of military forces in Sinai.85 To those aims, the MFO has largely succeeded; however, the organization’s ability to monitor and respond to other conflicts in the peninsula is limited.
Following the Egypt-Israel Peace Treaty in 1979, tensions between the Egyptian government and the native population of the Sinai Peninsula continued to grow, largely due to former Egyptian President Hosni Mubarak’s discriminatory policies. The Bedouin peoples’ traditional nomadic lifestyle and their positive attitude towards Israeli occupation contributed to a deep mistrust of them by President Mubarak’s administration in the 1980s.86 Despite being Egyptian citizens, the Bedouin people of the Sinai Peninsula were prevented from joining the military, hold government positions, or register their agricultural land, stifling their economic development and forcing many to enter a life of crime and terrorism. Further social alienation by the Egyptian government came during the Egyptian tourism boom when many Bedouin people, lacking land rights, were forced from valuable agricultural land due to the encroaching tourism sector.87 In addition, President Mubarak relocated thousands of Egyptians to the Sinai Peninsula, many of whom exploited natural resources and the Bedouin’s traditional land claims.88 This official policy of alienation by the Egyptian government led to a situation ready to erupt in violence and crime.
Current Situation
Between 2004 and 2005, a growing movement of Bedouins engaged in either supporting terrorist activities or directly partaking in attacks on resorts in the Sinai Peninsula. On 7 October 2004, a series of three terrorist bombings targeted hotels across the Sinai Peninsula, leaving 34 dead.89 These shocking attacks, the first of their kind since 1997, prompted swift action by the Egyptian government, who, according to Human Rights Watch, “began a campaign of mass
83 Issenberg, Sasha, Tim Alberta, Jack Shafer, and Erick Trickey. “Egypt, Israel Finish Peace Treaty, March 26, 1979.” About Us. POLITICO, March 26, 2014. Last modified March 26, 2014. https://www.politico.com/story/2014/03/this-day-in-politics-egypt-israel-march-26-1979-105014. 84 Ibid 85 “Origins.” MFO - the Multinational Force & Observers. http://mfo.org/en/origins. 86 “The Sinai Bedouin: Political and Economic Discontent Turns Increasingly Violent.” Middle East Policy Council. http://www.mepc.org/commentary/sinai-bedouin-political-and-economic-discontent-turns- increasingly-violent. 87 Ibid. 88 Pelham, Nicolas. “In Sinai: The Uprising of the Bedouin.” International Institute for Counter Terrorism. https://www.ict.org.il/Article.aspx?ID=656#gsc.tab=0. 89 “Death Toll Rises in Egypt Tourist Bombings.” CNN. Cable News Network, n.d. http://www.cnn.com/2004/WORLD/meast/10/09/egypt.explosions/.
UNSC | 22
YMCA Southeastern High School Model UN
arbitrary arrests in and around al-`Arish, the government and commercial center of North Sinai, apparently as part of its investigation into the Taba attacks. These arrests continued unabated after the October 25 announcement through early December.”90 Even after the October 25 announcement which identified 9 persons as responsible for the attack, these arbitrary arrests continued, in clear violation of Article 9 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights.91 Furthermore, the Human Rights Watch investigation found credible examples of ill-treatment and torture at the hands of Egypt’s State Security Investigation service (SSI), including but not limited to denial of food and water, beatings, and electric shocks.92 These allegations, if true, demonstrate a clear misuse of power aimed at dehumanizing and creating a scapegoat of the Bedouin population in the Sinai Peninsula.
Taking advantage of the chaos in Egypt during the 2011 revolution, many Bedouins seized arms caches, attacked government installations, and Takfir wal-Hijra, a militant separatist group, declared the establishment of a sharia emirate in August 2011.93 These events increased tensions between Israel and Egypt, as Bedouin arms dealers trafficked military-grade weapons into the Gaza Strip and Bedouin militants crippled the Arab Gas pipeline between Egypt and Israel.94 Rather than bring stability and new opportunities, the security vacuum left after President Mubarak’s ousting resulted in a large increase in the presence of terrorist and transnational organized criminal groups, which was increasingly seen as the only viable alternative to unemployment. In fact, by 2013, illicit smuggling from Egypt to Gaza was estimated to exceed $230 million USD in supplies and raw materials, circumventing the Egyptian-Israeli blockade of the Gaza Strip.95
In response to growing violence in the Sinai Peninsula, the Egyptian military took the unprecedented step of launching Operation Eagle in August 2011, which saw the deployment of 1000 troops and 250 armored personnel carriers in an attempt to confront Sinai insurgency groups.96 Importantly, this was the first instance of Egyptian forces performing large scale military operations in the Sinai Peninsula following the 1979 Egypt-Israel Peace Treaty which limited the presence of Egyptian forces in the region and used the Multinational Force and Observers (MFO) to monitor and uphold the implementation of the treaty.97 This militarization was further expanded following the 2013 Egyptian coup d’état which resulted in President Mohamed Morsi’s removal from power; the newly formed military operation, termed Operation
90 “Egypt: Mass Arrests and Torture in Sinai.” Human Rights Watch, February 2005 Vol. 17, No. 3. https://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/reports/egypt0205.pdf 91 Ibid. 92 Ibid. 93 “Security in Egypt's Sinai Peninsula.” Council on Foreign Relations. Council on Foreign Relations, n.d. https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/security-egypts-sinai-peninsula. 94 “Gas Pipeline to Jordan Set Ablaze in Egypt.” CNN. Cable News Network, February 5, 2011. Last modified February 5, 2011. http://www.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/africa/02/05/egypt.pipeline/index.html. 95 Al Jazeera. “Egypt Tunnel Closure Costs Gaza Millions.” Israeli–Palestinian Conflict | Al Jazeera. Al Jazeera, October 27, 2013. Last modified October 27, 2013. https://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2013/10/egypt-tunnel-closure-costs-gaza-millions- 20131027222046279794.html. 96 “Egypt Launches Massive Operation to Control Sinai.” The Jerusalem Post | JPost.com. Last modified August 14, 2011. https://www.jpost.com/Defense/Egypt-launches-massive-operation-to-control-Sinai. 97 “About Us.” MFO - the Multinational Force & Observers. http://mfo.org/en/about-us.
UNSC | 23
YMCA Southeastern High School Model UN
Desert Storm, was a response to 20+ policemen and soldiers killed in Sinai during July 2013.98 This military campaign was seen by many as an indiscriminate attack on the Sinai Peninsula, and, according to local sources, the Egyptian military launched a “scorched earth” campaign that left villages destroyed and numerous civilians dead.99 Moreover, the Egyptian military enforced a widespread media-blackout in the region aimed at preventing verification of terrorist incidents and military actions.100 For instance, authorities detained Abu Deraa, an award winning investigative journalist, for publishing a report that alleged Egyptian involvement in an airstrike that left 4 civilians injured.101 These arbitrary detentions presents a significant threat to journalistic integrity and government accountability, opening the region up to further abuse at the hands of the military.
With all major Egyptian initiatives in Sinai aimed at counter terrorism, the core issues of unemployment, poverty, lack of opportunity, and second-class citizenry remain unsolved, and recent military operations have only fed into a vicious cycle of violence. In addition to weapons smuggling and narcotics, human trafficking has become a worsening problem in the region. Many citizens of Sinai have supplemented their income by creating or facilitating trafficking rings, and from 2007 to 2013, 30,000 Eritrean refugees were abducted and held for ransom in Sinai.102 The Sinai Peninsula’s location makes it an important route for all forms of illicit trafficking, yet the international community has failed to act, leaving refugees and asylum seekers vulnerable to rampant abuse and violence.
Committee Directive and Jurisdiction
The U.N. Security Council has been called to discuss the proper response to decades of abuse in the Sinai Peninsula. Specifically, the UNSC will address how the oppression of the Bedouin people and others within the Sinai Peninsula has fueled the rise of transnational organized criminal networks and Islamist militant groups, both of which have taken advantage of migrants and those in poverty for personal gain. With 8% of global trade passing through the adjacent Suez Canal, the political, economic, and social stability of the Sinai Peninsula is of utmost international importance, yet human rights violations at the hands of government and non-state actors hinders this goal. Widespread inaction has further exacerbated the situation, warranting in-depth discussion and review of the efficacy of the existing independent peacekeeping force in the region. Furthermore, before passing legislation, the committee should bear in mind the long-standing tensions between Egypt, Israel, and other nearby nations which threaten stability and further complicate the discussion. In order to fully solve this issue, delegates should understand that a solution must include a combination of long-term and
98 “Egypt Army Launches Sinai Operation to Root out Terrorists.” The Jerusalem Post | JPost.com. Last modified July 27, 2013. https://www.jpost.com/Middle-East/Egyptian-military-launches-operation-Desert- Storm-to-root-out-Sinai-terrorists-321206. 99 Brammer, Drew. “Sinai: Can the Truth Be Told?” Egypt Independent. Last modified October 12, 2013. https://www.egyptindependent.com/sinai-can-truth-be-told. 100 “Egypt Detains Journalist for Publishing False Information.” Committee to Protect Journalists. The Committee to Protect Journalists, n.d. https://cpj.org/2013/09/egypt-detains-journalist-for-publishing-false- info.php. 101 Ibid. 102 “Egypt: End Traffickers' Abuse of Migrants.” Human Rights Watch. Last modified April 17, 2015. https://www.hrw.org/news/2010/12/09/egypt-end-traffickers-abuse-migrants.
UNSC | 24
YMCA Southeastern High School Model UN
immediate action; immediate action includes but isn’t limited to sanctions, humanitarian aid, and the authorization of a peacekeeping force whereas programs aimed at increasing opportunity and promoting sustainability are classified as long-term action. Being able to incorporate immediate and long-term action into resolutions is crucial to reducing the likelihood for the region to fall back into a state of violence and abuse. The Security Council must address the abuses in the Sinai Peninsula, as the stability of the region is necessary for the facilitation of global trade and reduction of migrants.
Questions to Consider
1. Has your country been involved with the Multinational Force and Observers, and, if so, in what capacity? 2. Does the current situation in the Sinai Peninsula warrant a U.N. peacekeeping force or can stability be achieved through different means? a. Are existing non-U.N. related programmes and initiatives adequate? 3. How could the militarization of the Sinai Peninsula present a problem to regional peace initiatives? 4. How can the Security Council implement conflict transformation to reduce violence in the region?
Suggested Sources
1. Security in Egypt’s Sinai Peninsula | CFR https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/security-egypts-sinai-peninsula 2. Egypt: Mass Arrests and Torture | HRW https://www.hrw.org/report/2005/02/21/egypt-mass-arrests-and-torture-sinai 3. Egypt: End Traffickers’ Abuse of Migrants | HRW https://www.hrw.org/news/2010/12/09/egypt-end-traffickers-abuse-migrants 4. Egyptian-Israeli Peace Treaty http://myos.mfo.org/media/mfo/documents/treaty_of_peace.pdf 5. Political and Economic Discontent Turns Increasingly Violent | Middle Eastern Policy Council http://www.mepc.org/commentary/sinai-bedouin-political-and-economic-discontent- turns-increasingly-violent
UNSC | 25