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VIDEOTAPE INTERPRETIVE SYSTEMS FOR NATIONAL PARKS by SUZANNE PARODY, B.A.
A THESIS IN PARK ADMINISTRATION
Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of Texas Tech University in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of MASTER OF SCIENCE Approved
Accepted
May, 1973 '973 ^io.S'S- CONTENTS Co,' Z LIST OF TABLES iii
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS iv
I. RATIONALE FOR STUDY 1
II. OBJECTIVES 8
Introduction 8
Program Outline 12
Theory and Techniques 13
III. METHODOLOGY 23
Tools 23
Videotape 23
Cable Television 3 0
Information Program 40
Pre-indoctrination 40
Interpretation . • ..... 41
Promotion 42
Distribution 42
IV. CASE STUDY—CARLSBAD CAVERNS NATIONAL PARK ... 44
V. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 55
LIST OF REFERENCES 58
ii ^^
LIST OF TABLES
Table Page 1. Glossary of Terms 11 2. Program Implementation of National Park Video tape Interpretive System 14 3. Comparison: Film vs. Videotape 16 4. Comparative Costs Between Panasonic and Sony Video Equipment 3 2 5. Functional Comparisons of Selected Video Equipment 33 6. Standard Cost Estimates for a Basic National Park Videotape Interpretive System 3 4 7. Visitor Travel Trends - Carlsbad Caverns National Park 45 8. Suggested Programming Topics for Carlsbad Caverns National Park Videotape Interpretive Progrcun 52
10. m^
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
Figure Page 1. Schematic Program for National Park Videotape Interpretive System 15 2. Videocassette System 29 3. Cable Television Relay-Distribution System . . 31
IV CHAPTER I RATIONALE FOR STUDY
Statement of Purpose This is a study to investigate communications media which could be successfully united with National Park Service interpretation programs, taking these directly to the grow ing number of tourists as they travel by mass transit systems to park areas.
Objectives The objectives of this paper are to examine the possi- bilities for revising present National Park Service inter pretive programs to facilitate their use in conjunction with media communication systems and mass transit systems. 1. The interpretive material will be able to relate basic information about the countryside travelers pass through while on mass transit routes to the selected national park area. 2. It will inform visitors/passengers about various services, activities, assistance programs which will aide them during their visit to the national park. 3. Interpretive material will be able to combine with media systems for informative, up-to-date, and entertaining communications about the national park environs and visitors' wise and compatible use of these areas. 4. This study will examine the feasibility of using said programs in terminals prior to actual visitor travel.
Need For Study Revised communication techniques are needed to effec tively educate as well as entertain larger numbers of peo ple anticipating travel to the national parks.. The National Park Service has been conducting extensive interpretive programs for many years, in which visitors have eagerly participated and appeared to enjoy themselves. In most instances, these programs have most benefited those people already within the national parks. Our society and national environment are in a state of flux. Increased mobility of millions of people has been made possible by wide-spread use of the automobile and mass transit—planes, trains, and buses. The shorter work week insures most Americans of more leisure hours and a corre sponding ability to pay for recreation and leisure-oriented activities. The National Park Service is now finding it necessary to adapt its services in order to accommodate spiraling increases in visitation rates. The National Parks admitted over 200,500,000 people in 1971. That figure is expected to soar to over 301,800,000 by 1981."^ Previously, visitor travel to national parks such as Yellowstone was considered a rare treat, and something of a status symbol within the local neighborhood. Today, vacation trips to the national parks have become commonplace. Heavy use of airlines, highways, railroads, and buses have brought distant. Western national parks well within reach of the heavily populated East. Recreation travel to national parks still appears to be a middle and upper class, white phenomenon. But, steadily decreasing prices, availability, and publicity will make travel, especially by mass transit systems, more desirable for all types and quantities of people. Unfortunately, for some people travel to the national parks has become an evil necessity. What was once a lei surely journey through the back yards and fields of America, has become a fight for survival on our nation's highways. The sheer impact of thousands of autos, passengers, and their expectations for services is wearing on the natural environs of our national parks. These factors have already begun to seriously affect and disturb the ecological health of these areas. The National Park System is physically suf fering today from the success of public interest, unfortu nately expressed by numbers of visitors... "as population and productivity have increased, wild country outside the parks has diminished and the fishing and camping which were once found close to home in abundance are increasingly looked 2 for in national parks, which no longer seem remote." Most visitors are totally unaware of these issues. It is personally difficult to picture themselves as part of the problems causing a deterioration of natural conditions with in the parks. This is especially true for those visiting the national parks for the first time. The National Park Service conducts and supports many studies on the national parks environment, wildlife habitats, and visitor impact. They have introduced numerous interpre tive programs. Because of the surging influx of people into the national parks, they must expand their future interpre tive programs' impact to include: new attitudes toward opti mal public use of national parks and the direction of these attitudes toward similar relationships within the visitor's everyday life. Environmental ethics should be incorporated, and situations explored which can immediately affect the traveler. These programs should become part of the itiner ary prior to the tourist's arrival at national park bounda ries and should anticipate problems and provide means for preventive measures. In the future, planners of National Park Service inter pretive programs and the potential media communications pro grams will have to recognize cultural diversities within the nation's population and be prepared to communicate with them accordingly. National Parks for the Future pointed to the fact that: We are a pluralistic democracy, a nation made rich from the diverse population and cultural base.... It is our judgment that interpretive programs are too often nar rowly conceived, unimaginatively presented, and out of touch with contemporary scholarship.3 Mass media cannot only reach a greater proportion of people, but it is one of the most heavily used systems of communica tion. It constitutes a familiar part of most people's lives. Interpretation programs need to reach individuals on a per sonal basis, supplementing their interests and abilities. These programs must be easily accessible and have up-to-date facilities. They should be suitable for use by many dif ferent groups. Interpretive material needs to be enjoyable as well as informative in order to retain people's interest. It must elucidate fundamental environmental relationships in such a way that people, who are totally unfamiliar with the out-of-doors and those with some knowledge, will be moti^ vated to environmentally sound use of national parks. It should redirect their thinking and park use patterns toward acceptable preservation standards prescribed by the National Park Service. Interpretive information should establish pat terns for action which v/ill not only protect visitors while in the park, but will enhance their overall experiences. Techniques and equipment are available that can play an integral role in developing and stimulating a new national park consciousness among its visitors. Using revised inter pretive material, the National Park Service can, with the assistance of modern media systems, translate conservation ethics into terms urban residents can understand and identify with personally. The need for understanding becomes more apparent every park visitor day. Relationships have to be internalized by visitors, joining values, problems, and the wonderous beauty found in our national parks with values similarly found within the urban environment: open space preservation, pollution, man's impact in concentrated num bers on a limited space, and quality of building and road design. They should also be aware of the difficulties in solving problems such as protection, trash disposal, and transportation. Visitors need to be aware of the connection between national park and urban problems. Most major national parks and recreation areas are located great distances from concentrated population areas. The urban population is forced to travel long distances to 4 the vacation area of their choice. In most cases, mass transit systems are available for their use as an alterna tive to travel by car. Urban dwellers travel to national parks for many reasons. Many seek preserved examples of a natural environment. But, in more and more instances, these travelers encounter many of the same problems in the national parks that they hoped to leave behind—crowding, traffic, noise, and crime. They come unprepared to deal with dan gerous animals, insects, climatic conditions, and fires. A vacation can turn into a fiasco due to lack of knowledge about natural conditions, and an inability to cope with them. Everyone should possess at least a minimum knowledge about the environment to which they are enroute. This implies an inexpensive, interpretive system capable of reaching many people, preferably while they are traveling or in prepara tion for travel. It needs to be flexible enough to rapidly accept information change and require minimum maintenance. The interpretation program should also include limited description of regions immediately adjacent to the route of the transit system.
Methodology In order to follow the purpose and objectives of this study to their theorized conclusion, these steps will be necessary: 1. Review of various mass media systems which could possibly be used in conjunction with revised National Park Service interpretive materials. 2. Selection of one national park area, one urban center, and an operating transit system which would lend themselves to demonstrating the development of an exemplary interpretive program. 3. Testing of the proposed program's feasibility by establishing procedures for the combination of selected interpretive material, a mass transit system, and mass media CHAPTER II OBJECTIVES
Introduction Interpretation is a method for acquiring understanding. To enhance the visitor's enjoyment which relates the value of the park resource to him. To instill the need for protection and management of the resources which relates the value of the park to him.5 When the techniques of interpretation are used for under standing information about the natural world, they are em ployed to focus on the "inter-relatedness" of life within the environment. In order to understand or comprehend, one must organize new information into patterns which connect with previously acquired knowledge. This is a process for personal under standing. That new knowledge can then be extended to other people in many different forms: books, speeches, television, teachers, messages, papers, etc. Each receiver of this in formation must internalize the message in the previous man ner before it can be regenerated once again. According to Freeman Tilden, the process of interpre tation for understanding and enjoyment necessitates certain principles and techniques: demonstration, participation, orientation, and animation. 1. Interpretation must relate the described or display objects to something within the personal experiences of the visitor. 8 2. Interpretation depends upon facts and information, but information and facts alone are not interpretation. 3. A skill, combining many arts, is required for suc cessful interpretation. 4. Interpretation should arouse curosity and provoke interest and action paralleling day to day life. 5. Interpretation should be addressed to the whole rather than a portion of certain relationships. 6. Interpretation for children needs different pro grams and approaches than interpretation for adults. Infor mation should not be simply watered down for children. These principles are used to drive straight for the heart of the story. Interpretation may appeal to either logic or the senses, but it should avoid excess and extraneous details. Dioramas, folders, pamphlets, information stations, trails, relief models, signs, interpreters, wayside exhibits, exact reproductions, dramatizations are but a few of the techniques for successful interpretation. The purposes of interpretation are: to inform, motivate, to answer questions; to increase factual knowledge among its receivers, and to entertain. It is aimed at attitude change, modification, or reinforcement of visitor's role within the resources of the park. In a park situation, its techniques are utilized as "an educational activity which aims to re veal meanings, and relationships through use of original ob jects, by first hand experience, and by illustrative media. 10 7 rather than simply to communicate factual information." The techniques of interpretation may be used by a public agency such as the park service to encourage public inves tigation of environmental problems, or it may facilitate public understanding and stimulate thought and action. In terpretation may be the explanation of a natural occurrence, a historical event, or information for the enjoyment of the p visitors. It is also used to note differences as well as similarities found within various habitats: The size of a park is directly related to the manner which you use it. If you are in a canoe traveling at three miles an hour, the lake on which you are paddling is ten times as long and ten times as broad as it is to the man in a speed boat going thirty miles per hour.... Every road that replaces a footpath, every outboard motor that replaces a canoe, paddle, shrinks the area of the park.^ Interpretation is an aid for individual understanding and enjoyment of events, objects, or the environment, in volving multi-media techniques or perhaps a two-way discus sion of ideas between ranger and visitor. In national parks, the techniques and information used for interpretation are usually geared for large numbers of people, but they must appeal to people on a personal level in order to be effective Most visitors like and value the present interpretive efforts of the National Park Service. But many present interpreta tive techniques should be supplemented with new techniques which are better able to fulfill interpretive needs: to com municate with the traveling public prior to a visit to a national park. The success of national parks, termed in 11 numbers of visitors, necessitates prepatory interpretation to prevent damage from improper use, overcrowding, and care lessness. Interpretation should utilize common communica tion links which will reach and be effectively understood by millions of people. Television and videotape are properly suited for this purpose. What is videotape and exactly what is entailed in a videotape interpretive system for national parks? A glos sary of terms characteristic of videotape and related com munications systems is presented to aid in understanding the techniques discussed (see TABLE 1). The process of video taping has been more carefully detailed in Chapter 11.
TABLE 1 GLOSSARY OF TERMS
Action Pre-disposition to behave in a manner, usually involving some form of stimulus.
Cassette Pre-packaged tape in self en closed format, 2 reels, 3/4" tape.
Closed Circuit TV .... A system of transmitting TV sig nals to receiving equipment di rectly linked to the originating equipment by coaxial cable, microwave relay or telephone lines.
Electronic Editing . The editing of videotape by se lecting and electronically reas sembling the selected section of the best "take" to produce a finished program or commercial. Electronic editing is a post- production procedure. 12 Frame One picture consisting of two fields of interlaced scan lines. Generation The number of times a dupe is made from a master tape. The first generation is the tape used in the VTR camera during the actual shooting. Immediate Access The ability to retrieve or store information instantly. Line Frequency The number of horizontal scans per second, nominally 15,7 50 per second or the number of frames (30) X number of lines per frame (525 in the U.S.). Receiver A television set, designed for tuned reception of sound and picture. Roll-over A repeated flip in picture image. Synchronization (SYNC) . . The maintenance of one operation in step or in "phase" with another. Video Seeing yourself on TV. VTR The videotape recording and play back machine. Videotape The technology which records pic ture and sound using magnetic information as its methodology of recording, storing, and reproduc ing. The word can describe the actual tape. Source: Cyril Griffin and Paula Jaffe, eds., Videotools (Summer, 1972), I, no. 1 (New York: CTL Electronics, Inc.), pp. 22-23.
Program Outline The program outline and objectives of this paper are the development of a communication system as an interpreta tive technique for National Parks using half-inch videotape 13 and videocassettes. This proposed communication system will require facilities of the National Park Service, a local cable television company, and hotel and motel chains,
A basic communications system has been proposed utiliz ing the fundamental principles of television communications theory, adapted for use with the portable and lightweight half-inch videotape unit. The step by step process for a half-inch videotape interpretive system is outlined in TABLE 2 and Figure 1. Half-inch videotape was selected for its inherent quali ties of lightness, portability, and its unique capacity for stimulating personal identification between it and its view ers. Half-inch video is an inexpensive process of instant recording, storing and playback of information which is capa ble of serving interpretive needs of the National Park System. When comparing half-inch videotape versus film, interesting facts emerge (see TABLE 3). Half-inch videotape units are readily adaptable to almost any situation, whether it be portage on the back of a mountain climber or covering the flaming details of a forest fire. They also offer a recording system designed and built for flexibility and economy.
Theory and Techniques This paper emphasizes the capabilities of portable vide otape and cable television to interest, educate, and serve national park interpretive purposes when used together. A system outline, costs, and program formats have been developed 14 TABLE 2 PROGRAM IMPLEMENTATION OF NATIONAL PARK VIDEOTAPE INTERPRETIVE SYSTEM
STEP I National Park Service A. Evaluates problem, selects target audience and either produces or sponsors the production of a video tape program, in conjunction with 1. local communities, interested citizens 2. visitors 3. park staff and facilities B. Tape edited by producers and shown when possible to the participants before public viewing STEP II Video tape is copied onto 2" broadcast quality tape by local cable or television station - where the facilities for this are available STEP III .... Videotape is shown to cable subscribers as portion of the FCC local programming requirements STEP IV Master tape duplicated and sent to distri bution agencies for quantity duplication onto videocassettes STEP V Videocassettes promoted and distributed to various commercial concerns
to illustrate the versatility and possibilities of such an interpretive system. The video system produced or sponsored by the National Park Service could: 1. Be adapted for a variety of adult audiences - dif ferent age groups, interest groups, and minority groups 2. Have four functions - to inform, entertain, educate, and involve 15
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Each videotape produced should have a target audience and a main subject for concentrated investigation. The pro gram is taped, monitored immediately, and edited by Park 21 Service staff on their own equipment, and that copy is des ignated as the Master. A second copy should be made by re-recording the master on a second tape and it would be available for duplication and viewing. The master copy would remain on file with the National Park Service. STEP II - The national park videotape program would then fulfill optional local programming for cable television or the later possible mandatory requirements for local and pub lic service broadcasting. Subscribers to local cable com panies include: motels, hotels, and schools in addition to • ^ '^ 18 private residences. STEP III - The National Park Service programming is' viewed locally by subscribers to the cable television company. STEP IV - The second copy or its duplicate, is sent to firms or stations that have videotape, cassette duplication equipment. The initial cost of producing one tape would be incurred by the National Park Service, including purchase price of the VTR equipment and tapes. Reproduction for gen eral distribution would be paid for by those who wish to receive and rent copies of the tape. STEP V - There are many large firms who supply video- programming to cable television stations across the country. These include Videomation, Inc., Communications Library, Teleprompter Corporation, Home Theatre Corporation. 19 Once produced, the national park interpretative programs on 22 videocassettes would be distributed, on demand, to companies such as those previously mentioned.
In order to illustrate the feasibility of this video tape interpretive system, a case study was initiated utiliz ing Carlsbad Caverns National Park. Data was collected from the Park Service detailing park operations, problems, visitor surveys, and interpretive programs. It was noted in personal interviews with area residents in cable television industry and the Learning Resources Center, that the Center in Carls bad had produced a short videotape directed toward young children. This was televised by closed circuit TV, with the cooperation of the director of CA Cablevision, Carls- bad. 20 It has been shown that videotape is an effective learning tool when coupled with closed circuit TV. Suggestions for equipment acquisition, costs and pro gramming have been recommended in order to provide a real istic accounting of what a complete videgtape interpretive system requires for smooth and efficient operations. CHAPTER III METHODOLOGY
Tools - Videotape Most large federal and state parks have some form of interpretation program and techniques provided for visitors. Generally, there are interpretive programs or there is some type of visitors' center housing additional or supportive information. Guided tours and self-guided tours are also available to the public. Concomitant with standard inter pretative programs are several problems which are non existent with videotape and videocassettes. Once the interpretive films, slides, tours are planned, executed, and paid for they become relatively inflexible as well as a costly venture. These projects are devised and built to produce a certain effect, create a mood, or accom modate a specific amount of material, and any change almost certainly means additional costs and expense, and different or modified equipment. Many thousands tour each national park every year. That means that the time and money neces sary for tailormaking many interpretive programs, for their appeal to the small fractions within the larger whole, would be expensive and time consuming. The majority of present interpretive systems must appeal to the majority of the peo ple. This need not be the case if using videotape. Videotape is recyclable because one copy can be used 23 24 effectively for fifty to one hundred different programs, and these can be revised or updated with no additional costs. 21 Using a simple idea, one could produce many different or similar shows on just a few tapes, easily adapting them in several languages or styles to suit a particular groups' needs. The following should be considered before implementing a videotape and cassette system:2 2 1. Videotape is not film. It is not necessary to write a script or edit to obtain perfect final results. The tape is easily eraseable and instant playback is available. The camera operator can re-record portions of the entire tape immediately, if necessary. 2. Because of the compact and highly portable design, portable half-inch videotape is not put to its best use in a static studio situation. Half-inch videoequipment is spon taneous since it is so lightweight and easy to operate. Standard television roles stiffle the spontaneity possible with half-inch equipment because they do not take advantage of its best features. 3. The half-inch video units need support systems to increase their flexibility and capabilities. The support systems are generally for editing and mixing purposes. 4. Still frame and slow motion are possible with port able videotape units. 5. Television receivers, unlike film, do not have to be viewed in darkened rooms. 25 Portable Half-Inch Videotape Camera, The Porta-Pak Videotaping is not a new process in the television in dustry. Two inch or "high band" videotape is extensively used by broadcast television for standard studio productions, The wider tape holds more electronic data than the narrow half-inch tape used in portable video units.2 3 One-inch video is more economical than the two-inch and is often used in closed circuit television systems. One and two inch tape are ideal for those whose requirements call for picture and sound tapes of impeccable quality, but not portability. The Porta-Pak or half-inch portable video unit was first introduced in 1968. These early machines were plagued by many design problems causing roll-overs in the picture, unstable signals, and tapes which did not meet broadcast quality standards.2 4 The majority of these problems have been solved. The videotaping process is instant recording, storing, and reproducing of pictures on magnetic tape, without the involvement of chemicals or developing. A magnetic impulse picks up picture and sound and is recorded onto coated tape in the camera. The tape is immediately ready to be played by using the playback machine to reactivate the magnetic im pulses on the tape. The Porta-Pak has a built-in micro phone system which records sound and automatically syncs it to the image on tape. Sound and sync signals are recorded along the edge of the tape. Another advantage of the 26
Porta-Pak is that the camera can be battery operated or it can use household current, increasing the degree of flexi- bility of this unit. 25 One is afford the luxury of two-track sound on half- inch tape, and a choice between black and white or color adaption in the editing process. Color cameras are in the experimental stages at this time and their cost is not eco nomical for this system. The recorded magnetic tape can be replayed immediately and any portion of a tape can be re trieved instantly. Because of the simple recording process, the tape can be erased and re-recorded without measurable 2 6 loss of picture quality up to a certain point. Wear marks appear on recorded tapes after 50-7 5 times of taping or showing. Cassettes can be used repeatedly with no visible marks of wear and tear. When retaping, the tape is "pre- erased electronically by an erase head which meets the tape just before it passes the recording heads." 27 The camera unit is lightweight, weighing approximately 21 pounds depending upon the make of the camera. It can be adapted to use specially designed batteries which allow the camera crew increased recording time, and it can use lenses from standard 3 5mm and 16mm cameras with adaptors. The Porta-Pak camera lens is referred to as a C-Mount lens. Extra speed lenses such as the f/.95 can be used on Porta- Pak camera for shooting in low light areas. Conveniently located trigger and push button controls make the Porta-Pak easy to handle and to operate. 28 27 The major distributors of these cameras are Sony, Pana sonic, Akai, and Riker and they have been updating and rap idly improving videotape quality. With the new equipment modifications in half-inch video occurring so rapidly, it is most difficult to stay abreast of the current state of the art. Once recorded, videotape can be edited and then repro duced in quantities of up to forty, in four banks of ten tapes duplicated from the master. 29 At present, one-half hour of reproduction time must be allowed for one-half hour of taped time.3 0 Production of a high speed copier is being perfected by Panasonic which will speed the tape reproducing 31 process. Most people producing videotapes and videocas settes find it desirable to have editing and duplication sup port systems. The editing facilities are especially impor tant. Editing videotape can be a fairly simple process for amateurs or it can become very complex and technical. The level of difficulty and expense lies in the various final effects desired. Simple editing of half-inch tape consists of putting the electronic signal, registered on the master tape, through one camera deck and recording it as a second copy onto a second deck. In most instances, the more sophis ticated the editing techniques required, the less portable and economical the system becomes. Time may be an important factor when editing. The degree of simplicity in editing effects desired directly corresponds to the length of time 28 required to achieve them. Some editing can be accomplished in a day, an hour, or editing may take a week. Experimenta tion on improved editing techniques is being supported by Le Videographe in Montreal. Two Sony AV 34 00 player-recorders are used with a custom-designed sync-control modulator to produce perfectly clean edits and quality pictures. 32 Half-inch tape does not meet broadcast quality stand ards until it is re-recorded on two-inch videotape. The essential difference between half-inch and two-inch video tape is the taping speed or the tape's rate of speed as it passes over the recording and playback heads. This speed directly affects the amount of information which can be 33 stored on the tape. In order to broadcast material re corded on half-inch video on cable or standard television, the tape has to be transformed in a two-inch tape format. An Ampex #AV1 can record directly from half-inch to two-inch tape in the editing process. The cost of this machine is prohibitive and only a few of the larger television stations 34 have them at this time. After the videotape has been con verted to two-inch broadcast standard tape, it meets broad cast quality standards and can be used on the cable and broadcast television systems.
Videocassettes The videocassette system operates in the following manner. 29
1/2" vtr
, H/ II >iii i < I..I QO QO SJS QO player / recorder videocassette tv
Cassettes have the magnetic impulses, recorded originally
onto the half-inch videotape, re-recorded onto their 3/4 inch,
two-reel format. The cassettes have a playing time of ten minutes to a full hour, and there are two audio or sound
tracks providing a selection between stereo or bi-lingual sound programming. Cassettes are capable of playback on either videocassette players or recorders through standard television receivers. The videocassette recorder can re ceive or feed signals directly to conventional television 35 and CCTV, closed circuit television systems. The tape cassette is placed into either the recorder or playback machine and then started or stopped by the press of a button. 30 They can be easily stored or mailed in their own plastic cases. Sony advertises that one foot of bookcase space equals eight of their videocassette packages, a neat and space-saving library of information.
Tools - Cable Television or CATV - Community Antenna Television The major outlet for cassettes produced for this system would be cable television or Community Antenna TV. Cable television is a franchise originally granted by the com- 3 6 munity. Its equipment consists of a sensitive receiver and master antenna system which serves as a relay and distribu tion system. The cable service: 1. Connects networks of stations. 2. Instantaneously transfers prograun material from point to point. 3. Distributes programs by coaxial cable to subscriber homes in the local cable communities. 37 The cable operator installs a cable linking the home receiver to the master antenna at the cable station. The home TV reception is then of a higher quality than the standard home antenna-receiver combination, and it has capa bilities of up to thirty channels. In addition to receiving standard broadcast television programming, UHF and VHF of ferings, the cable operators have an option for local pro- gramming. 38 Cable television systems are rapidly expanding operations predicted to have 85% of American homes as subscribers by 1980."^^ 31
In developing a local national park videotape system, the National Park Service will deal with a receptive and expanding industry that may, in the near future, be required to provide public access channels and originate local programming.
Equipment Selection Certain name brands of videotape equipment have been examined and selected for this study. Because the videotape industry is rapidly changing, new and improved equipment may be placed on the market in the future. The recommended equipment is suitable for the purposes of this proposed in terpretive system (see TABLES 4, 5, 6).
Theory and Techniques The key to videotape is flexibility and the ability to 32
TABLE 4 COMPARATIVE COSTS BETWEEN PANASONIC AND SONY VIDEO EQUIPMENT
CAMERAS COST - December 1972 Panasonic - model NV 3082 $1650.00 Sony - Rover II, AV 3400 1650.00
VIDEOCORDERS Panasonic - WV 3082 Included in the Sony - AVC 3400 above costs
VIDEOTAPE Panasonic - NV 50 h", 30 minutes, 1200 ft 21.95 Sony - 3650 21.95
EDITING Panasonic - NV 3130 1550.00 Sony - 3650 1150.00 RECOMMENDED ACCESSORIES ADDITIONAL MICROPHONES Electrovoice - 64 4 sound spot directional Electrovoice - 635 A omni-directional
ACCESSORIES 3 hour Nicad battery TV monitor 16 ft. cable for increased flexibility color adaptor 500.00 color video projection system - Sony 2400.00 additional lenses - Bolex 33
TABLE 5 FUNCTIONAL COMPARISONS OF SELECTED VIDEO EQUIPMENT
PANASONIC Models NV 3082 and WV 3082 weight less than 22 lbs., portable battery operated, still framing, automatic video and audio levels, 3 2 minutes recording and playback capacity on 1200 ft. tape, sync sight and sound with trigger controls, color adaptable with NV - A610 color adaptor Ik" viewfinder for instant monitoring, 3 00 line or better resolution
Model NV 3130 tape recorder compatible with EIAJ color and EIAJ #1 black and white standards, roll-free editing, electronic editing, slow motion, audio dubbing, still framing, automatic color lock control, 240 or better color horizontal resolution, one hour playback and recording capacity, playback thru stand ard TV with the optional RF Modulator
SONY Models AV 3400 and AVC 3400 combined weight is 24 lbs. 12 oz., portable battery operated, micro phone, zoom lens, electronic viewfinder on camera, AC.power adaptor, stop action, 31 minutes recording and playback horizontal black and white resolution better than 300 lines Model 3650 portable VTR tape recorder, EIAJ type I electronic editing, manual and automatic video and audio dubbing, slow and stop motion, playback thru antenna terminal of standard TV 34
TABLE 6 STANDARD COST ESTIMATES FOR A BASIC NATIONAL PARK VIDEOTAPE INTERPRETIVE SYSTEM
Equipment
Camera $1600.00 AC Power pac 90.00 Color adaptor* 500.00 Editing deck* 1550.00 Videocassette recorder - 1395.00 player Videotape @ 21.95 - 10 210.95 $5345.95 Accessories 2000.00 $7345.95 less 15% 1101.90 $6244.05
Possible Input Into Videotape - Videocassette Systems Color TV camera B/W TV camera Color TV B/W TV Color film camera B/S film camera recorder printer FM/AM receiver Record player
Microphone* ff^?^ Color VTR* cartridge tapes B/W VTR* winding machine *optional 35 spontaneously react, by taping, to any issue or situation. If an issue of importance rapidly surfaces, there should be a team of two, on the Park Service staff, in charge of video taping such an event. Controversial matters between the national park and adjacent communities could be taped on short notice. Problem social issues have been explored on videotape by the Canadian National Film Board. They proved that videotape could be an instrument for social change. Opposing groups within a community were each given the porta ble video camera to tape their side of an issue. Then, both groups worked with an advisor from the Film Board to tape and review town meetings. The production of the videotapes was credited with stimulating enough solid interest and co operation to solve problems and increase community communi cation over any disputed issues. In national parks, possible problem situations such as drug use, littering, traffic, and the dangers of fire, wild animals, vandalism, and overcrowding could be videotaped. Different sides of the issues could be presented as needed. The Park Service can produce tapes dealing with how they see and interpret certain problems, and they are able to visu ally as well as orally respond to questions regarding their position within the surrounding communities. Rangers have first-hand opportunities to express how they see and feel about the park. The concept of such a video system does not include 36 creating situations or in any way controlling conversations among the people involved. Rather, it is designed to allov/ taped situations to flow freely, or play themselves out. In many instances, by simply listening to people or the sounds of nature an important point may be reached without trying to trap or change them.
Many emergencies arise within national parks, especially as tensions are aroused. Serious confrontations among peo ple occur as do confrontations with nature. These could be videotaped, not to serve a "Big Brother," but rather to serve several important functions: 1. Unbiased and on the spot accounting for public ^ understanding of what happened; possibly for use in further training or shown on cable television. Video raises the consciousness of those who use it be cause it verifies what they see. People are frequently inarticulate about a meaningful experience; with video there is a document which communicates that experience.^^ 2. The public, especially the local public, is vitally interested in what happens within and on the periphery of the park. Frequently, the economy of the area is contingent on the popularity of the park. If a forest fire threatens to devastate many acres, or the reputation of vandalism and crime is linked with the reputation of the national park, the local public wants to learn about that situation and how they are to be affected by it. The National Film Board of Canada utilizes portable videotape equipment as instruments for social change and 37 community communications. George Stoney, in Challenge for Change, states that video "when it gets used in the locali ties where it was exposed, and when it is made part of a conflict situation, seems to excite so much more reaction than the written word." Recording with videotape has the inherent option of locating and emphasizing common concerns, fears and aspirations of every day people because of low costs and portability. It can be used by one or more groups to focus in on problems, one at a time; to deal thoroughly with those concerns using a two-way or give and take flow of information and ideas. The people working with Challenge for Change in Canada have pioneered many techniques for social change which would be applicable to a national park videotape system. They emphasize that portable video is able to show the reality of a situation because it fosters easier personal identifica tion. This is an important factor. When interpreting problem situations within a park, present methods have not been effectively reaching visitors on a personal level. They do not perceive their immediate role in the problem or the problem solving process. Conventional print has not been able to convince the television oriented populace of their power to implement change. 45 In television, time is money and therefore time is scarce. Real people are seldom seen on network tele vision. . .with video, time is abundant, and real people are its content.^6 Challenge for Change has demonstrated when portable videotape 38 is used in conflict situations, it does excite reaction be cause it fosters self-awareness and understanding for the group and the individual. Viewers see people who resemble themselves, in conflict situations making their mistakes, or having problems similar to difficulties they have experi enced. This ability to generate identification on a per sonal level is one of portable video's strongest points. Challenge for Change has constructed a system for using videotape to implement social change. It consists of the following parts: 47 videotape producer The combination of these portable half-inch parts effectively pro videotape unit duce a system for two- way flow of information; target audience making an accessible means of dialogue and relevent social change visible to the institution selected audience. society at large Video is not the television experience, nor the reading experience, nor any other communications experience where the many are passive receivers of information. Video may be the tool to help people get back to the circle, natural communication, and the earth.48 It is a means for spontaneous and working communication by any group or individual. The National parks must maintain working, good public relations with the people and towns encircling its borders. It must stay in public contact with businesses that depend on it for their success and survival. It should also involve the masses of visitors arriving each year, attaining a common 39 ground in communications between visitors, park staff, and the natural world that millions of people every year wish to see and experience. Survival for the national parks rests with wise use, understanding and cooperation of these groups. Portable videotape emerges as the proposed vehicle for this purpose.
National Park Service Division of Labor It would be the responsibility of the National Park Service at each individual area, to purchase the necessary videotape equipment. Park Service officers responsible for interpretation should have initial control over equipment and the program's operation. They should schedule projects so that every other week a new tape could be produced for local cable distribution. They would also be responsible for stimulating, through solicitation of public service adver tising and surveys, program ideas from visitors, local resi dents and from their own staff. It would not be their responsibility to personally produce the videotapes. At the beginning of each month, tentative program layouts should be outlined and submitted to interpretive officers. These would provide them with plans for a minimum of two bi-weekly programs and four short weekly tapes. It is recommended that all interested National Park Service personnel have the opportunity to learn, experiment, and produce videotapes on their own. The groundwork for this recommendation already exists in the National Park Service 40 m • • 49 Training Centers in Harper's Ferry and Grand Canyon. Videotape is utilized for training purposes at these cen ters, and a course in video camera and editing techniques could be included into the interpretation curriculum. The National Park Service should develop skills in the basic operation of a videotape interpretive system among its staff personnel. Information Programs - Pre-indoctrination, Interpretation, Promotion, and Distribution The main focus for the national park videotape system is the type of information that is to be conveyed and the style and manner in which it is produced. The flexibility and freedom possible with this lightweight equipment afford park personnel the vehicle for communicating important in formation to the traveling public, prior to their arrival at national park boundaries. This portable system could be billed as entertaining, information previews of selected na tional parks. Pre-indoctrination is directed toward the traveling audience. Much of the data should be public service infor mation, such as weekly programs offered by the National Park Service, special tour and talk schedules, what clothing or equipment is recommended for certain activities within the park, where to camp, etc. Production of these tapes would be done by the Park Service staff. Their length's about one to five minutes, graphics included, and made to cover a week 41 of scheduled events. Certain information should be repeated daily, possibly at the close of every showing. This would stress information which is judged most important for public knowledge and safety: basic park use, rules and regulations, open and closing times, and where to get further information.
Cable television serves as the means of conveying the videotape messages to the public. The tapes should be lo cally produced and contain relevant information for the community. Optimum viewing time would be in the morning or late evening in order to reach the majority of visitors be fore they travel to the park. Interpretation for national park purposes may be the viable method for understanding nature and man's position relative to it. The National Park Service has long recog nized the importance that interpretation plays in education, 50 cooperation, comprehension, and interest. Video inter pretation tapes and cassettes offer new techniques and pos sibilities for interpretive programs. They should not only be informative, but entertaining enough to capture the inter est of local and visiting audiences. Shows should be able to cover all aspects of the park and the people that staff it. The National Park Service could permit interested lay men to produce and edit tapes, under their supervision. Na ture walks, seasonal changes, special problems, interpretive talks, visitor attitudes, natural phenomenon are all possi ble videotape program subjects. These tapes would be made 42 with the local cable communities as the target audience. It is probable that visitors to the area would view them also. Promotional tapes and cassettes would involve the Na tional Park Service and selected national parks, but their production would not necessarily be undertaken by the Park Service. They would be directed toward the tourist-related industries, and should be developed and paid for by those industries. Data would be similar to National Park Service public service tapes, only carefully expanded to include the interpretive and entertaining information as well. They would promote travel to national parks, and would also edu cate and enlighten the visitor on special problems: neces sary reservations, where to stay, what to see, available camping facilities, etc. The cassettes would serve as pri vate information previews illustrating what services and entertainment are available to visitors and what their re sponsibilities are as traveling citizens. Nationwide motel and hotel chains may find the video tape interpretive cassettes attractive, as a welcome addi tion to their present services. Special videotapes and cassettes could be produced to accompany reservation services These cassettes would be distributed to national chain af filiates as part of their promotional programs. It is fea sible for the national motel organizational headquarters to provide rental services for player-recorder machines at low cost to member motel/hotel affiliates. These would provide 43 a closed circuit television system for each motel's use with the videocassettes. The cassette programs could be offered as an additional service of that particular motel/hotel chain. CHAPTER IV CASE STUDY - CARLSBAD CAVERNS NATIONAL PARK
Background Information Carlsbad Caverns National Park is situated in the foot hills of the Guadalupe Mountains on U.S. 62-180, between Carlsbad, New Mexico and El Paso, Texas. The total land and water area of the park is 45,846 acres. ^"^ In 1958, tourism was New Mexico's third largest industry, in 1967, the second largest, and may well be the foremost industry today. In 1971, there were 557 hotels, 470 motel/hotels, and 54 re- ported trailer parks and camps in New Mexico. 52 In 1972, 856,086 visitors came to see the Carlsbad Cav erns and park. Their estimated expenditure in the Carlsbad area was $16,830,000 (see TABLE 7). Located at the edge of a prehistoric inland sea, over fifty caves were formed out of the limestone barrier reef by a weak carbonic acid solution that eroded into the vast underground chambers. As the water table of the sea and ground lowered, these rooms filled with air, and mineral wa ter deposits formed beautiful stalactites and stlagmites. There are now two main trails into the largest of the under ground caverns maintained by the National Park Service and these are the key visitor stops in the Carlsbad National Park. One trail is a three mile, strenuous and steep walking
44 45
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Present Interpretive Programs Present interpretive programs for the park are in the midst of major changes. Cave tours formerly had been con ducted through the caverns on a regularly scheduled basis. Cave trips were led by members of the National Park Service staff, but several years ago the National Park Service real ized the interpretive cave walks could not continue to be successful. Their predictions were correct. In 1972, 80% of the park's over 8 00,000 visitors arrived during the four summer months. As the hour neared for any one of the daily fourteen tours, the highway, parking lots, and visitor cen ter became crowded with people. Summer tours were forced to accommodate anywhere from 3 00 to 1000 people at a time. A rules and regulations talk was given at the cave en trance for the entire assemblage and then three or more rangers were scattered among the crowd for the remainder of the trip. It was not possible to use voice amplification 47 effectively in the caverns due to echoing problems. There fore, it was up to the rangers to mingle with the vast crowds and attempt to answer their many questions. It often took the tour crowds fifteen minutes to assemble in designated areas to listen to a short interpretive talk by the ranger in charge. After waiting for the majority of the people to be seated, first entrants were often impatient to continue. It , . . 54 became an increasingly unwieldy program. In the summer of 1972, the National Park Service commenced a new program which has already been surveyed and proven 92% more popular with 55 the visitors and staff. It is a free flow, continuous cav ern trip system where no formal tours are given. Operating hours vary from season to season, the caverns opening as early as 6 AM and closing as late as 7:30 PM. People travel through the caves at their own pace and questions may be an swered by rangers stationed at different points within the caverns. The majority of visitors stop at the visitor center 56 prior to their tour. Limited areas have been alloted with in the center for basic interpretive information, including some displays outlining the cavern formation. At this time, entrance tickets are also sold there, but in the future a flat admittance fee will be charged at the park entrances. The National Park Service is now in a position where it must find a suitable interpretive method to accompany this free flow system. The National Park Service experimented with information 48 stakes and leaflets, but these proved unsuccessful because of the dim lighting conditions found within most of the caverns and on the trails. They do have plans for purchase of a ten-channel message repeater which uses tapes. The cost of the machine is $500. and each tape, produced in 57 Harper's Ferry, West Virginia, costs about $75. It is a push button device and would be located in the visitor cen ter. Also, the National Park Service is investigating an interpretive system incorporating headphones costing about $150,000 to implement. Use of the headphone system suggests a concession operation due to the high initial expenditures. The National Park Service would permit a private conces sionaire to rent headsets at a nominal visitor fee.^ The headphones are wireless sets and thirty-five to fifty inter- c o preted stops would be required. Every evening during the summer months a bat flight occurs. Thousands of bats swarm out of the caverns at dusk to feed on insects in the valley. Prior to this happening, a bat flight interpretive talk is given: The first few bats may return as early as 9:00 in the evening but they do come back all throughout the early morning hours, returning at their thickest just before the sun rises. A return bat flight is much dif ferent from an exit flight. Instead of spiralling slowly back into the caverns they will dive in from great heights and with great speed. Sometimes they come in over the entrance as much as 600 to 1000 feet high, fold their wings and plummet down inside. As they do this they attain a high rate of speed and the air begins to vibrate their wings, making a strange noise. When several hundred bats are coming into the caverns at one time, the return flight is quite spectacular and noisy. 49 You are invited to return early tomorrow morning to wit ness the return flight.59 The length of this interpretive talk varies considerably since the flight time can only be estimated. The information slide show available to visitors at the National Park Service Information Center in Carlsbad has not yet been too successful. The Center itself is new, and it is hoped by National Park Service staff that with the coming 6 0 of the summer season, more people will view it. Such is the case with the nature trails, since only 8% of the total visitors went on the nature trails last year. Self-guided nature trips are provided, as well as guided nature walks. The New Cave trip is an experiment in surface interpretation and also provides the opportunity for a primi tive caving trip. This is restricted to a maximum of 25 per group. Not many people visiting Carlsbad National Park have known that such desert and cave tours are available since most came to visit the main caverns only.
Visitor Analysis It was found from an information survey that the ma jority of people coming to Carlsbad Caverns are older, white and middle-class tourists, also that many are retired. For the most part, they have little desire to venture far from their automobiles. About 55% stay in motels during their vacations (see TABLE 7). Recent trends indicate that more and more visitors are bringing recreational vehicles. 50 campers and trailers, for their overnite accommodations. Camping facilities are not offered within park boundaries, but primitive camp sites are being planned for future devel opment. At the present time, camping areas are available in Carlsbad and White's City. During the spring, many school tours are brought to Carlsbad Caverns.^^ Spanish speaking people make up the largest minority group traveling to the park due to its close proximity to Mexico. The National Park Service has bi-lingual staff who are available for special assistance and are identified as 63 bi-lingual by special name tags. The information brochure, which is mailed in response to letters and available to the public at the visitor center, is offered in Spanish as well as English. In the summer months, most vacationers travel in family groups to Carlsbad Caverns, but during the winter, retired 64 people make up the majority traveling to the park. Proposed Videotape System Videotapes for Carlsbad should be oriented in three directions in order to best support existing interpretive National Park Service programs and supplement those with additional data. 1. Public service 2. Entertainment 3. General information Carlsbad does not suffer many of the problems which 51 plague other national parks. Littering and vandalism are not out of hand, neither are demonstrations nor drug use. Over-crowding, once a serious situation on tours, has been solved by the continuous free flow system. The National Park Service does have difficulties conveying basic data such as use rules and regulations, proper clothing suggestions, and promotion of other areas in the park other than simply the caverns. With one videotape camera, a crew of two, basic editing facilities and the cooperation of the local ca ble operator, a videotape system for Carlsbad is feasible and useful. Suggested topics for interpretation and public ser vice programming are included on TABLE 8. CA Cablevision, Carlsbad is presently experiencing slow growth in a market over 50% saturated. Its subscribers num bered 4600 in February of 1973, and the total market poten tial is about 8000. CA Cablevision lists all but two motels in the Carlsbad area as subscribers. Twelve channels are offered to subscribers and the station is a satellite of KELP TV in El Paso.^^ All of their present local programming is live. One hour of local news and weather is televised daily and along with a program entitled "This, That, and the Other" dedi cated to public affairs. They actively solicit public par ticipation for "This, That, and the Other." CA Cablevision uses h" videotaped programs produced for small children by the Learning Resources Center. These are strictly used on 52 only closed circuit television for schools. 67
TABLE 8 SUGGESTED PROGRAMMING TOPICS FOR CARLSBAD CAVERNS NATIONAL PARK VIDEOTAPE INTERPRETIVE PROGRAM
1. Nature trip to Oak Springs Canyon 2. Nature trip to Slaughter Canyon 3. Tour of the Caverns 4. Bat Flight and Visit to the Bat Cave 5. Profile of Carlsbad Caverns Visitors 6. Desert Life 7. Animal Life in Carlsbad Caverns National Park 8. The National Park Service 9. Special Problems for Tourists 10. Photographic Tips 11. What Made the Carlsbad Caverns 12. Backcountry in the National Park 13. Flora and Fauna - Seasonal Changes 14. New Cave Tour 15. Camping - Carlsbad Caverns National Park and Adjacent Areas 16. Rattlesnake Springs
PROGRAM FORMAT - ENTERTAINMENT Bi-Weekly production
Length 15 to 30 minutes Target Audience 10 to 20 years, English/Spanish speaking 53 Tools Video camera, omnidirectional mike, 16 ft. cable battery pack Crew Tv/o (one to operate camera and the other to run sound and mike equipment) Program "Guided Nature Walk to Oak Springs Canyon" Script Formal written script strongly discouraged, general outline rec ommended giving natural and in terpretive highlights of nature walk. Before taping, a group of young people, accompanied by the National Park Service officer to be taped, video and camera crew, should walk the trail together. After the completion of this trek, they should sit down and discuss what was most exciting, interest ing, funny, colorful, and the best part of the trip in their opinion. These should be the highlights of the tape. For the actual pro duction, a different group of children should be taken on the walk.
Format Loosely following general outline, camera picks up main points, free to get reactions and the inter play with trip participants; em phasis on natural features, in teresting anecdotes, personal reactions, storyline of the inter pretive walk itself Distribution Closed circuit and cable television
PROGRAM FORMAT - PUBLIC SERVICE Weekly production Daily showing Length 1 to 4 minutes Target Audience Traveling public Tools 1 video camera, graphics depart ment, sound equipment 54 Crew 2 camera crew, 1 graphics artist Program "Carlsbad Caverns Special Public Programs" Script Relatively tight, detailing weekly sponsored programs, special events, sponsored tours Format National Park Service officer on site in visitor center gives weekly news on programs: weather, what to wear, times for events, where to find out more informa tion, etc. Graphics end listing of basic rules and regulations every visitor should know before arrival at the park Distribution Cable television in Carlsbad and in El Paso, Texas
PROGRAM FORMAT - INFORT^ATION Bi-Weekly production Length 15 to 30 minutes Target Audience Local public Tools h" videotape unit, battery pack, 16 ft. cable, mike Crew Two Program "Profile of the Carlsbad Caverns National Park Visitors" Script Unstructured, tape interaction of people with nature, each other, and the National Park Service staff; free flowing
Format Street type interviews, easy view ing, candid shots, a "fun" camera, but showing a universal reaction to the park and its staff Distribution Private distribution firms, cable TV in Carlsbad, and in El Paso, Texas CHAPTER V SUMMARY
In conclusion, the videotape interpretive system out lined in the previous chapters fulfills the basic objectives and requirements set out in the Rationale for Study. The system is designed to perform necessary interpre tive functions for national parks, providing: pertinent information available for visitor orientation prior to their arrival; a system capable of reviewing countrysides and re lated information before actual travel to that area, rather than during travel by mass transit. The system's economic cost, portability, and outward reach through cable tele vision and videocassettes combine to form a method for a most up-to-date and efficient means of communication between the National Park Service and the traveling public. The form followed in the development of this paper closely parallels those proposed steps for methodology out lined in the thesis proposal. Various types of media equip ment were closely examined to obtain the final recommenda tions. It was found that portable videotape would best suit the purposes of this interpretive system, because of its low cost and use of the principles of television communica tions. Large audiences could easily be reached with this equipment, and duplication in large quantities was possible.
55 56 Specific recommendations were made for video equipment. Equipment functions, modifications, accessories, and cost estimates were reviewed. Interpretive programs were divided into three main categories: entertainment, public service, and information. Sample programming for each category was included to pro vide a possible working example for implementation and pro gramming. The entire interpretive system was outlined and illustrated for further clarification and understanding. The media equipment selection was theoretically used in an interpretive program for Carlsbad Caverns National Park. This area was selected because of its close proximity to several other federal park areas, and its convenient loca tion on the Texas, New Mexico border. The caverns and trails offered many unique possibilities for programming with the videotape system, and Carlsbad, New Mexico substantially supports the cable television system. Procedures have been established for basic implementa tion of the videotape interpretive system at Carlsbad Cav erns. Information guidelines were suggested as well as sample topics, techniques and recommended staffing and educa tional procedures. This thesis was written to serve as a working program for the videotape interpretive system. That is the purpose for the detailed technical, programming, and staffing infor mation. It was discovered during the course of researching 57 for this paper, that no system of this type is presently in operation. Very little data is readily available whether to the National Park Service or the general public, on the use of portable videotape units. LIST OF REFERENCES
U.S. News and World Report, (May 8, 1972), p. 40. F. Eraser Darling and Noel D. Eichhorn, "Man and Nature in the National Parks," National Parks Magazine (April, 1969), p. 14. 3 Report of a Task Force on the National Park System as an Educational and Cultural Institution, Russell W. Fridley, Chairman (Washington, D.C.: The Conservation Foundation, March, 1972), p. 9. 4 Commission on Outdoor Recreation Resources Review, Report of the Commission, Outdoor Recreation Resources Review Commission, No. 22 (Washington, D.C: Government Printing Office, 1962), pp. 59-60. 5 David Fischer, "The Roll of Interpretation," Park Prac tice GUIDELINE - Interpretation, May, 1966. Freeman Tilden, Interpreting Our Heritage (Chapel Hill, N.C.: University of North Carolina Press, 1957), p. 8. 7 Ibid., p. 9. 8 William E. Brown, Islands of Hope (Washington, D.C: National Recreation and Park Association, Inc., 1971), p. 76. 9 Paul Brooks, "Of Time, Space, and Megastructure," in Dynamics of Change, by Don Pabun (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1967), p. 24. William E. Brown, Islands of Hope, p. 75. Sydney Head, Broadcasting in America (2nd ed.; New York: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1972), pp. 82-88. 12 Franklin Fearing, "Social Impact of the Mass Media of Communication," National Study for the Study of Education, Fifty-third Yearbook of Mass Media and Education, Part II (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1954), pp. 165-191. 13 Howard Lasswell, Propaganda, Communication and Public Opinion (Princeton, N.J.7 Princeton University Press, 1946), p. 80. 14 Sydney Head, Broadcasting, pp. 82-88. 58 59 Ramdance Corporation and Michall Shamberg, Guerilla Television (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1971). p. 22. 16 Cyril Griffin and Paula Jaffe, eds., Videotools, I (Summer, 1972) , p. 16. 17 Telephone interview with manager of Lubbock Cable TV, Lubbock, Texas, March, 1973. 18 Bob Collett, private interview held at CA Cablevision, Inc., Carlsbad, New Mexico, January, 1973. •^^CATV Magazine, May 22, 1972, pp. 4-21. 20 Chris Isengard, private interview held at the Learning Resources Center, Carlsbad, New Mexico, January, 1973. 21 Portola Institute. Big.Rock Candy Mountain (Winter, 1970), p. 53. 22 Portola Institute. Big Rock Candy Mountain (Winter, 1970), p. 53. 23 Raindance Corporation, Guerilla Television, p. 21. Ibid. 25 Portable VTR and Camera (New Yorkt Matsushita Elec tric Corp. of America, 1972). 26 Paul Mendoza, private interview held at Technisphere Corporation, New York City, December, 1972. 27 Raindance Corporation, Guerilla Television, p. 22. 28 Paul Mendoza, private interview, December, 1972. 29 Paula Jaffe, private interview held at CTL Electron ics, Inc., New York City, January, 1973. "^^Mike Goldberg, "Video Exchange Directory," Challenge for Change, I (Fall, 1970), p. 19. » ^•^Ibid. ^^Jean Pierre Masse, private interview held at Le Video graphe, Montreal» Quebec, December, 1972. 33 "^Raindance Corporation, Guerilla Television, pp. 22-23. 34 Jean Pierre Masse, private interview, December, 1972. 60 35 Paula Jaffe, private interviev/, January, 1973. 3 6 Sydney Head, Broadcasting, pp. 82-88. Ibid. 3 8 Cyril Griffin, Videotools, p. 38. 39„ . , Raindance Corporation, Guerilla Television, p. 77. 40 Colin Law, "Access," Challenge for Change, I (Fall, 1970), p. 8. Ibid. 42 Cyril Griffin, Videotools, p. 23. 43 George Stoney, "Access," Challenge for Change, I (Winter, 1968-69), p. 2. 44 Collin Law, Challenge, p. 8. 45 Cyril Griffin, Videotools, p. 24. Ibid. 47 Henry Breitrose, "Film Power," Challenge for Change, I (Fall, 1968), p. 3. 48 Cyril Griffin, Videotools, p. 24. 49 U.S., Department of Interior, National Park Service, Training Opportunities '73 (Washington, D.C: Government Printing Office, Region 8, 1972), p. 28. Ibid., pp. 28-31. 51 U.S., Department of Interior, National Park Service, Parks for America (Washington, D.C: Government Printing Office, 1964), p. 425. 52 U.S., Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, County Business Patterns: 1971, New Mexico, p. 16. 53 U.S., Department of Interior, National Park Service, Carlsbad Caverns (Washington, D.C: Government Printing Office, 1970). 54 Bob Crisman, private interview held at the National Park Service Information Center, Carlsbad, New Mexico, January, 1973. 61 Ibid. Ibid. 57-rK-^ Ibid. Ibid. 59 U.S., Department of Interior, National Park Service, Bat Flight Talk (Carlsbad, New Mexico: National Park Service, n. d.). 6 0 Bob Crisman, private interview, January, 1973. Jim Todd, private interview held at Carlsbad Caverns Visitors' Center, Carlsbad Caverns National Park, January, 1973. ^^Ibid. Bob Crisman, private interview, January, 1973. 64 . Jim Todd, private interview, January, 1973. Donald Dayton, private interview held at the National Park Service Information Center, Carlsbad, New Mexico, January, 1973. 66 Bob Collett, private interview, January, 1973. 67 Chris Isengard, private interview, January, 1973.