Biotechnology and its Potential Impact on Global Security

LynnW.Jelinski,Ph.D.

Biotechnology–theabilitytounderstandandmanipulatebiologyatthemolecularlevel–is likelytocontinuetohaveaprofoundlypositiveimpactonthehumancondition.Forexample,we havealreadyseengreatadvancesinthetreatmentofcomplexviraldiseasessuchasAIDS,inour understandingofthegeneticbasisfordiseasessuchasbreastcancer,andarebeginningtounravel thegenetic,molecularandenvironmentalunderpinningsofautismandAlzheimer’sdisease.This trajectoryislikelytoaccelerateintheyearstocome.Inadditiontoitsapplicationtohumanhealth care,biotechnologyhasalreadyhadasubstantialimpactonagriculture.Forinstance,DNAmarkers areusedtoguidetheconventionalbreedingofplantsforgreateryieldandnutritionalvalue,and wehavegeneticallymodifiedcornthatisresistanttoplantpests.

Biotechnologycanalsoprovidethebasisforexquisitelysensitivesensorsthatarealreadyused indiagnostickits,includingthoseforthemeasurementofglucosefordiabeticsandforawiderange offoodsafetyapplications.Whencoupledwithnanotechnologyandmicroelectronics,onecan imagineevermoreaccurateinsulinpumps,cropmanagementtoolsandwatersafetymonitors.

Itsbenefitsnotwithstanding,biotechnologycomeswithitsownsetofcomplexethicalissues, includingcloning,useoffetalstemcells,whetherindividualsandinsurancecompaniesshould haveaccesstotheknowledgeaboutcancermarkers,andtheconsumers’righttohavefoodsderived fromgeneticallymodifiedorganismssolabeled.Wemustaddresstheseethicalissuesinaglobally responsiblewaytoreapthefullpromiseofbiotechnology.

Trajectory of Biotechnology in the Next 20 Years

Manyoftheintellectualunderpinningsofbiotechnologyarealreadyinplacetosafelypredict thatbiotechnologywillcontinuetohaveaverypositiveglobalimpactoverthenext20years.For example,moleculartools,rapidsequencingtechnologies,partiallibrariesofgenomesandhighspeed computationalalgorithmstominetheselibrariesareinplace.Projectionofthefutureisdifficult because discontinuousinnovations arerequiredtochangetheworldaswenowknowit. Forinstance, itishardtobelievethatlessthan20yearsagoCERN(theEuropeanOrganizationforNuclear Research)publishedwhatisconsideredthefirstpublicfaceoftheworldwidewebproject,which grewoutofprivate,defenseandresearchinvestmentsinnetworksstartinginthe1960s.The innovationthatgainedenormousacceptancewaswhenTCP/IPprotocolscouldadapttoexisting communicationsprotocols.Today,itishardtoimaginelifewithouttheinternet.Wenowhavean entirelynewvocabularyincludingtermssuchasgoogle,URL,Facebook,Skype,Wikipediaand eBay.Wehaveinstantaccesstoinformationandnewmeansofcommunicatingandperforming everydayactivitiessuchasbuyingairlinetickets,payingbillsandresearchingourancestors.Itis alsohardtobelievethatMotorolamadecommerciallyavailablethefirstportablecellularphone

T he I nTerface of S cIence , T echnology & S ecurITy 85 areaS of MoST concern, now and ahead onlyin1983.Nownearlyeveryonehasoneortwo,withfunctionalitythatincludesaccesstothe internet,voiceandtextcommunications,GPS,anddigitalcameras.

Asisthecaseforinformationtechnology, discontinuousinnovations inbiotechnologyhave changedtheworldasweknowit.Forexample,DNAfingerprintingwasfirstusedinacriminal investigationin1986.Thehumangenomeprojectofficiallybeganin1990andaworkingdraft wasavailableby2000(fiveyearsearlierthanprojected),spurredbyadvancesinsequencingand computation.Dolly,theclonedsheep,wasbornin1996andintroducedtotheworldin1997.And in1996,RoundupReadysoybeanswerecommerciallyavailable;by2005,87percentoftheU.S. soybeanfieldswereplantedwiththem.

Theseexamplesfromthepastillustratetwopoints.First, discontinuousinnovations reston theshouldersofvisionarypeopleandtakeadvantageofastrongunderpinningofbasicknowledge andappliedresearch.Second,thefutureholdsgreatpromiseforadditional discontinuous innovations inbiotechnologyifwecontinuetonurturetheunderlyingintellectualbaseandbuild thehumancapitalcapableofchallengingthestatusquo.

Inthispaperwedefinesixglobalsecurityissuesthatcouldbenefitgreatlyfrombiotechnology approachesoverthenext20years,coupledofcourse,withinformedpolicy.Wesetforthchallenges ineachofthesesixareaswiththegoalofchangingtheworldaswenowknowit.Ourgoalisa NewSecureWorld.

Figure 1 Sixareasofglobalsecurityinwhichbiotechnologycouldhaveamajorimpactoverthenext20years

86 T he I nTerface of S cIence , T echnology & S ecurITy areaS of MoST concern, now and ahead How Biotechnology Might Affect Global Security Issues

Althoughglobalsecurityissuesarelegion,wewillfocushereonsixareasinwhich biotechnologycouldhaveamajorimpact.Theseareenergysecurity,securitytoextremesin climate,healthsecurity,securityfromactsofterrorism,watersecurity,andfoodsecurity(figure1, p.86).Althoughwewilldiscusseachoftheseinturn,weshowattheconclusionofthispaperthat theseareasarelargelyinterrelatedandweadvocateasystemsapproachtothem.

Energy Security Theworld’ssupplyofoil,gasandotherfossilfuelsislimited,andfurthermore, burningoffossilfuelscontributestoglobalgreenhousegasemissions.Althoughnewfossilfuel discoveriescontinuetobemade,considerableuncertaintyexistsintheamountofreservesandthe rateinwhichtheyarebeingdepleted.Figure2depictsthepercentofknownoilreservesin2009 bygeographicarea.Mostwouldagreethatbecauseoursupplyoffossilfuelsisfinite,wemustdo something,whethernuclearenergy,alternativefuels,hydrogenfuelcells,orconservation,to continueasustainabletrajectoryofglobalpopulationandeconomicgrowth.

Inthissectionwebrieflydiscussvariousoptionsforproducingbiofuelsandhowadvancesin biotechnologymightacceleratetheirproductioninaneconomicallyandenvironmentally responsibleway.

Figure 2 Percentofworld’sknownoilreserves,2009. source: Compiledfromdataobtainedfrom http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/international/reserves.html

g Ethanol as a Biofuel Biotechnologyoffersthepromiseofproducingsustainablebiofuels andbiodieselfromplantfeedstocks. 1 InBrazil,forexample,thefermentationofcanesugarto ethanol,coupledwithnewinfrastructureandpoliciesforcarscapableofrunningon“flex”fuel, hasshownthatbiofuelscanbeproducedinasustainableway.In2009,Brazilproduced29.4 billiongallonsofethanolforfuel,or37.7percentoftheworld’ssupply. 2 Ethanolcanbe

T he I nTerface of S cIence , T echnology & S ecurITy 87 areaS of MoST concern, now and ahead fermenteddirectlyfromsugarinthesugarcanefeedstock,makingtheprocesseconomically viablewhenthepriceofgasolineissufficientlyhigh.BecauseintheU.S.sugarcanegrows onlyinTexas,Louisiana,FloridaandHawaii,thisroutetoethanolislessattractiveintheU.S. thanitisinBrazilorCentralAmerica.

Toproduceethanolfromcorn,thecornstarchmustbeconvertedintosugarsbeforefermentation. Thisconversionisexpensiveandfurthermore,theprocessofmakingethanoldirectlyfromcornis environmentallylessdesirableandcompeteswithcornasasourceoffood.Intheabsenceofan inexpensivesourceofsugar,theconversionofcellulosicfeedstocksintoethanolorbiodieselis morelikely,ultimately,tobeaneconomicallyviableandsustainableroutetobiofuels.

g Cellulosic Feedstocks for Fuel Cellulosicfeedstockssuchasswitchgrassandcornstover canbeconvertedintosugarsandligninsandthenfermentedintoethanol,orconvertedvia pyrolysisintobiofuels.Biotechnologyisbeingusedtooptimizebothscenarios.Forexample, ligninsinterferewiththefermentationprocessandscientistsareexaminingwaystoremove them.Inaddition,cultivarsofperennialgrassesarebeingimproved,justasturfgrasseswere, byselectivebreedingusinggeneticmarkers.Finally,onecouldimaginelearningaboutnew processingenzymesfromtermites,whosegutsarecapableofdigestingcellulose.

g Algae to Create Biodiesel BiodieselisproducedintheU.S.fromsoybeansandinEurope fromcanolaoil.Bothareexpensivepropositions.Analternativeapproachistoharvestbiodiesel fromalgaegrowninhighdensity. 3 Thishasbeenpioneeredbyanumberofdemonstration projects,amongthemtheRedhawkpowerplantnearPhoenix,Arizona,inwhichalgaewere maintainedinplasticbag-likecontainers.

1 ) C ˚ (

e r 0.5 u t a

r Little Ice Age e p 0 m e T

n Medieval Warm Period i

e -0.5 g n a h

C -1 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1800 1900 Year (A.D.) Figure 3 SmoothedandaveragedregionalproxydataillustratingtheMedievalWarmPeriodandtheLittleIceAge. source: http://www.geocraft.com/WVFossils/ice_ages.html

88 T he I nTerface of S cIence , T echnology & S ecurITy areaS of MoST concern, now and ahead Security to Extremes in Climate Althoughtheexactpredictionsaboutglobalwarminghaverecently beencalledintoquestion 4 anddebatecontinuesoverthedegreetowhichanthropogenicactivity hasinfluencedglobalclimate, 5 severalissuesareclear.First,the earth’sclimatehaspreviously undergonewarmingandcoolingperiods(figure3),althoughtheglobalextentofthesetemperature swingsisunclear,ashistoricalrecordsandproxymeasurementswereusedtoconstructthe analyses. 6 Nevertheless,theMedievalWarmPeriod(ca.AD950-1250)isoneinwhichEurope wasbalmyandgrapesgrewinEngland.DuringthesubsequentLittleIceAgetheThames repeatedlyfrozeover.Inaddition,between1900and2005,whereactualtemperaturemeasurements wererecorded,temperaturesatEarth’ssurfaceincreasedabout0.8degreesCelsius. 7

Potentialimpactsofglobalclimatechangeincludeweatherextremes,changesinsealevel, oceanwarming,flooding,newregionalrainfallpatterns,newtemperatureextremes,threatsto humanhealthandreducedcropyields.Itisappropriateandtimelythatwedevelopcontingency plansfortheglobalsecurityissuesdescribedhere,shouldrecentclimatechangepredictionscome tofruition.Failuretoadapttothesechangescouldbeasourceofnationalandinternational instabilityparticularlyinclimatesandgeographicalareasmostaffectedbyclimateextremes.

Biotechnologycanaddressmanyoftheuncertaintiespredictedbyclimatechangeincluding: thedevelopmentofplantseitherbredorengineeredtoadapttoextremesintemperature,cropsthat canwithstandstressandaretoleranttodroughtorsaline.Adaptivestrategiescouldalsoinvolve developingagriculturalcroppingsystemsthatrequirereducedwaterandnitrogeninputsand sequestermorecarbonthaniscurrentlythecase.

Overthepastseveraldecadesbiotechnologyandplantbreedingapproachestodroughttolerance havebeenthesubjectofintenseinvestigation.Wenowhaveabetterunderstandingoftherolesof regulatorynetworks,geneexpressionandsignaltransduction. 8 Nevertheless,thecommercial productionofdroughtresistantplantsisinitsinfancyandwemaywellneedadiscontinuous innovationtobringittoreality.

Health Security Thefutureofbiotechnologyisbrightwhenitcomestopredictingitsimpacton humanhealth. 9 Wearelikelytoseeadvancesinareassuchaspersonalizedmedicine,drugdelivery, genetherapy,vaccinesandregenerativemedicine.Manyoftheseadvanceswillstemfrom moleculardiagnostictestsnowcapableofinterrogatingspecificpointsinthechain:“DNAmakes RNAmakesprotein”asmarkersrelatetodiseaseprogressionandpersonalresponsetotreatment.

Whiletheseadvancesinhealthcarewillgreatlyimprovequalityoflife,somearealsodirectly applicabletoglobalhealthsecurityissues.Forexample,outbreaksofpandemicdiseasesand chronicdebilitatingdiseasescreateeconomicdisruptionandplaceheavydemandsonmedicaland socialservices.Inthissectionwefocusonthreeareasinwhichmedicalbiotechnology,both diagnosticandtherapeutic,canhavealargeimpactonglobalsecurity.Theultimategoalistouse biotechnologytomovefromtreatmentofdiseasetopreventionofdisease.

T he I nTerface of S cIence , T echnology & S ecurITy 89 areaS of MoST concern, now and ahead g End to Chronic Debilitating Diseases Manycountries,particularlyonesintropicalzones, facethesecuritythreatthatchronicdebilitatingdiseasesimpactpeopleofworkingage,creating apopulationofnon-workingandmedicallyneedypeople.Diseasesincludechronicconditions suchasschistosomiasis,Chagasdisease,AIDS,dengue,andWestNilevirus.

Asimilarsituation,butethicallydifficulttodiscuss,pertainstocountriesthatfacearapidly agingpopulation.Asouraveragelifespancontinuestoincrease,sotoowillthenumberofpeople requiringadvancedcareforconditionssuchasAlzheimer’sdisease,dementia,hipreplacements andartificialheartvalves.Unlessproperlymanaged,thissituation,coupledwithnewandexpensive medicalprocedures,costlydiagnostictoolsandheroictreatments,conspirestocreateanunstable economicsituation.Weanticipatethatbiotechnologywillcontributediagnosticandpreventative toolstoeasethesecurityburdenofchronicdebilitatingdiseases.

g Regenerative Medicine Replacementtissuesandorgansderivedfromstemcellsmayone daymakeitpossibletoreplaceorganssuchaskidneysandliversandtotreatdiseasessuchas musculardystrophyandParkinson’sdisease.Researchattheinterfacebetweenbiotechnology andmaterialsscienceisnowmakingitpossibletogrowcellsonartificialscaffolds.

g Shift from Treatment of Disease to Prevention Ultimatelybiotechnologywillmakeit possibletoshifttodiseasepredictionandpreventionfromourcurrentmodalityoftreating diseasesaftertheyhaveoccurred.Microarraytechnologyofincreasingsophisticationwillmake itpossibletoshiftfromthetreatmentofdiseasetoitsprevention.Forexample,over10million singlenucleotidepolymorphisms(SNPs)havebeenidentifiedinthehumangenome.SNPscan predictgeneticdisease,whichcanbetreatedorprevented.

Water Security Accesstocleanwaterisamajorissue,particularlyindevelopingcountries. Waterbornediseasesarethesecondmostfrequentcauseofdeathinchildrenunderfiveyearsof age. 10 Dr.RitaColwellsummedupthenationalsecurityissuessurroundingaccesstocleanwater whenshediscussedherlife-longworkonthewaterbornediseasecholeraleadingtoreceiptofthe 2010StockholmWaterPrize: “Infection by waterborne diseases, parasites, bacteria and viruses causes a reduced capacity for work and daily functions, which creates economic and social disruption and a reduction of capacity of a country. Safe drinking water is critical to economic stability, social stability and even national security.” 11

Colwell,whoselifelongworkhasusedmolecularandothertechniquestounderstandthe transmissionofwaterbornediseases,advocatessimpleimprovementsinwatertreatmentin developingcountries.Shealsowarnsthatclimatechangecouldincreasewatertemperatures, perhapsleadingtoincreasedgeographicaldistributionandseasonalityofwaterbornepathogens.

90 T he I nTerface of S cIence , T echnology & S ecurITy areaS of MoST concern, now and ahead Security from Acts of Terrorism Althoughtheabsolutenumberofdeathsfromterroristincidences issmall(figure4)comparedtodeathsfromhungerorwaterbornediseases,terroristactivities introduceahighlevelofuncertaintyandchaos.Thedisruptionfromterrorismisencumberingin itsdisruptionoftravelanditsrequirementforresources.Furthermore,inthewronghandsand weaponized,biologicalagentssuchasricin,aflatoxin,botulismtoxin,saxitoxin,smallpox,anthrax, ebola,Marburgvirus,plagueandRiftValleyfevercouldgenerateenormousdamage.Although treatiesareinplaceprohibitingtheuseofbiologicalagents,itisneverthelessprudenttobeprepared todetectandpreventsuchanattack.Terroristsarenotboundbytreatiesandroguescientistscould provideaccesstobiologicalagents.

Biotechnologyoffers International Terrorism Incidences and Results Worldwide theadvantageofproducing exquisitelysensitivesensors 50000 fordetectionofboth 45000 40000 biologicalandnon- s e

c 35000

n biologicalthreats.One e d

i 30000

c couldimaginesensorsfor n I

25000 f o airbornethreats,multi-array r 20000 e b

m 15000 sniffersatairportsand u N 10000 publicbuildings,and 5000 perhapsroutinescreeningin 0 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 hospitalemergencyrooms Year Incidences Injuries Fatalities todetectearlyvictims.

Figure 4 Internationalterrorismbetweentheyears2000and2008. Food Security Accordingto source: U.S.DepartmentofDefense, http://www.project.org/info.php?recordID=178 theWorldFoodProgramme, aboutonepersoninsixor sevenregularlysuffersfrom hunger. 12 Asfigure5(p.92)shows,mostoftheworld’shungerisconcentratedinAfrica,India, Mongolia,BoliviaandCentralAmerica.Biotechnology,eitherasaguidetoconventionalbreeding programsorviageneticengineering,canbeusedtoenhancetheproductionoffoods,bothplant andanimal.Goalsincludehigheryields,shortertimetomarket,resistancetopestsandpathogens, andgreaternutrition.

Whilethegoalofeliminatingworldhungerisnoble,noteveryoneiswillingtoembracea solutionthatinvolvesgeneticallymodifiedorganisms(GMOs).Forexample,theEuropeanUnion hasnotbeenwidelyacceptingofGMOcropsandrequireslabelingforfoodsandfoodproducts thatstillcontaintheDNAorproteinderivedfromGMOs.Similarly,inSeptember2010theU.S. FoodandDrugAdministrationwasunabletoreachadecisiononwhethertoallowgenetically engineeredAtlanticsalmontobeusedforhumanconsumption. 13 Thesalmon,AquaAdvantage, wasraisedfromeggsinjectedwithDNAfromthePacificsalmonandgeneticmaterialfromthe oceanpouteel.Ifapproved,thiswouldhavebeenthefirstgeneticallymodifiedanimalinthefood supply.

T he I nTerface of S cIence , T echnology & S ecurITy 91 areaS of MoST concern, now and ahead Figure 5 WorldHungerMap. source: WorldFoodProgramme, http://www.wfp.org/ ©WorldFoodProgramme,2011

92 T he I nTerface of S cIence , T echnology & S ecurITy areaS of MoST concern, now and ahead How are we adapting/responding to these global security issues?

Itisimportanttonotethatnoneofthesixsecurityissueswehaveidentifiedexistsinisolation. Forinstance,accesstoplentifulandcleanwaterisdirectlyrelatedtohealthsecurity,tosecurity fromterrorism,tofoodsecurity,ortosecuritytoextremesinclimate,andindirectlytoenergy security.Consequently,asystemsapproachseemsappropriate.

TheU.S.iscurrentlyengagedinanumberofactivitiestoaddresstheseglobalsecurityissues –issuesevenmoreimportantinthecontextofagrowingworldpopulation.In2010theworld’s populationisestimatedat6.87billionpeople(U.S.CensusBureau).Whilepopulationgrowthhas slowedtoabout1.1percentinmanydevelopedcountries,theworld’spopulationisnotexpected topeakforatleast20moreyears,atwhichtimeestimatesrangefromanadditional0.63–2.13 billionmorepeople(figure6).Itislikelythatthispopulationgrowthwilladdadditionalstressto thesystem.

TheU.S.isengagedona

15000 numberoffrontstoaddressthese securityissues.Forexample, 14000 Congressrecentlypassedthe 13000 EnergyIndependenceandSecurity 12000 Act(2007).Itsgoalsare“tomove 110 0 0 theUnitedStatestowardgreater 10000 energyindependenceandsecurity, e l 9000 toincreasetheproductionofclean p o e

p 8000 renewablefuels,toprotect

f o

s 7000 consumers,toincreaseefficiency n o i l

l ofproducts,buildings,and i 6000 M vehicles,topromoteresearchon 5000 anddeploygreenhousegascapture 4000 andstorageoptions,andto 3000 improvetheenergyperformance 2000 oftheFederalGovernment,and 1000 forotherpurposes.”Amongother 0 provisions,itcallsfortheamount 1800 1820 1840 1860 1880 1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000 2020 2040 2060 2080 2100 ofbiofuelsaddedtogasolineto increaseto36billiongallonsby Estimated UN High UN Medium UN Low Actual 2022,upfromthe4.7billion gallonsin2007,andthatmostof Figure 6 Projectionsforworldpopulation thisincreasecomesfromnon- source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_population cornstarchfeedstockssuchas sugarandcellulose.

T he I nTerface of S cIence , T echnology & S ecurITy 93 areaS of MoST concern, now and ahead Inaddition,theNationalScienceFoundation,theNationalInstitutesofHealthandtheDepartment ofEnergycommissionedtheNationalResearchCounciltoproduceareport “New Biology for the 21 st Century” whichdefinedfourmajorsocietalchallenges: 14

- generatefoodplantstoadaptandgrowsustainablyinchangingenvironments; - understandandsustainecosystemfunctionandbiodiversityinthefaceofrapidchange; - expandsustainablealternativestofossilfuels;and - understandindividualhealth.

Thesefourchallengesarenowdrivingpartofthebiotechnologyresearchagenda.Forexample, theU.S.DepartmentofAgriculturehasissuedcompetitivegrantsinfivebroadareas:1)keep Americanagriculturecompetitivewhileendingworldhunger;improvenutritionandendchild obesity;3)improvefoodsafety;4)secureAmerica’senergyfuture;and5)mitigateandadaptto climatechange.

Figure 7 Emphasisisonthevalueofhumancapital

Way Forward: Recommendations for Strengthening and Improving Global Security

ThesixbiotechnologysecurityissuesarenotuniquetotheU.S.;manyothernation-stateshave thesameissues.Solutionstotheseissueswilloverlap,andcooperativeeffortwillproducesuperior results.

94 T he I nTerface of S cIence , T echnology & S ecurITy areaS of MoST concern, now and ahead Withourfocusonpotentialapplicationsofbiotechnologytosecurityissueswehaveignored perhapsoneofthemostimportantareasofall: humancapitalsecurity (figure7,p.94).Aswego forwardtodefinecollaborationsandareasofjoininterest,itisessentialtorecognizethatourgreatest securitywillultimatelycomefromahighlyeducated,technicallyandscientificallyliterate population.

Tofullyutilizeourhumancapitaltosolvethesecurityissuesfacedjointlybynations,Weset forththefollowingrecommendationstobuildcollaborationsaroundmutualissuesofglobal security:

- foreachidentifiedissueselectedformultinationaleffort,face-to-facemeetingsareimportant firststepsandmemorandaofunderstandingareusefultoformalizecollaborations; - leadersshouldgobeyondmeetingsanddiscussionsandcreatehands-onopportunitiesfor genuineintellectualexchanges,includingvisitingprofessorships,laboratoryinternshipsand jointfieldwork; - leadersshoulddefineseveralfocusedareasofmutualinterestandexpectmutualcontributions andtimecommitmentsfromeachnation; - theeffortsshouldincludeculturalaswellasscientificexchanges; - theremustbeasubstantialefforttofollowuponissuesidentifiedandtoensuremutual contributionsoccurasanticipated;and - tocontinuetobuildhumancapital,itisessentialthatstudentsareexposedtothevalueof globalteamwork. ______Notes

1.WorldBank,“Biofuels:ThePromiseandTheRisks,” World Development Report 2008, 70-71.

2.RenewableFuelsAssociation,“2010Ethanolindustryoutlook:climateofopportunity”(2010).

3.JoelK.Bourne,Jr.,“Greendreams–makingfuelfromcropscouldbegoodfortheplanet–afterabreakthroughortwo,” National Geographic Magazine (October2007):38-59.

4.M.E.Mann,etal.,“Global-scaletemperaturepatternsandclimateforcingoverpastsixcenturies,” Nature 392(1998):779-787.

5.MonteHeibandHarrisonHeib,“Globalwarming–achillingperspective,”2007, http://www.geocraft.com/WVFossils/ice_ages.html .

6. NationalResearchCouncil,“Surfacetemperaturereconstructionsforthelast2,000years”(Washington,DC:NationalAcademies Press:2006),3.

7. J.E.Hansen,etal.,“GISSsurfacetemperatureanalysis,”NASAGoddardInstituteforSpaceStudies(2006).

8. T.Umezawaetal.,“Engineeringdroughttoleranceinplants:discoveringandtailoringgenestounlockthefuture,” Current Opinion Biotechnology 17no.2(2006):113-122.

9.Amgen,“Futureofbiotechnologyinhealthcare”(2010):31-34, www.amgenscholars.com.

10.R.A.Rahman,“Waterisimperativetoeconomicandnationalsecurity–2010StockholmWaterPrizeinterviewwithRita Colwell,” Water Front Magazine 2(2010):8-9.

T he I nTerface of S cIence , T echnology & S ecurITy 95 areaS of MoST concern, now and ahead 11.Ibid.

12. http://www.wfp.org/.

13.KimCarollo,“Surprise:FDAPanelUnabletoRerachConclusiononGeneticallyModifiedSalmon,”ABCNews,September 21,2010, http//abcnews.go.com/m/story?id=11682586&sid=26.

14.NationalResearchCouncil,“Anewbiologyforthe21 st century:ensuringtheU.S.leadsthecomingbiologyrevolution” (Washington,DC,NationalAcademiesPress:2009).

96 T he I nTerface of S cIence , T echnology & S ecurITy areaS of MoST concern, now and ahead