ARCHAEOLOGIST VOLUME 48 NO. 4 FALL 1998

PUBLISHED BY

THE ARCHAEOLOGICAL SOCIETY I I^^^^B & -^r"^"."^^" ?ifi™,.iTauH OF OHIO The Archaeological Society of Ohio MEMBERSHIP AND DUES Annual dues to the Archaeological Society of Ohio are payable on the first of January as follows: Regular membership $17.50; husband and wife (one TERM copy of publication) $18.50; Individual Life Membership $300. Husband and EXPIRES A.S.O. OFFICERS wife Life Membership $500. Subscription to the Ohio Archaeologist, pub­ 2000 President Jeb Bowen, 1982 Velma Avenue, Columbus, OH lished quarterly, is included in the membership dues. The Archaeological 43224, (419)-585-2571. Society of Ohio is an incorporated non-profit organization. 2000 Vice-President William Pickard, 1003 Carlisle Ave., BACK ISSUES Columbus, OH 43224, (614)-262-9516. Publications and back issues of the Ohio Archaeologist: 2000 Executive Secretary Charles Fulk, 2122 Cottage Street, Ash­ Ohio Flint Types, by Robert N. Converse $40.00 add $4.50 P-H land, OH 44805, (419)-289-8313. 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ASO CHAPTERS Aboriginal Explorers Club BUSINESS MANAGER President: Dick Getz, 10949 Millersburg Rd SW, Massillon, OH Don Casto, 138 Ann Court, Lancaster, OH 43130 Alum Creek Chapter Business phone: 1-800-736-7815-Home phone: 1-740-653-9477. President: Craig Alward, 62 Belle Ave., Delaware, OH Beau Fleuve Chapter TRUSTEES President: Clarence K. Thomas, 291 Harrison Ave., Buffalo, NY 2000 James G. Hovan, 16979 South Meadow Circle, Strongsville, Blue Jacket Chapter OH 44136, (216)-238-1799. President: Jim Bartlett, 6044 East Rt. 36, Cable, OH 2000 Steven Kish, 3014 Clark Mill Road, Norton, OH 44203 Chippewa Valley Chapter (216)-753-7081. President: Carl Szafranski, 6106 Ryan Rd, Medina, OH 2000 Walt Sperry, 6910 Range Line Road, Mt. Vernon, OH 43050, Cuyahoga Valley Chapter (814J-393-2314, President: Gary J. Kapusta, 3294 Herriff Rd., Ravenna, OH 2000 Russell Strunk, 1608 Clough Pike, Batavia, OH 45103, Dividing Ridges Chapter (513)-732-1400. President: John Mocic, Box 170, RD#1, Valley Drive, 2002 Martha Otto, 2200 East Powell Road, Westerville, OH 43801, Dilles Bottom, OH (6141-297-2641. Flint Ridge Chapter 2002 Carl Szafranski, 6106 Ryan Road, Medina, OH 44256, President: Samuel Bush, 2500 Condit Dr., Pataskala, OH (3301-723-7122. Fort Salem Chapter 2002 Elaine Holzapfel, 415 Memorial Drive, Greenville, OH 45331, President: Lamont Baudendistel, 310 Water St., Bethel, OH (937)-548-0325. Fulton Creek Chapter 2002 John Mocic, Box 170, R.D. #1, Dilles Bottom, OH 43947 President: Don Mathys, 23000 St. Rt. 47, West Mansfield, OH (7401-676-1077. Johnny Appleseed Chapter President: Randy Hancock, 1202 St. Rt. 302, Ashland, OH King Beaver Chapter President: Richard McConnell, RD#8, Box 41, New Castle, PA REGIONAL COLLABORATORS Kyger Creek Chapter David W. Kuhn, 2103 Grandview Ave., Portsmouth, OH 45662 President: Ruth A. Warden, 350 Watson Grove Rd., Cheshire, OH Mark W. 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Lisbon, OH All articles, reviews, and comments regarding the Ohio Archaeologist Sandusky Bay Chapter should be sent to the Editor. Memberships, requests for back issues, President: George DeMuth, 4303 Nash Rd., Wakeman, OH changes of address, and other inquiries should be sent to the Busi­ Sandusky Valley Chapter ness Manager. President: Tern Hesson, 12440 St. Rte. 103, E, Carey, OH Seneca Hunters Chapter President: Don Weller, Jr., 3232 S. State Rt. 53, Tiffin, OH PLEASE NOTIFY THE BUSINESS MANAGER OF ADDRESS Six River Valley Chapter CHANGES IMMEDIATELY SINCE, BY POSTAL REGULATIONS, SOCIETY MAIL CANNOT BE FORWARDED. President: Brian G. Foltz, 6566 Charles Rd., Westerville, OH Standing Stone Chapter President: I Sugarcreek Valley Chapter NEW BUSINESS OFFICE PHONE1 ToNUMBEm HombrookR, 4665 Carmont Ave., SW, Navarre, OH 1-800-736-7815 TOLL FREE EDITORIAL TABLE OF CONTENTS How the law was passed. The so-called "cemetery bill", sponsored by Representative William Ogg of Scioto County, was passed into law by the Ohio Legislature and Editorial by Robert N. Converse ; 3 became effective September 30,1998. Those of us who thought we were Yours Very Respectfully, E.G. Squier by John W. Kincheloe III 4 abreast of proposed laws affecting amateur archaeology and the right to collect on private property in Ohio were taken totally by surprise. We A Large Hopewell by John Baldwin 13 were even more surprised to learn that the Ohio Archaeological Council and the Ohio Preservation Office knew about this law but did not inform An Analysis of Paleo-lndian and Early Archaic Projectile Points the Archaeological Society of its hearings or imminent passage. The OAC From The Eppley Rockshelter #1 in Coshocton County testified at committee hearings and notified the legislature of their sup­ by Nigel Brush and Eric Peterson 14 port in a letter to Representative Ogg in 1997. The bill had six hearings, three for opposition at which, strangely, no one appeared. Had our The Esther Skinner Indian War Hatchet / A Mother of Society been notified or made aware of this bill by the Ohio Preservation Wyoming 1778 by Michael Shannon 16 Office, which I believe they are required to do since they are paid by our Scenes From the Meeting of the Archaeological Society of Ohio - tax money, we would have expressed strong opposition to its passage. Perhaps this is the reason we were not notified. Columbus, November 15, 1998 by Elaine Holzapfel 18 Of course the OAC is not obligated to inform our Society of anything. Intrusive Mound Effigies by Robert N. Converse 20 Most of us are not members of the OAC, which is a professional group biased against collectors and which, it appears, have an agenda of their An Unusual Clay Head From Mahoning County own. However, it was presumed that the Preservation Office, even by Rocky Falleti 21 though they hold the same bias, would, nevertheless, be obligated to inform the ASO of impending legislation since our members are the tax­ Ohio Archaic Pestles 22-23 payers who pay their salary. It is significant that employees of the Ohio Scenes From The Seventh Annual Native American Exhibit Preservation office dealing with archaeology are also members of the Ohio Archaeological Council. by Brian DaRe 24 Representative Ogg, a perennial sponsor of such legislation, stated Bifurcates by Doug Hooks 25 that he has many people of Indian ancestry in his district and the intent of the bill was to "stop 'treasure hunting' "on burial sites that should be Prehistoric Knobbed Pestles From Ohio - Part II respected." Treasure hunting, indeed! Apparently Representative Ogg, by Robert W. Morris 26 without question, without any verification, or even the application of common sense, believes whatever a handful of his constituents with a Two Late 18th/Early 19th Century Trade Types political agenda tell him. He then is willing to introduce legislation on Found in Ohio by Stanley W. Baker 31 behalf of a handful of people to correct some imagined injustice or to advance a hidden political purpose - he perhaps has never heard of An Engraved Pebble by Steve Gebhardt 42 gambling casinos. Representative Ogg apparently has little regard for the Constitution and the rights of the vast majority of his constituents. He A.S.O Chapter Presidents 1998 43 seemingly cares little about how such poorly conceived laws severely New Book 43 infringe on the private property rights of thousands of people in the state of Ohio as well as those in his own district. Volunteers Needed 43

What the law says. As for sites of "archaeological interest" - are there any archaeological I am not a lawyer but I know a poorly written and poorly defined law sites which have no "interest" - and of interest to whom? No matter how when I see one. One of the main purposes of the bill - which in reality is vague this portion of the law, it is still prosecutable. the amendment of a cemetery bill which has served with no problems for One of the most ominous parts of this bill is the phrase "without the years - redefines cemeteries for purposes of vandalism and desecration privilege to do so." In no part of the entire law is this "privilege" defined. to include sites that contain American Indian burial objects placed with or If it is against the law to desecrate such places, how is it then that containing American Indian human remains. The law also changes the someone can give you "privilege to do so" - and who gives this phrase "serious physical harm" to "physical harm". Under the desecra­ ephemeral privilege? I was told by a member of the OAC when I first tion provision it states that no one "without privilege to do so" can harm heard of this bill that it meant the landowner gave privilege and the any "Indian mound or earthwork, thing, or site of great historical or restriction was thus of no consequence if you have the landowner's per­ archaeological interest." Under the definition of cemetery for purposes of mission. Does this mean, then, that the landowner can give himself per­ vandalism and desecration it includes "any place of burial, including mission to "desecrate" or "physically harm" places on his own property? burial sites that contain American Indian burial objects placed with or And under this law is the landowner, farmer or quarry operator obliged to containing American Indian remains". decide what is a mound or an earthwork or an archaeological site "of interest" on his own property and be arrested if he interprets incorrectly? What the law does not say Will he become a target of prosecution if he did not know such a site when he saw one? Will he be required to stop farming a field in which a The law does not describe burial objects, such definition and interpre­ "burial object", "thing" or human bone is found? Will Robert Harness, tation dangerously left to law officers or prosecutors. Those of us who who owns the land on which the Harness earthworks lies, be prohibited have surface hunted for decades and who are familiar with nearly every from farming his land because of its newly defined status as a "ceme­ kind of prehistoric artifact ever discovered would be hard put to define tery"? Will he be allowed to pick up a "burial object" or "thing" if he "burial objects." Since it is undefined it could mean almost any object plows it up? from the prehistoric or historic period. The change of from "serious physical harm" to "physical harm" is also And who will make these interpretations which carry such potentially ominously left open to interpretation. Apparently there is some indefin­ criminal penalties? Will it be law officers and prosecutors who know able line between the two. nothing about human bones, burial sites or other prehistoric objects? Or will it be professional archaeologists, many of whom are not familiar with Desecration applies to any "Indian mound or earthwork, thing" or "site field found artifacts, but who would like to "get the collectors"? Or will of archaeological interest". Some mounds are fairly obvious while thou­ we prosecute a citizen of Ohio by simply asking those with that illusory sands of others are not - many natural elevations are thought to be "Indian ancestry" (and who know even less than the above about prehis­ mounds and conceivably a farmer or quarry operator could be prose­ toric artifacts) what is illegal or what a "thing" is? cuted for taking gravel from such an elevation. I don't know what this (continued on page 42) mysterious "thing" prohibited by this law is. I know what many "things" are but under the provisions of this law it will be up to some bureaucrat to interpret the "thing" for which you can be arrested. Can you imagine a Front Cover: Shown in full size is a rare Intrusive Mound culture human County Prosecutor's final argument before a jury in prosecution of someone who has picked up an illegal "thing" from private property? head effigy. It is made of fine-grained sandstone and was found hy Henry Ward in a Pickaway County gravel pit in 1930. Collection of Donald Bapst, Columbus, Ohio. YOURS VERY RESPECTFULLY, E.G. SQUIER by John W. Kincheloe, III 3800 Hillsborough Street Meredith College Raleigh, NC 27607-5298

One hundred and fifty years ago the attention of American literary and intellec­ tual circles was focused upon a remarkable new publication. Initially commissioned by the American Ethnological Society, this manuscript was the first publication of the newly-created . The book, co-authored by journalist Ephraim G. Squier and physician Edwin H. Davis, was entitled Ancient Monuments of the Mississippi Valley. Published as a quarto volume, it weighed in at over 300 pages and included more than 200 engravings. The fruit of the combined efforts of these two Chillicothe, Ohio resi­ dents, the book was the first systematic and most comprehensive account of the evidence of prehistoric earthen mounds and their makers to be published. From the outset the publication was a well received classic. Reviewing the book in the New Englander and Yale Review, classical scholar and President of Yale, Theodore Dwight Woolsey, praised the Smithsonian's selection of the manu­ script with Yankee pride: "They began, with proper national feeling, at home..." he wrote, "instead of inaugurating them­ selves with accounts of dodos on the other side of the globe, or of extinct vol- canos in middle Asia, or by vocabularies of the Papuan islanders, they chose for Figure 1 (Kincheloe) The young Ephraim George Squier (Cyclopaedia of American Literature, 1855) the subject of their first volume the antiq­ uities of those mysterious races within objects, to gather bones, and to develop tant benchmark for all serious students of 1 our own borders." Full-page advertise­ speculative conclusions about the pre­ Native American archaeology and of the ments in the Literary World hailed the historic inhabitants of the continent. The history of American archaeology.7 2 publication as a "Great American Work." new course embodied in the work of Beyond that, we are indebted to this Physician and noted naturalist Samuel Squier and Davis was turned in the direc­ classic work because it is an unrivaled George Morton spared no hyperbole in tion of scientific analysis. In contrast to visual repository, providing us scores of describing the materials Squier and Davis the work of predecessors who had contour maps of earthworks and mound had assembled: "I am convinced they written about the mounds, Squier and sites — many of which no longer exist, or constitute by far the most important con­ Davis' published work was characterized are barely recognizable today. The rich tribution to the Archaeology of the United by use of careful measurement, by gen­ image source which is ours through the States that has ever been offered to the eralizations based on a large number of work of Squier and Davis — incorporating 3 public." The venerable Albert Gallatin, sites, by attention to the structure and the important surveys of Charles Whit­ who was Jefferson's Secretary of the varied purposes of mounds, and by theo­ tlesey, James McBride, S. P. Hildreth, Treasury and later founded the American retical restraint. This is not to say that the and others — has made it possible for the Ethnological Society, offered his affirma­ work was free of error; nor is it to say that general public to imagine better a distant tion of the authors with these lofty words: Ancient Monuments was entirely free past and to comprehend the immense "Messrs. Squier and Davis are animated from 19th century speculation.6 What we scale and complexity of mound sites such by that thorough love of truth, which ren­ do find in this classic work, however, is as those at Newark and Chillicothe. ders their research worthy of entire confi­ evidence that a substantial shift was 4 Originating a hundred and fifty years dence." Excepting those critics who beginning to take place in archaeological ago, Ancient Monuments is still one of complained that the cost of the book was method and publication — a shift that the most essential resources for those of excessive, the praise for Ancient Monu­ would be more fully realized a generation 5 us involved with public history, either as ments was universal. later in the work of individuals such as consumers or as creators of it. What Ancient Monuments stands today as Cyrus Thomas and Frederic Ward museum introducing the of the an important marker of a turning point in Putnam. Thus the work of Squier and North American heartland has not relied American archaeology. The old direction Davis stood as a model for subsequent on the engravings of artifacts and maps was personified by the parlor antiquarian archaeological and ethnographic publica­ found in Ancient Monuments? What pop­ whose enterprise was to seek exotic tion, and to this day remains an impor­ ular article on the , does

4 not include an inset of the famous Squier uses and objects of which we are have been overlooked! and Davis engraving? How many images ignorant. In all likelihood, one of the "wonderful from this classic work must have been Circles there are geometrically per­ carvings" he mentioned was the carved used to illustrate pamphlets and books fect — and mysterious squares; and tablet pictured in Ancient Monuments as dealing with Ohio history? parallel [sic] walls of miles in length. Fig 196 — the "rattlesnake tablet." (Fig.5) This makes it indeed puzzling that in On the tops of the highest hills we Later, in writing the text of Ancient Monu­ the sesquicentennial anniversary year of find the remains of strong works of ments he would give this more elaborate the publication of Ancient Monuments of defence [sic], and towering mounds description of the carving: the Mississippi Valley, it appears that of earth. It represents a coiled rattlesnake; other than the Smithsonian itself, which The year of the letter was 1845. The both faces of the tablet being iden­ plans to issue a new edition of the book nation was still young — Florida and tical in ....The workmanship late this year, no institution chose to cel­ Texas were admitted to the Union that is delicate, and the characteristic fea­ ebrate this most important work.8 Despite year, bringing the total number of states ture of the rattlesnake perfectly repre­ the fact that this work is, far and away, to only 28. But even at that early date, sented... It seems that several of these one of the most significant books pub­ Squier saw how the remarkable remains tablets were originally deposited in lished in America in the 19th century, its of some ancient civilization were endan­ the mound....The tablets seem to 150th anniversary has passed, lamen­ gered by the westward expansion of the have been originally painted different tably, almost without notice. American population. His lament to Mun­ colors: a dark red is yet But there is one former Ohioan who, it sell would become an all-too-familiar plainly to be seen in the depressions seems, would not let this anniversary go refrain for those in subsequent decades of some... fragments....13 by without a certain public fanfare. Who who would seek to preserve the mounds: It is no wonder that in 1845 he was is that man? Remarkably, it is none other The people don't seem to care a bewildered by his findings, and by the than Ephraim George Squier himself! damn for them, and what with the notion of ancient ceremonialism he (Fig. 1) plough, and grading turnpikes, and inferred from his discoveries.14 This had The recent discovery of an early letter making bricks, they are fast passing exceeded all he had ever read about the of his has provided us with an occasion away! ancient works. Discovering within a few to remember both Squier and his archae­ As Squier continued, he gave his pub­ weeks of arriving in Ohio the widespread ological classic. The surfacing in late lisher friend a vivid account of his exca­ evidence of some lost ancient civilization 1997 of this previously unpublished vation at a mound site located on a fork in America — a culture more remarkable letter, appearing just ahead of the of Paint Creek near Chillicothe. Though than he had ever imagined through his sesquicentennial of his masterwork, the site he mentioned was unnamed in reading — must have been a stunning seems almost too perfect a timing. It is the letter, we can conclude from his and exhilarating experience for the as if the indefatigable and ever-oppor­ account that he was describing the pre­ inquisitive writer. tunistic Ephraim Squier has sent us a sent-day "Hopewell Group," identified in In reading Caleb Atwater, Squier had reminder from the grave. And a fasci­ Ancient Monuments as "North Fork, read the foremost authority of the day on nating reminder it turns out to be, for the Works" or "Clark's Work."11 (Fig. 3) "It is a the western mounds, and he was aware letter contains Squier's earliest descrip­ remarkable work," Squier wrote, "a mile of that fact. Atwater's monograph had tion thus far discovered of his excava­ and a half about, and containing several been first published by the well- 9 tions in Ohio. smaller works, and a large number of respected American Antiquarian Society. This remarkable, handwritten docu­ mounds." More than just an armchair scholar, ment is in Squier's hastily-drafted, This much he could have gleaned from Atwater had grown up in the midst of the nearly-indecipherable script and is dated Caleb Atwater's earlier description of the Ohio mounds he described. Though June 12, 1845. It was written soon after very same site. In 1820 Atwater, the Squier would later criticize Atwater's Squier's relocation to Chillicothe to postmaster at Circleville, Ohio, published work to advance his own publication and assume the editorship of the Scioto a monograph entitled Description of the reputation, Atwater was highly regarded 15 Gazette. The letter was addressed to his Antiquities Discovered in Ohio and Other at the time. His early contributions and friend Joel Munsell, an Albany publisher Western States." In it he described the observations are still valuable, even with whom Squier earlier had collabo­ site as having enclosures of "one hun­ though his conjecture regarding mound rated.10 Pages two and three of the letter dred and ten acres" and "sixteen acres" builder origins brings a chuckle to are reproduced here. (Fig. 2) and a large "circular work," which con­ today's reader — among other things, he The first lines of the letter deal only tained six mounds. Atwater's work even was of the opinion that the inhabitants with mundane matters and with Squier's included a map of the site Squier was who built the earthworks were ancient new situation. We read a clever introduc­ describing. (Fig.4) "Hindoos" who had brought their religion 16 tion of a colleague, a brief description of From Squier's letter, we learn that the to America from India. his responsibilities at the Gazette, and an journalist had done his research. He had Josiah Priest was another matter, alto­ account of a publishing opportunity in read the works of those who then were gether. Immensely popular, but writing Cincinnati. What follows, however, is two of the most prominent writers on the largely speculative fantasy in the guise of Squier's nearly breathless description of subject of the western mounds. He wrote science, Priest had an enduring impact the "antiquities" he was just discovering Munsell: "/ had been led to expect a on the American understanding of the in the vicinity of Chillicothe. In this good deal from Atwater's down to mounds. His American Antiquities and writing, we see a portrait of Squier the Priest's book...." So Squier would have Discoveries in the West (1833), was a newly-arrived easterner, absolutely known beforehand about the site he was 19th century blockbuster, selling 22,000 astonished at what he had discovered "in exploring. His comments went beyond copies in less than three years.17 He was the west": those of Atwater, however. In the letter an influential proponent of the so-called / must own I am perfectly astounded he wrote his earliest description of "Moundbuilder theory," a general notion at the extent [,] magnitude and objects he unearthed at the Hopewell that the earthworks and mounds of the number of the works.... site: mid-west were created by a long-extinct, The broad rich valley of the Scioto, Here I found some wonderful carv­ culturally-advanced race which was Muskingum, and Miami [is] sprinkled ings more perfect and more bewil­ destroyed by tribes of savage American all over with mounds, fortifications, dering than any I ever before heard Indians. The compete title of Josiah and various other strange works ...the of! It is strange how these things Priest's book, as first published, tells it

5 all: American Antiquities, and discoveries We think it capable of absolute most of the stunning cache of platform in the West: being an exhibition of the demonstration, that the race of the effigy pipes discovered at the Mound evidence that an ancient population of Indians is wholly distinct from that of City site. The Squier and Davis collection partially civilized nations, differing entirely the , and that the of artifacts now resides, for the most from those of the present Indians, peo­ latter wholly disappeared prior to, or part, in the storerooms of the British 25 pled America, many centuries before its coeval with the appearance of the Museum. Though the newly discovered discovery by Columbus. And inquiries former.20 1845 letter is noteworthy for a number of into their origin, with a copious descrip­ From 1845 to 1848 Squier's opinions reasons, in the end much of its value lies tion of many of their stupendous works, on mound builder origins would evolve in the portrait it presents of Ephraim now in ruins. With conjectures con­ considerably, the result of new discov­ Squier, then a young man of restless cerning what may have become of them. eries and new colleagues. But as the intellect. Throughout this letter the writing Compiled from travels, authentic sources, June letter reveals, the young Ephraim reveals an author who is not only brilliant, and the researches of antiquarian soci­ Squier like many others of his generation but beside himself with enthusiasm as eties. By Josiah Priest. first understood the western earthworks well — he used no fewer than twelve The persistent Moundbuilder theory to have been created by a race long exclamation points in the telling of his which took many forms would largely be passed away and racially distinct from Ohio experiences. In contrast with the put to rest in 1894 when Cyrus Thomas Native Americans and their ancestors. staid, erudite, and controlled Ephraim published his Report on the Mound It was a hopeful Ephraim Squier who in Squier we imagine writing Ancient Monu­ Explorations of the Bureau of Ethnology, June 1845 outlined his plan to excavate ments, we meet in this early letter proving from archaeological evidence the highest mound at what would later be another Ephraim Squier — one who that the builders of the mounds were not known at the Hopewell site. He wrote joked, who exaggerated to amuse, and at all a lost race, but were, in fact, ances­ Munsell, "/ have made an arrangement who could not suppress his raw excite­ tors of historic American Indian tribes.18 with the proprietor to open the principal ment. We see a mind sprinting with a But that would happen more than four mound which is about 50 feet high. I hand struggling to keep apace. He decades after Squier was writing his anticipate a great haul....'™ The lure of charged ahead with such abandon he letter to Munsell. exotic artifacts was clearly in evidence at had to correct his writing fifteen times in So, knowing that Atwater and Priest this early date in his archaeological four pages. Can this be the same jour­ were his mentors, it should come as only career. His initial goal in excavation was nalist who three years later would receive a mild surprise to us when we encounter to fill a cabinet with specimens. Concern accolades as the author of Smithsonian their interpretive language in Squier's with such matters as the structure of Contributions to Knowledge, Volume 7? description of the makers of the mounds. mounds and careful observation would Is the author of the superbly objective The language he used clearly reflects the come later in Squier's development, per­ Ancient Monuments the same one who influence of the Moundbuilder theory. In haps as a result of his association with wrote Munsell with such personal inten­ his June 12, 1845 letter, he referred to Davis. Though Ancient Monuments was sity? "Never have I felt," he gushed to his the "works of the people which inhabited written entirely by Squier, and though it friend, "so deep an intent in any pursuit this section anterior to our existing race was he alone who tirelessly advanced the as I do in this. I dream of the old works by of Indians." It is interesting to note that book project by presenting it to the night and I think of them by day." The where we read the word "people," he ini­ Eastern intellectual establishment, it can picture of Squier that emerges in the tially wrote then struck out the word be argued that Dr. Davis — physician, letter is a surprising one, indeed. "race." His first statement conveyed student of natural sciences, and self-pro­ Nowhere does he surprise us more, clearly the notion of a race of ancient claimed "moundologist" — infused a sci­ 22 however, than with his concluding remark mound builders as distinct from the con­ entific approach into their investigation. to Munsell about his discoveries. Always temporary race of Indians. In making the Later, Joseph Henry, the first Secretary ready to pursue another challenge, he revision, changing "race" to "people," of the Smithsonian and editor of Squier's wrote his former publisher half in jest, was Squier simply avoiding repetition, or Ancient Monuments manuscript, would half in earnest, rather do we find Squier's racial notions further impress a scientific method into 23 By Jove, Munsell, I'll make a book in transition? Other documents from the author's work. But in those early about the antiquities, to which all 1845 discourage us from reading too days of digging, Squier used "mattock previous ones will be as — as — as much meaning into this correction. In the and spade" simply to acquire treasures a rushlight to the sun! following month, for example, Squier for display. This fact is made clear in Reading this remark, his first utterance wrote his parents about his Ohio discov­ Squier's 1848 retrospective account of ever about a "book" on the western mon­ eries, and he articulated the Mound­ his early association with his partner uments, we are witnesses to the incep­ builder theory with characteristic Edwin Davis: tion of an idea which would grow to assurance: After some time I in part detailed my become the esteemed work we celebrate We are here in the midst of the plans to [Davis] and urged him to join this year. In June of 1845, barely settled ancient remains of [a] race, highly with me in the investigations, which in as the new editor of the Scioto advanced in the arts as their works he finally did — he under the expec­ Gazette, Ephraim Squier was on the show, but which is now extinct, tation of adding to his cabinet, and I 24 verge of creating the manuscript that leaving no records, save the thousand under the hope of forming one. would eventually become the magnificent monuments scattered around us. The greater part of the impressive Ancient Monuments of the Mississippi That they were long anterior to our Squier and Davis cabinet of artifacts, Valley.26 present race of Indians is certain.19 numbering several thousand items, was And in 1998 we are fortunate that this And in the fall of the year he was still a sold by Davis in 1864 to an Englishman, fascinating letter has come our way, strident proponent of the Moundbuilder William Blackmore. Included in the sale prompting us to remember an important theory. In the October 23, 1845 issue of were the above mentioned rattlesnake American book and its remarkable author. his newspaper he wrote confidently: tablets from the Hopewell site, as well as

6 1 Theodore Dwight Woolsey, "Monuments of the Mississippi Valley," New Englander and Yale Review 7 (Feb. 1849): 95. 2 Ancient Monuments, advertisement, Literary World 3 (Sept. 16 1848): 358; Ancient Monuments, advertisement, Literary World 3 (Sept. 23 1848): 680. 3 "American Archaeology," Literary World 3 (Sept.16 1848): 158. Morton's letter cited here was also published, along with others of the "committee of examiners" for the American Ethnological Society, prefacing the Smithsonian publication of Ancient Monuments. See Ephraim George Squier, A.M. and Edwin Hamilton Davis, M.D., Ancient Monuments of the Mississippi Valley: Comprising the Results of Extensive Original Surveys and Excavations (New York: Bartlett & Welford; Cincinnati: J. A. and U. P. James, 1848) viii - x. 4 "American Archaeology," Literary World 3 (Sept. 16 1848): 158. See above note 3. 5 See for example Theodore Dwight Woolsey, "Monuments of the Mississippi Valley." New Englander and Yale Review 7 (Feb. 1849): 95, 108. Advertise­ ments in the Literary World offered the book for $10, postpaid. 6 For an account of early criticism of Squier and Davis' work, see Terry Allen Barnhart. Of Mounds and Men: the Early Anthropological Career of Ephraim George Squier, diss. Miami University, 1989. Ann Arbor: UMI, 1989, 166-168. 7 See Thomas G. Tax, "E. George Squier and the Mounds, 1845-1850," Toward a Science of Man: Essays in the History of Anthropology, ed. Timothy H. Thorensen (The Hague; Paris: Mouton Publishers, 1975) 99, 109-110. Also Barnhart, Of Mounds and Men, 168-169, 191-192. 8 The new edition of Ancient Monuments is due to be published by the Smithsonian Press in November 1998. In addition to being a reprint of the text and illustrations of the Institute's first publication, the 528 page book will include a lengthy introductory essay by David J. Meltzer. His essay will treat the history of the Squier and Davis association, the politics behind the publication, and the scholarly controversies surrounding 19th century notions of the "mound builders." Meltzer has provided, as well, a valuable bibliography for the sometimes cryptic citations Squier and Davis made in their text. [The present author has read a near-compete version of the Meltzer introduction, entitled, "Ephraim Squier, Edwin Davis, and the Making of An American Classic." Unfortunately, the manuscript arrived too late for use in this article. It is clear, however, that Meltzer's essay will be a standard source for those researching the subject, alongside the work of Barnhart and Tax.] 9 Previous to the discovery of the June 12, 1845 letter to Munsell, the earliest description by Squier of his archaeological work in Ohio was thought to be a letter to his parents written in the following month, cf. Squier to parents, July 20 1845, Ephraim George Squier Papers, New York Historical Society (SP/ NYHS). 10 Munsell and Squier had worked together on at least three publications: Lady's Cabinet, a polite but unremarkable journal for the parlor; The New York Mechanic, a politically-oriented newspaper; and Poet's Magazine, a literary magazine which failed after only two issues. See Barnhart, Of Mounds and Men, 3-23. " Squier and Davis, Ancient Monuments, 26-29. My appreciation to Terry A. Barnhart, Department of History, Eastern Illinois University and to Bret Ruby, Archaeologist, Hopewell Culture National Historical Park for their valuable comments on the identity of the site Squier described in the letter. 12 Caleb Atwater, "Description of the antiquities discovered in Ohio and other western states," Archaeologia Americana 1 (1820). 13 Squier and Davis, Ancient Monuments, 276-277. 14 It was not until after the success with Ancient Monuments that Squier would publish his more speculative ideas on mound builder religion, cf. Ephraim George Squier, Serpent Symbol and the worship of reciprocal principles in nature in America. American Archaeological Researches, vol. 1 (New York: Putnam, 1851). 15 In Squier's preface to his 1848 Ancient Monuments, he honored Atwater's reputation and achievement by praising him as a "pioneer" in the study of ancient monuments. Regarding Atwater's writing on the subject, Squier wrote,"It gives a better conception of the number, magnitude, and more obvious characteristics of the monuments treated of, than was before possessed...." (xxxiii). But a year earlier Squier had acid in his pen when writing of his predecessor: "Atwater's paper in the Archaeologia Americana I found...to be a congeries of hearsays, many of them improbable and few well-attested — presented with a view to excite the marvellousness of the public than to throw...light upon our monuments...." Squier to Henry, March 24 1845, Ephraim George Squier Papers, Library of Congress (EGS/LC). 16 Atwater, "Description of the antiquities," 213. For an accessible overview of Atwater's contributions, see Robert Silverberg, Mound Builders of Ancient America: Archaeology of a Myth (Greenwich, CT: New York Graphic Society Ltd, 1968) 60-75. 17 Silverberg, Mound Builders, 83. 18 Cyrus Thomas,"Report on the Mound Exploration of the Bureau of Ethnology," Bureau of Ethnology. Annual Report 12 (1894): 1-735. See Silverberg, Mound Builders, 202-221. 19 Squier to parents, July 20 1845, SP/NYHS. 20 E.G. Squier, "The Mounds," Scioto Gazette Oct 23, 1845:1. 21 Compare Squier's 1845 estimate of the height to that in Susan L. Woodward and Jerry N. McDonald, Indian Mounds of the Middle Ohio Valley: A Guide to Adena and Hopewell Sites (Blacksburg, Va: McDonald & Woodward Publishing Company, 1989) 18: "The highest Hopewell mound (the central mound of the Hopewell Group, never reconstructed after excavation) was 33' high, and very few other mounds came near that height." 22 Davis made this point himself when in 1847 he felt compelled to remind Squier of the contributions he made in their investigations. "I have never publicly nor privately claimed the literary honours of the work....But my dear Sir, there are many other considerations no less worthy of honour: con­ nected with the authorship of such a work. For instance, the scientific portion, requiring so much patient research into all branches of geology, mineralogy, conchology, and even natural history...." Davis to Squier, September 22 1847, EGSP/LC. 23 Tax, £ George Squier, 113-122. 24 Squier to Marsh, June 8 1848, EGS/LC. 25 Terry A. Barnhart, "An American Menagerie: the Cabinet of Squier and Davis," Timeline 2:6 (1986): 2-17. An earlier more extensive work on the Blackmore Museum artifacts is Edward T. Stevens, Flint Chips (London:Bell & Daldy, 1870). 26 Squier's next mention of writing a book on the western antiquities was in a letter written in the fall of that year to his parents. Squier to parents, November 26, 1845, SP/NYHS. The first published version of his "book" was produced in 1847. This abbreviated version of the later work was pub­ lished with a slightly different title by the American Ethnological Society. The fact that the work showed Squier to be the sole author precipitated a bitter and protracted controversy between the co-authors of Ancient Monuments. Ephraim George Squier, "Observations on the aboriginal monu­ ments of the Mississippi Valley," Transactions of the American Ethnological Society 2 (1847): 131 -207.

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11 Figure 3 (Kincheloe) Squier & Davis' Plan of works later to be known as the Hopewell Site (image taken from the 1992 edition of Ancient Monuments, clarified and copyrighted by Arthur McGraw)

Figure 4 (Kincheloe) Atwater's Plan of the works later to be known as the Hopewell Site (image taken from the 1991 edition of Description of The Antiquities, clarified and copyrighted by Arthur McGraw)

Figure 5 (Kincheloe) Reconstructed "Rattlesnake Tablet" from the "principal mound" at the Hopewell Site (image taken from the 1992 edition of Ancient Monuments, clarified and copyrighted by Arthur McGraw)

\? A LARGE HOPEWELL SPEAR by John Baldwin P.O. Box 299 West Olive, Michigan 49460

The northern Indiana and southern Michigan area has produced a number of classic Hopewell points which are similar to the Snyders type from Illinois. The Snyders point was named by Edward Scully after points found on the Snyders farm. The type is associ­ ated with the Middle Woodland Hopewell culture which dates from around 500 BC to 500 AD. Distribu­ tion of the Snyders type is quite large over an area from eastern Oklahoma, Missouri, Illinois, Indiana and southern Michigan. (Editor's note: the true Snyders type Hopewell point is not found in Ohio). A majority of Snyders points are made of white flint quarried in Missouri and Illinois and of Indiana horn- stone from Harrison County, Indiana. Few Snyders type Hopewell points are made of Flint Ridge flint. An occasional black flint example has been found. The classic Snyders type is diagnostic of Illinois Hopewell and many of them have been found in Illinois Hopewell mounds - sometimes as the only artifact and may number from three to thirteen examples. Hopewell use of Indiana homstone is well illustrated by the number of Indiana homstone blades discovered at the Hopewell Farm in Ohio by Moorehead. I grew up in northern Indiana and in my beginning years collected many Indiana homstone Snyders points. They are usually large - from two to six inches - with a majority from two and one half to four inches. The old timers called them "sunfish" and some said they looked like wild geese flying. Snyders spears are chipped in a unique way. Chip­ ping on classic examples is usually the same - the large percussion scars, the secondary flaking held to a minimum, the angle of the percussion scars, the shape of the notches, and the relationship of the base with the . Quite often the piece was made from a large curved blade. It is a broad ovate shaped point with round comer notches creating an expanding stem. The blade shape is convex and the barbs are pronounced. They are usually thin in cross-section and exhibit better than average workmanship. There is a concentration of Hopewell sites along the Grand River in western Michigan. Many classic Snyders points made of white Illinois flint have been found there including the mound find of a Ross-shaped Hopewell blade made from white "kaolin" flint. Many Michigan Hopewell mounds still exist such as the Norton Mound Figure 1 (Baldwin) Shown here in actual size is a black flint Hopewell point which was Group just west of Grand Rapids but others were accidentally excavated by a water line worker in downtown Grand Rapids, Michigan. The site, known as the Hopewell Converse Group, has produced many classic destroyed in the development of downtown Grand Hopewell artifacts. After its discovery, this spear was glued on a board and was in a Rapids. The complex known as the Converse Group is local collection for over 65 years and is now in the Baldwin Trust collection. now under the downtown area. In the days when sewer lines were being dug by immigrant workers many believed the place was haunted because of the many burials have dug it while working on the streets of Grand Rapids. It was uncovered. An assemblage of Hopewell material found during the glued to a board surrounded by small points. I obtained it after construction of Grand Rapids was sent to an eastern exposition appraising the Parrette estate. and never returned. It was reported that the collection included It is one of the largest Snyders points I have seen - it is Q% large colorful blades, platform pipes, copper artifacts and a foot­ inches long and 3 inches wide. The jet black flint has several light ball-sized silver ball. Paved streets now cover this rich site. Some tan inclusions and could be from eastern Ohio. Research may of the surviving artifacts are now displayed in the Grand Rapids reveal its true source. Public Museum and others are in private collections. It has been fashioned from a large curved blade and is con­ This large black spear (Fig. 1) was in the collection of Jim Par- on its back and convex on the front. It is a classic Hopewell rette who passed away in 1991.1 had visited him some years ago point from the Converse Group now under downtown Grand and he told me that it was found by an old man who claimed to Rapids, Kent County, Michigan.

13 AN ANALYSIS OF PALEO-INDIAN AND EARLY ARCHAIC PROJECTILE POINTS FROM THE EPPLEY ROCKSHELTER #1 IN COSHOCTON COUNTY, OHIO by Nigel Brush Eric Peterson 772 Kimber Rd. 1680 Scottsdale Ave. Wooster, OH 44691 Columbus, Ohio 43235

Site Location and Description period was an Unfluted Fluted Point Lanceolate Points are complete, although The Eppley Rockshelter #1 is located in which was found by the owner of the resharpening of two of these points has northern Coshocton County at the head property in an erosion channel beneath resulted in the loss of 'A to Vi of their of a small hollow that drains directly into the shelter. Prufer and Baby (1963:22) (probable) original length. The other two Killbuck Creek. Killbuck Creek merges note that these points have been found in lanceolates are only bases. Four out of with the Walhonding River in central Ohio at both Paleo-lndian and Piano (Late the five Lanceolate Points were found at Coshocton County. The Walhonding and Paleo-lndian) sites. the base of the cultural strata — either Tuscarawas Rivers join together at the near the interface between the Unfluted Fluted (Prufer and Baby 1963:22-23) and underlying subsoil — or partially town of Coshocton to form the Musk­ Number Length Width Thickness ingum River. 86-1-60 49.20 mm. 26.00 mm. 5.5 mm. embedded within the subsoil itself. Many Out of 500 rockshelters in the Lower of the Early Archaic Points recovered Killbuck Valley that contain evidence of It is interesting to note that years of field- from the Eppley Rockshelter were also prehistoric utilization, the Eppley Rock- walking on a multicomponent, ridge-top found near the base of the midden. shelter #1 is the largest. The shelter is site just across the hollow from the Eppley Indeed, in one instance, the base of a composed of a large sandstone float- Rockshelter, has produced several hun­ Lanceolate Point and a Big Sandy Point block that has an overhang approximately dred points — including at least one Fluted were both found in the subsoil at the 4.5 meters high and a bifurcated tunnel Point. Moreover, in the Doughty Valley, same level and in the same unit. A similar system that is roughly 10 meters long, 2 directly below this ridge-top site, there is association of lanceolate points (Eden meters wide, and 1.5 meters high (in each another major multicomponent site which and Scottsbluff) with a large sidenotched branch). The overhang and tunnel system has also produced fluted points. These point (Big Sandy?) was recorded at the gives the shelter a total floor space of nearby sites provide strong evidence that Renier Site in Wisconsin (Mason approximately 84 square meters. The Paleo-lndians were quite active in the area 1981:121). midden beneath the shelter has a max­ immediately surrounding the Eppley Rock­ In addition to the five lanceolate points imum depth of 110 centimeters. shelter (as well as at the site itself). noted previously, there were also three During the course of our excavations at stemmed lanceolate points recovered Site Excavation a number of rockshelters in the Killbuck from the Eppley Rockshelter. One of Excavation of the Eppley Rockshelter Valley, we have noted other "suites" of these points has the tip missing but has was begun in the fall of 1982 and con­ closely associated sites which contain been identified by Robert Converse as a tinued through the Fall of 1984. Twenty- artifacts of the same time period. Such Stringtown Lanceolate. Like most of the eight 2x2 meter units were eventually sites may have been utilized on an inter­ other lanceolate points, it was recovered excavated at the site: 15 beneath the changeable basis — depending on from the subsoil at the base of the overhang or in the tunnel system: 13 on weather conditions and other seasonal or midden. The identification of the other the midden slope in front of the shelter. societal factors. For instance, Paleo- two stemmed lanceolate points is some­ Several firehearths were excavated in lndians in the Killbuck Valley may have what problematic because of their frag­ these units including a large circular camped on the ridge-top site during the mentary condition (a base and a long that was radiocarbon dated (UCLA Spring and Summer when the Killbuck point tip). Moreover, although these latter 2589C) at 12,185 B.P. Diagnostic artifacts and Doughty Valley is often flooded. In two points were recovered from lower recovered from the site included those the Fall they may have preferred the more levels at the site, neither was actually from the Paleo-lndian, Early/Middle/Late sheltered location in the Doughty Valley. found in direct association with the sub­ Archaic, Early/Middle/Late Woodland, On rainy days or during the Winter, Paleo- soil. Both points display flake scars that and Mississippian Periods. However, the lndians may have made more extensive are reminiscent of fluting. The base (a most interesting artifacts were those use of the Eppley Rockshelter. Thus, probable Scottsbluff Point) has a wide, recovered from the earlier cultural hori­ although the junction of Doughty Creek basal-thinning scar that runs from the zons (Brush 1990:234-242; 1993:5-7). with Killbuck Creek may have been a bottom of the stem to the shoulder area favorite camping location for nomadic — where it terminates in a hinge fracture Paleo-lndian Artifacts & Associated bands of Paleo-lndians, they did not that has snapped the point. The long, Sites always return to the same exact location. narrow point tip (a probable Eden Point) While the 12,185 year old firehearth Instead, they utilized at least three alter­ has a series of medial flake scars on one certainly shows that Paleo-lndians utilized native campsites at this junction — per­ side of the point that run for nearly two- the Eppley Rockshelter, no true fluted haps in response to varying cultural thirds of its length, creating a channel-like points were found during the excavation. needs or climatic conditions. effect. Consequently, the relatively deep However, a spurred endscraper was context of these points, as well as the flint-knapping techniques used to create recovered from the same unit and level Late Paleo-lndian Artifacts them, tend to suggest a Paleo- (Unit 12, Level 11, 100-110 cm.) as the There were five Late Paleo-lndian Indian/Early Archaic origin. 12,185 year old firehearth. The only pos­ Lanceolate Points recovered from the sible from this early time Eppley Rockshelter. Three of the five In summary, a total of five Late Paleo-

14 Indian lanceolate points and three posible Figure 1 (Brush/Peterson) Unfluted Fluted Late Paleo-lndian stemmed lanceolate Point. points were recovered from the Eppley Rockshelter:

Figure 2 (Brush/Peterson) Lanceolate (Prufer and Baby 1963:20-21) (bottom row, 1st through 4th point from left) « Number Length Width Thickness 01-: 86-1-61' 92.80mm. 27.15mm. 7.80mm. - * 86-1-63 61.00 mm. 22.90 mm. 7.35 mm. — 86-1-64 47.40mm. 24.65mm. 6.60mm. == « 1 86- / -62 lanceolate base — not analyzed 86-1-65 lanceolate base — not analyzed

Stringtown Lanceolate (Converse 1994:24-25) (top row, 1st point from left) Number Length Width Thickness 86-1-71 +62.10mm." 28.75mm. 7.95mm.

Eden (Justice 1987:49-51) (bottom row, 5th point from left) Number Length Width Thickness 86-1-67 +62.3 mm. 7.10 mm. 5.35 mm.

Scottsbluff (Justice 1987:46-49) (bottom row, 6th point from left) Number Length Width Thickness 86-1-76 stemmed base — not analyzed

* no photo—this point was stolen while on display in a local museum ** measurements preceded by "+" are points missing tips or bases

Early Archaic Artifacts The identification of several projectile points from the Early Archaic Period is relatively straightforward with fairly 1 2 S 8 classic examples of a MacCorkle, St. ri xi it in Albans, and Big Sandy Point. The Big Sandy Point (Figure 2, top row, 5th point Figure 2 (Brush/Peterson) Early Archaic and Late Paleo-lndian Points. from left) has the classical characteristics of: triangular blade, rectangular base, and Big Sandy (Justice 1987:60-62) (Figure #2, top References heavy grinding on the notches and base. row, 5th through 7th point from left) This Big Sandy was mentioned previously Number Length Width Thickness Broyles: Bettye J. as being found in the same unit and level 86-1-72 49.20 mm. 28.45 mm. 8.10 mm. 1971 Second Preliminary Report: The St. Albans Site, Kanawha County, West as a lanceolate base (Figure 2, bottom 86-1-79 43.05 mm. 29.30 mm. 6.00 mm. 86-1-78 base —not analyzed Virginia 1964-1968. West Virginia Geo­ row, 3rd point from left). A serrated mid­ logical and Economic Survey, Report of section from a point with one incurvate Archaeological Investigations, Number side (Figure 2, top row, 3rd from left), 3. Morgantown, West Virginia. likely falls within the Kirk Corner Notched Brush, Nigel Ronald type. Two other points (Figure 2, top row, 1990 Developing an "Archaeology of Place": 6th & 7th points from left) can not be as Conclusion A Analysis of Rockshelter Uti­ securely identified but appear to be Big In conclusion, the Eppley Rockshelter #1 lization in the Lower Killbuck Valley of Sandy-like, although neither has heavy was repeatedly utilized by prehistoric peo­ Holmes and Coshocton Counties. notch or basal grinding. ples during the entire 12,000 period of Ph.D. dissertation, University of Cali­ Ohio prehistory. Being the largest rock­ fornia, Los Angeles. shelter in the lower Killbuck Valley, it was a Brush, Nigel 1993 Twelve Thousand Years of Human MacCorkle (Broyles 1971;70-71) (Figure #2, top natural magnet for people in need of tem­ porary or longer term shelter. The site is Occupation at the Eppley Rockshelter. row, 2nd point from left) Current Research in the also conveniently located: (1) just above Number Length Width Thickness 10:5-7. 86-1-73 +46.40 mm. 28.20 mm. 6.65 mm. the junction of Doughty Creek with Kill- Converse, Robert buck Creek, and (2) near the terminus of a 1994 Ohio Flint Types. The Archaeological Kirk Corner Notched, Small Variety (Broyles major ridge system that would have pro­ Society of Ohio. 1971:62-63) (Figure #2, top row, 3rd point from vided a natural route for prehistoric peo­ Justice, Noel D. left) ples moving north or south through this 1987 Spear and Arrow Points of Number Length Width Thickness region. For those seeking evidence of early the Midcontinental and Eastern United 86-1-105 serrated midsection — not analyzed prehistoric use of rockshelters in Ohio, the States: A Modem Survey and Reference. Eppley Rockshelter #1 provides an excel­ Bloomington: Indiana University Press. St. Albans Side Notched, Variety B (Broyles Mason, Ronald J. 1971:74-75) (Figure 2, top row, 4th point from left) lent example. It not only boasts one of the oldest known firehearths in eastern North 1981 Greaf Lakes Archaeology. New York: Number Length Width Thickness Academic Press. 86-1-74 32.00mm. 13.50mm. 7.10mm. America, but also contains evidence for a Prufer, Olaf H., and Raymond S. Baby surprisingly strong Late Paleo-lndian and 1963 Paleo-lndians of Ohio. Columbus: Ohio Early Archaic presence at the site. Historical Society.

15 THE ESTHER SKINNER INDIAN WAR HATCHET A MOTHER OF WYOMING 1778 by Michael Shannon 3026 Marimont Dr. Dayton, OH 45410 The acquisition and sale of relics five fortification of logs designed to protect "There is likewise a small fort erected between collectors is an age old practice. the settlement from hostiles. in the town, with a strong abatta around Many times an artifact will remain in a Part of the British strategy during the it, and a small redoubt to shelter the collection for years and eventually move American Revolution was to attack the inhabitants in cases of an alarm. This fort on, across the country, to find its place in colonists at their most vulnerable point, the is garrisoned by 100 men, draughted another more specialized collection. lightly defended settlements on the from the western army, and put under the Looking out of place in an old and tat­ western frontier. They made alliances with command of Col. Zeb'n Butler. I cannot tered, early 1800s gold leaf shadow box, several Indian tribes who were angered at omit taking notice of the poor inhabitants the simple belt ax or Indian war hatchet the incursion of white settlers into land of the town; two-thirds of them are pictured here made its way to an Ohio reserved for them. The British, recognizing widows and orphans, who, by the vile tomahawk collection by way of New York the fear the colonists had for the tribes hands of the savages, have not only state. It looked like a simple, flattened, knew that this alliance would be a powerful deprived some of the tender husbands, round poll trade ax with its original haft demoralizing factor and they encouraged some of indulgent parents, and others of 7 measuring 13 /8" in length, a hand forged their Indian allies to act with the utmost affectionate friends and acquaintances, iron head 31/>" in height, and a blade ferocity, while claiming later that they were besides robbed and plundered of all their width of 23/i". Though complete, to the powerless to control them. furniture and clothing. In short, they are casual observer it was unimportant, In July 1778 the Wyoming Valley was left totally dependent on the public, and lacking the mysticism of a pipe or spiked invaded by Loyalist troops (Tories) under are become absolute objects of charity." tomahawk and easily dismissed. the command of Colonel John Butler Lt. Col. Hubley went on to write on July Upon closer examination and research and their Iroquois allies led by Mohawk 31st 1779: "I was struck on this day's however, the history of a struggling War Chief Capt. Joseph Brant. Col. march with the ruins of many houses, nation began to emerge, and with it the Butler with his corps of Rangers (Butler's chiefly built of logs, and uninhabited; story of a pioneer woman who lived Raiders) proceeded to Wyoming with the though poor, yet happy in their situation, through one of the most colorful and stated objective of bringing the families until that horrid engagement, when the gruesome events in American History. A of Loyalist refugees back to Fort Nia­ British tyrant let loose upon them his period we now can only read and wonder gara. They descended the Susquehanna emissaries, the savages of the wood, about. It became evident that this simple in boats, landing a few miles above who not only destroyed and laid waste hatchet - a treasured memento of the Wyoming and camped four miles north those cottages, but in cool blood massa­ past - lovingly locked away in its golden of Forty Fort, on a mountain at the head cred and cut off the inhabitants not even shadow box - bore witness to it all! of the valley. Comprised of 200 British sparing gray locks or helpless infancy." In the area known today as the Provincials 200 United Empire Loyalist There is also a story about this mas­ Wyoming Valley in Wilkes-Barre Pennsyl­ and 700 Indians, Butler's force advanced sacre documented in the History of Tor- vania, the Delaware Indians called the on the settlers. The 400 patriots rington, Connecticut from its first north branch of the Susquehanna River defending the settlements at Forty Fort Settlement in 1737 that talks about an "Mchewami-sipu" meaning the river of decided on July 3 to confront Butler's episode in the life of one Jeremiah extensive flats. The valley was called Raiders head on. Accounts vary on the Spencer, who was born in Bolton Con­ "Mchwewormink" meaning extensive attack strategy of the British and their necticut, Feb. 5, 1770 and died in Tor- plains or meadows. The region was allies, but it is believed that the Iroquois rington on Oct 22, 1863 at 93 years and called "Wayomik" by the Moravian mis­ surprised the settlers by attacking by 8 months: sionaries, and "Waioming" by the Con­ way of swampy terrain. The battle "In the winter of 1775 and 1776, his necticut Yankees. "The situation of this became a rout, and the settlers retreated father removed to Wyoming, taking with place is elegant and delightful. It com­ to Forty Fort, where they surrendered. him six of his eight children, Jeremiah poses an extensive valley, bounded both With the Wyoming Valley defenseless, among the rest, there being one younger on the east and west side of the river by Butler's men {Indians and Tories) were then he. In the summer after their large chains of mountains. The valley, a able to wage a bloody campaign of removal the father died of small pox." mere garden, of an excellent rich soil, terror and decimation for several days. "On the 3rd of July 1778, the terrible abounding with large timber of all kinds, The raiders killed more than half of the battle and massacre of Wyoming occurred, and through the center the east branch force of 400. Many prisoners - men, in which the two eldest sons were killed, of the Susquehanna." Lt. Col. Adam women and children - were tortured and leaving the widow with four children, who Hubley's journal of Sullivan's Expedition scalped by the invaders. left the house at midnight, when as the Against the Iroquois, 1779. It was not until 1779 that the American alarm reached them, hastened to the river, The year was 1778, adventurers and Colonial Army could launch a three and, with many others made the best pos­ homesteaders were making their way west month retaliatory campaign against the sible speed for Harrisburg, and then on to looking for an unfettered life in a new and Iroquois led by General John Sullivan. Lt. their old home in Bolton. A five week beautiful country full of possibilities for Col. Adam Hubley wrote in his journal on journey young Jeremiah performed without those not afraid of hard work and the July 30th, 1779 that: "Wyoming is situ­ hat, coat or ." unseen dangers of the wilderness. Such ated on the east side of the east branch "Jeremiah Spencer was in his ninth year was the life of Esther Skinner of the of the Susquehanna, the town consisting when they were driven from Wyoming, and Wyoming Valley, tending a homestead with of about seventy houses, chiefly log though not in the battle, nor a witness of it, her husband, nestled along the Susque­ buildings; there are sundry larger ones he was old enough to retain a vivid recol­ hanna River in Pennsylvania. At 53 years of which were erected by the army for the lection of the trying scenes through which age she was strong, raising her eight chil­ purpose of receiving stores, et., a large he passes, and during more that sixty dren on the outskirts of Forty Fort, a primi- bake and smoke houses." years which he spent in Torrington, he

16 loved to repeat to interested listeners the account of the recent decease of Mrs. golden shadow box reaches out emo­ tale of his sufferings on that long and Esther Skinner, of Torringford, in the one tionally paying tribute to the collector and dismal journey, though his lot was pleasant hundredth year of her age. Mrs. S. lost a curator of American history and demon­ compared with that of the people who husband, a brother, and two sons in the strates that at times an artifact can talk to came directly through the wilderness, or war of the American Revolution. She with you, if you're willing to listen. "shades of death", as it was emphatically her family, was a resident of Wyoming, at Michael J. Shannon of Dayton, is an called for many years." the massacre of its inhabitants by D. and avid Ohio collector and connoisseur of On the site of the Wyoming battle and T. and the Indians and Tories. Her two the American Indian Tomahawk. massacre stands a plain obelisk sixty-two sons fell beneath the tomahawk, but the and one half feet high of the dark grey mother, almost by miracle, escaped with References Cited: stone native to the valley. It stands as a six of her children. Her brother-in-law General Sullivan's Expedition Against the silent and grand memorial to those who was the only man that escaped out of Iroquois 1779 Journal, Lt. Adam Hubley 1779 gave their lives for the safety of their twenty, who threw themselves into the North American Indian Landmarks by George friends and loved ones and for the river, and attempted to hide themselves Cantor 1993 freedom of their posterity. Listed as a sur­ beneath the foliage that overhung the Torrington Historical Society, Torrington Con­ vivor of this historical event is Private John banks. All the others were successively necticut N. Skinner, the possible brother-in-law of massacred as they hung by the branches Wyoming Historical & Geological Society, Esther who threw himself into the river to in the river. He alone was undiscovered. Wilkes-Barre, Pennsylvania escape being tomahawked to death. The mother traveled back to Torringford, Wyoming Monument Association In the 1930s a project was undertaken where she has led a useful life ever since to record the inscriptions on gravestones - often cheerful, though the cloud of pen- Authors' Notes: in Connecticut cemeteries before time siveness, brought on by her sorrow, was The deciphering of the abbreviation "D. and weather eroded them away. The never entirely dissipated. But one of her and T." in the MOTHER OF WYOMING record from the Torringford Cemetery lists children survives her." Journal of Com­ narrative is unknown. One interpretation the stone of Esther Skinner with the merce, Aug. 16, 1831. offered by the author is Deserters and inscription "Relict of Richard/Died May The tomahawk also had a paper glued Traitors. 10, 1831 age 99 yrs." This has been the to its tree branch haft with six very faded, On July 2, 1778 Butler's Rangers sent only reference to Esther Skinner in Tor- hand written lines, that reads: "Indian war a flag to the fort demanding the sur­ rington until the discovery of this Pennsyl­ hatchet belonged to Esther Skinner a render of several forts in the valley. Col. vania frontier war relic. Esther rests widow of Wyoming frontier massacre and Zebulon Butler refused and approxi­ quietly in this pioneer cemetery with Jere­ collected afterwards of Torringford County mately 400 men consisting of 60 regulars miah Spencer's grave stone very near. died Aug. 1831 at the age of 100 yrs." and militia assembled at Forty Fort to go A newspaper obituary written in 1831 Time and distance can blur the origins into battle. At the first charge of the and attached by small nails inside the of history. It is rare that one can place a Rangers, the fort surrendered. shadow box accompanied the Indian war historical relic into the hand of its owner Forty Fort was given this name hatchet. This brief oratory shed some in a given year, or on a specific day. because the first forty settlers that came light on Esther Skinner's role in this Rarer still is to discover the history of a from Connecticut built it. bloody event and gives the reader a feel pioneer woman like Esther Skinner for the unfolding drama: whose life experiences and personal sor­ It was because of such massacres and rows had all but been forgotten for the the defeat of the British army, that the Iroquois fearful of retaliation from the A Mother of Wyoming past 168 years following her death. The Americans, left their traditional lands to "We find in a Connecticut paper; an preservation of this little tomahawk in its resettle in Canada.

Figure 1 (Shannon) This engraving from Walter Spooner's The Back-Woodsmen or Tales of the Borders (1883) depicts the Figure 2 (Shannon) At the end of June 1778, a group of 900 Tories murder of Lewis Wetzel's mother, father, and three younger sib­ and Native Americans struck the Wyoming Valley of Pennsylvania. lings. (After Carskadden and Morton) A small force of militia and 60 regulars under the command of Colonel Zebulon Butler attacked the attackers and was butchered. All of those not killed on the battlefield were later tortured to death. (After Carskadden and Morton)

•^Figure 3 (Shannon) The Esther Skinner Indian War Hatchet.

17 SCENES FROM THE MEETING OF THE ARCHAEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF OHIO — COLUMBUS, NOVEMBER 15, 1998 by Elaine Holzapfel

Editor Bob Converse is frequenty seen scruti Robert Sams, from West Virginia, nizing an artifact. displays his recent field finds. Many members displayed Don Gehlbach of Columbus their field finds, displays his latest publication.

Mel Wilkins of Lima is a long-time and Glenn Spray is an organic farmer much-respected collector. as well as an expert on Dovetail points. Jim McConnel, Coshocton, a Al Cook, Deputy Sheriff from collector of fine artifacts, is Dublin, Ohio, is our security also an authority on artifacts officer. from the Paleo period.

Don Casto, left, past- president and officer of the ASO, will serve as our new Business Manager as of Jan­ uary 1, 1999. At right is Paul Wildermuth, Mr. & Mrs. Tom McCollister from Zanesville, Danny Crissinger, of who has been Busi­ share an interest in prehistoric Ohio. Plain City, Ohio is an ness Manager for avid surface collector. 'A many years.

A record crowd was in attendance, and it is estimated that around 600 people filed past the dis­ play of recent field- found material. At left is an A.S.O. member. At table is Bill Bal- lenger, publisher of Prehistoric Antiquity.

18 Dan Rhoades (left) is a long-time collector from West Liberty. Gilbert Cooper (right) raises tobacco in Brown County.

Mike Barron, a computer expert from Columbus, accepts an This popeyed porphyry birdstone will be the Jim Stephan, Covington, award. subject of an upcoming article in the Ohio Larry Garvin is owner of the Back- Ohio, is a farmer, real- Archaeologist. to-Earth shop in Zanesville. estate manager, and owner of the Stephan site.

Janie Weidner is well Don Bapst, a retired school known as Editor of the • " r / teacher, is a veteran collector Who's Who series. Doug Hooks of Mansfield is a f from Columbus. lifelong collector and expert on • ' • i/ prehistoric artifacts. Gary Kapusta, of Ravenna, the newly-elected Trea­ surer of the ASO, received an award for his diligent work on behalf of the Society. Bob Harness, owner of Harness farms in Ross County, accepted an award for his many contributions to Ohio archaeology.

A winner in the Youth category, Jon Bill Likens of Anspaugh. This grandson of Jon Unionville Center Anspaugh is probably a future archaeolo­ won a ribbon for gist and/or future president of the Dallas Burton of Cincinnati is a long-time Best-of-Show. Archaeological Society of Ohio. member of the Society.

19 INTRUSIVE MOUND HUMAN EFFIGIES by Robert N. Converse 199 Converse Drive Plain City, Ohio 43064

Very little professional study has been itself or the eyelid. The brows curve sym­ directed at the Intrusive Mound culture. metrically into a projecting nose which is William Mills' Mound City report in 1922 ridge-like with neither nostrils or nose first described the culture but few Ohio holes shown. The mouth is also a pro­ archaeologists have paid any attention to jecting ridge bisected by a straight line this group which came to Ohio after the forming the lips. The hair or hairline is demise of the Hopewell people. Studies sometimes prominent or may be indi­ have been hampered on the non-profes­ cated only by an indented line. These effi­ sional level because of lack of access to gies are often made of fine-grained museum collections but there have been sandstone although other materials such materials in private collections published as the quartz-like stone of the Shipley which give further definition to this little specimen (Fig 2) was sometimes used. known culture. Most of the known examples are drilled Among the rarest but most easily distin­ from the bottom with one or two half-inch guishable Intrusive Mound artifacts are the holes which are about two inches deep human head effigies. These are usually The holes were probably for mounting on highly stylized portrayals rather than lifelike some sort of staff or handle. images of the human head. From the few Because these intriguing effigies are so that are known or have been published rare - there are probably less than ten certain characteristics can be observed. published examples - the observations The eyes are usually carefully scooped made here are only general but the sculp­ out hollows with no indication of the eye tural traits noted seem to follow a pattern. Figure 1 (Converse) Side view of the Intrusive Mound effigy from Pickaway County (see color cover photograph). Note the deeply incised hairline which seems to be not as well carved as the balance of the effigy. Just to the rear of the chin a two inch hole is drilled upward. Found in 1930 in a Pickaway County gravel pit it was originally collected by the late Florence Barrett of Chillicothe, Ohio, and is now in the Donald Bapst collection.

Figure 2 (Converse) An Intrusive Mound human effigy head originally acquired by Max Shipley of Columbus, Ohio, in Pickaway County. Presently in the Donald Bapst collection, it is 5'A inches high and is made of a quartz-like material. The hair is well-defined and parted and the entire sculpture is smoothed and pol­ ished. There are no drillings and no indications that it was mounted or hafted.

20 AN UNUSUAL CLAY HEAD FROM MAHONING COUNTY by Rocky Falleti 5904 South Ave. Youngstown, OH 44512

This solid head (Fig. 1) was the head fragment of a larger, fuller, figure, ance of the piece, wide eyes, fixed stare found in 1962 by Tom Young of Sebring, because of finished treatment of the neck and relaxed facial muscles. It may well Ohio, a workman digging a roadside area (Fig. 3). It appears to have been pur­ have been part of a burial that has since drainage ditch on Smith-Goshen Road posely made flat in order to accommodate been destroyed in the wake of progress. between Beloit and Garfield in Mahoning a free-sitting position. Further, it's my Whatever the case, it's a very rare example Co. Ohio. This area has produced artifacts opinion that the pottery head is not of prehistoric artistry fortunately saved by from many cultures and is in close prox­ intended to portray this person in life but Mrs. Reynolds for us to marvel at. Any imity to the well known, and Hopewellian, rather as he appeared in death (Fig. 4). information would be helpful. North Benton Mound. Mrs. Dorothy This belief is based on the general appear- Reynolds spotted the artifact on a dirt pile

while driving past the construction site i and later inquired about it. She obtained it weeks later from the workman who by then painted it black. She removed the paint using an acetone wash. The artifact was then held in her possession for sev­ eral years. In 1966 her curiosity led her to send the head to the Smithsonian Institu­ tion in Washington, D.C. for a more detailed evaluation. Scholars in the Department of Anthropology examined it and the following results were noted: "May be a product of the Hopewellian Culture (500 BC-600 AD) and without fur­ ther testing appears to be pottery and may have been the head of a full figure probably sitting or kneeling." The note was signed "G.C. Phalnus, Department of Anthropology. More current examinations Figure 1 (Falleti) Ceramic human head effigy. Figure 2 (Falleti) Front of effigy. of the head by Archaeologists to which it was shown to lead to the consensus that it likely dates from the Late Hopewell period.

Description The clay head is 11.5cm wide at its widest point and 15.5cm long from its chin to the back of its head. It weighs a hefty 4 pounds 4 ounces or 1.93 kilograms. It is grit tempered and shows evidence of what appears to be decomposed organic matter around the neck area. The damage to the nose and base of the neck most likely occurred during the firing process. The left ear is missing entirely and was probably scraped off by the backhoe (Fig. 2) during construction of the ditch. That damage is clearly recent and in all likelihood hap­ pened then. The heavy brow ridge and the dishing of the facial features and curled lips are traits common to the Hopewell and later Missis- sippian periods. The top knot, protruding round eyes, dimpled impressions in the Figure 3 (Falleti) Rear and bottom of effigy. occipital region of the skull (Fig. 3) and grit tempering are earlier traits and are likely Figure 4 (Falleti) View from bottom - front. the reason why some professionals assign it to the Hopewell Period. My own obser­ vation, as well as many others is that it belongs more precisely to the Late Hopewell period. I do not believe it to be

?\ OHIO ARCHAIC PESTLES

Top row left to right: Warren Co., Ross Co., Madison Co., Fayette Co., Franklin Co., Franklin Co. Twelve finely made Ohio Archaic Pestles from the collection of Donald Bapst, Columbus, Ohio. Bottom row left to right: Delaware Co., Ross Co., Darke Co., Franklin Co., Preble Co., Ross Co.

22 23 SCENES FROM THE SEVENTH ANNUAL NATIVE AMERICAN ARTIFACT EXHIBIT by Brian DaRe 58561 Sharon Blvd. Rayland, Ohio 43943

Over five hundred Ohio Valley residents Historic Site, West Virginia Archeological Special awards were presented to the viewed the seventh Annual Native Amer­ Society, and the Dividing Ridges Chapter winners of three categories of exhibits. ican Artifact Exhibit held at the Delf of the Archaeological Society of Ohio. Most Educational Display - John Mocic, Norona Museum in Moundsville, W.Va. on In all, ten exhibitors from the West Vir­ Best of Show - Bob Byard, Public's October 18, 1998. The event was spon­ ginia Archeological Society and the Choice - Bob Walden. sored by the West Virginia Division of Cul­ Archaeological Society of Ohio partici­ ture and History, Grave Creek Mound pated in the one day event (Figures 1-16).

George Armann and his display of Ohio sur Andrea Keller and Bob Byard face finds. Frank Fleahman (right) showing some visi­ tors his collection from eastern Ohio. Urban Couch of the Honors Program at West Virginia University.

A fine stone display by John jonn Moclc> Donald Gehlbach and Robert Maslowski. All of these artifacts were found in West Virginia.

Robert Kersten and his col­ lection from Ohio and West Virginia.

Artifacts from the collection of Frank Fleahman. A collection of artifacts found near A Colerain in Belmont County, Ohio. Harry Heckman and his collection fins surface find by Larry from West Virginia. Nelson.

dlpieay°f thB many St°ne t0°'S °n TT y°U"9SterS lBamin9 h°W ,0 USe Tw° y°""9 9'ris ™***V how pottery is The Walden exhibit a bowdrill. made.

24 BIFURCATES by Doug Hooks Mansfield, Ohio

M Figure 1 (Hooks) Shown are two types of bifurcates. The first six are large bifur­ cates sometimes called McCorkles. The bottom six specimens are Kanawha bifurcates.

25 PREHISTORIC KNOBBED PESTLES FROM OHIO - PART II by Robert W. Morris Department of Geology Wittenberg University Springfield, Ohio 45501

Three years ago I did a survey of ilar to one from Clermont County, Ohio are illustrated by Hothem (1995 :165). knobbed pestles which was published in illustrated by Hothem (1992:58). The pes­ Pestles with platform type bases are much the Ohio Archaeologist (Morris 1995). This tles in Figures 2 and 3 have similar less common than those with typical survey represented a detailed analysis of knobbed polls, yet very different bases. flared bases and a rounded basal 45 knobbed pestles from Ohio illustrating Hothem (1992:57) illustrates a knobbed periphery. Figure 14 illustrates ten variations in overall shape, as well as dif­ pestle from Spencer County, Indiana knobbed pestles drawn to scale from ferent styles of the poll, handle, base, and which is quite similar to that in Figure 2, measurements and sketches made by the basal periphery. The common terminology but differs in having an even more widely author from the originals. Many of these applied to the main parts of a pestle (i.e. developed knobbed poll. The pestles in show variations in the poll, base, and poll, handle, base, basal periphery) and Figures 5 and 6 have knobbed polls which overall form as discussed above; several used in this paper is illustrated in Figure 1. are similar, but less developed than those illustrate quite different variations. My definition of a knobbed pestle refers to in Figures 2 and 3. Other pestles, espe­ Another variable characteristic of any pestle which has either a distinctly cially those with tall cylindrical handles knobbed pestles is the style of the handle. knobbed poll (Fig. 1) or some degree of (Figs. 7, 8) have a less distinct knobbed Many have a handle which flares outward flare or expansion of the poll relative to the poll formed by the handle expanding in in both directions, i.e. upward toward the diameter of the handle. It has become evi­ diameter or flaring somewhat to form a poll and downward toward the base (Figs. dent to me that a wide variety of knobbed slightly rounded knobbed poll. Finally, 2, 4, 5, 14A, H, J). Others have handles pestles exists, not only in variations of the some pestles have small, less distinct which are narrowest (least diameter) just poll, but also major differences in the knobbed polls (Figs. 9, 10) due to several below the poll and gradually increase in handle and the base. My earlier survey factors. In these pestles, the poll is usually diameter (flare) as they approach the base (Morris 1995) described many of these dif­ the smallest part of the pestle, as com­ (Figs. 3, 6, 9, 10, 14C, E). Figure 10 illus­ ferences using specific pestles illustrated pared to the handle and the base. In addi­ trates an extreme example of this trend in 18 photographs and 10 drawings. The tion, the handle only constricts a small resulting in a tiny knobbed poll relative to a purpose of this paper is to describe and amount below the poll before it expands massive flared handle and base. Another illustrate additional examples of knobbed in diameter and flares outward toward the style of handle evident in some knobbed pestles from Ohio which not only show base. Most pestles have a poll which is pestles is that which remains a rather con­ other variations which exist, but also doc­ round or circular in cross-section like the stant diameter from near the poll to near ument specific pestles from known locali­ handle, although some may be oval. The the base. This is often typical of tall, elon­ ties in Ohio. This paper presents knobbed pestles (Figs. 11, 12) have still gate pestles (Figs. 7, 8, 141). Pestles with a information based on the analysis of 23 different types of polls. The wide well constant mid-handle diameter which knobbed pestles which I have measured developed knobbed poll on the pestle in have a flared knobbed poll and base of and studied during the past three years. It Figure 11 looks much like the poll of the nearly the same diameter may have a combines new data with that from my ear­ pestle in Figure 2; however, it is not cir­ "dumb-bell" like appearance (Figs. 11, lier survey to give a more complete cular in diameter, but rather is somewhat 12, 14B). Hothem (1992:57) illustrates an overview of the variety and characteristics flattened and thus oval in cross-section outstanding example of a knobbed pestle of knobbed pestles. (see side view, Fig. 13). The narrower, less having this "dumb-bell" like form. A some­ distinct knobbed poll on the pestle in It is common knowledge that pestles of what different, yet symmetrical "dumb-bell" Figure 12 is nearly flat-topped, squarish in all types were a standard used like shape can also result from extensive outline, and is also slightly flattened giving by prehistoric peoples for grinding, prehistoric wear and abrasion along the it an oval cross-section as well (Fig. 13). crushing, pounding, and milling of nuts, basal periphery which has reduced the roots, maize, grain, herbs, and other Another of knobbed pestles original basal diameter of the pestle to a materials in food preparation. Many were which is extremely variable is the base smaller size (Fig. 15). In this pestle, note the used in conjunction with a flat stone or and basal periphery. Many pestles (Figs. flared poll and highly abraded base are wood surface serving as the mortar; 2, 4, 5) have a well developed, flared base; about the same diameter. others were used with a stone or wood some with a well rounded basal periphery Several other unique knobbed pestles mortar having a traditional cup-like (Figs. 2, 5), others with a more angular are also illustrated and described in this depression. Most authors (Converse 1973; basal periphery (Figs. 9, 10). Some pestles report. The rare "double-knobbed" pestle Hothem 1992, 1995) regard pestles as a (Figs. 6, 8) have a narrow, less flared base (Fig. 16) has a tall cylindrical handle (con­ common stone tool of the Archaic Period relative to the handle, whereas others stant 2 inch diameter) which expands as a (8000-1000 BC); however, they were used have a massive, widely flared base (Fig. low bulge about 1V? inches below the top in later periods as well. Historically and 10). Quite a different style base is repre­ of the poll, then indents slightly before even present day peoples in Third World sented by the pestles in Figures 3 and 11. expanding again at the top of the poll. regions use large wooden pestles in These pestles have what I consider a This results in a unique "double-knobbed" wooden mortars to crush and mill corn, "platform-type" base. Here the lower part quality; however, it is difficult to distin­ grain, manioc, and other food stuffs. of the handle begins to flare outward, then guish this in the photograph (Fig. 16). The As mentioned, knobbed pestles occur meets a vertical basal periphery which handle maintains a relatively constant in a wide range of styles and varieties, may be slightly concave outward and diameter until it merges with the flared many of which grade into each other. The massive (Fig. 3) or slightly rounded and base. This pestle is from the old G.A. poll can vary from a wide, well developed less massive (Fig. 11). The thickness of Katzenberger & Bro collection, Greenville, knob with slightly rounded top (Figs. 2, 3) the basal platform is highly variable. Two Ohio (see old collection label on the basal to a bulbous, more highly rounded knob knobbed pestles with platform-type surface - Fig. 17). Another very unique (Fig. 4). The pestle in Figure 4 is very sim­ bases, formerly in the Dr. Hall collection, knobbed pestle was found by Randy

26 Bernard in Fayette County, Ohio in 1991 ranging from very slight to considerable. are known which have two or "double" (Fig. 14F). This pestle has a distinctive The pestle in Figure 19 shows a slight depressions. Dimples range in diameter knobbed poll consisting of a raised ridge handle angularity of 84 degrees relative to from 1 to 2 inches with the average diam­ encircling the handle about 1 to VA inches the base, whereas the pestle in Figure 20 eter being about 1V2 inches. The presence below the flat-topped poll. This ridge shows a handle angularity of 75 degrees. of a dimple may be due to long term, forms the base of the knob. The handle of Pronounced handle angularity, as shown abrasional, grinding usage of the pestle on this pestle flares into almost a platform- by Figure 20, is mainly due to abrasional nuts, corn, seeds, acorns, and other plant type base. wear on the base over time while the user materials. The development of a polished, Two additional distinctive pestles are held the pestle at an angle to the grinding cup-like dimple would also be greatly illustrated in Figures 18 and 14H. These surface. Conversely, holding the pestle enhanced by the abrasion associated with pestles are obviously very different in handle vertically during grinding should grinding more resistant materials, such as shape and basic form, but are similar in result in little to no handle angularity. charcoal or minerals like red hematite or having well formed knobbed polls and Another interesting aspect relating to limonite (yellow ocher) to make powders highly convex outward basal surfaces. The pestles is the possible abrasion of the or paint . Deeper, well formed, club-shaped pestle (Fig. 18) most likely basal periphery. One would assume that cup-like dimples may also have been was used in conjunction with a cup-like the greatest amount of abrasional wear abraded into the basal surface for a spe­ stone or wooden mortar due to its elon­ should occur on the basal surface of a cific purpose. Gehlbach (1998:20) dis­ gate form and highly rounded base. It also pestle since it is a grinding tool. However, cusses an interesting study done by has a circular "sun-like" design carved many pestles also show good evidence of Arthur Altick in the late 1930s concerning into the top of the poll. The other distinc­ abrasional wear including chipping and the presence of these cup-like depres­ tive pestle (Fig. 14H) has a heavy, mas­ damage along the basal periphery (edge sions and their function. Altick experi­ sive, widely flared base with a highly of the base). This suggests that pestles mented on the effectiveness of grinding convex basal surface and distinctive were not only used for grinding materials corn with pestles having and lacking this matching knobbed poll. This rare pestle against a hard surface, but also for cup-like depression. According to was reportedly found in Summit County in crushing and pounding which often Gehlbach (1998), Altick discovered the 1961 and is the only example of this type I resulted in damage to the basal periphery cup-base pestle was more effective and have seen from Ohio. as chips of stone broke away along the faster in grinding corn into fine meal than Measurements and related data for the edge of the base. Gehlbach (1998:21) also the pestle which lacked a basal cup 23 knobbed pestles covered in this paper noted extreme wear around the basal (dimple). If this relationship is correct, it have been combined with similar informa­ periphery of many pestles, probably due would appear that some Archaic peoples tion presented for the 45 pestles previously to using the basal edge to break up raw realized that the presence of a basal cup reported (Morris 1995). The average height materials. Some pestles show such a enhanced the milling process of corn and for these 68 pestles is 5% inches and the degree of abrasional wear in this area that similar materials, perhaps explaining their base diameter averages 3>2 inches. The the original basal flare has been worn frequency. However, numerous pestles of average poll diameter is 2Vs inches, back resulting in a "dumb-bell" like shape all types (bell, knobbed and conical) lack whereas the mid-handle diameter averages (Fig. 15). Of 61 knobbed pestles observed, any type of basal dimple or cup and were 1.9 inches. Other statistics tabulated for 35 (57%) show prehistoric wear, abrasion, still commonly used, functional tools. Of these pestles include handle angularity, and damage to the basal periphery, the 63 knobbed pestles observed by the abrasional status of the basal periphery, whereas 26 (43%) show none. Further dis­ author, 42 (67%) had a basal depression presence of a dimple (depression) on the cussion of this and related pestle charac­ (dimple) of some type, whereas 21 (33%) basal surface, and lithic (rock) composition. teristics is found in my earlier study totally lacked this feature. Pestles without dimples usually have either a flat or Handle angularity refers to the angle (ori­ (Morris 1995). curved, convex outward, basal surface entation) of the handle relative to the hori­ Another feature related to the base of (eg. Fig. 5). Of the 42 knobbed pestles zontal when the pestle is positioned with many pestles is the presence of a dimple having dimples (this survey), 22 had the its base on a horizontal surface. Handle (circular depression or cup) abraded into deeper, well developed, cup-like variety, angularity was measured for 60 of these the basal surface. These dimples range whereas 20 had the slight, shallow variety. pestles. Approximately 28 pestles (47%) from round, well formed, polished depres­ A final aspect of the knobbed pestles had a vertical handle relative to the base sions, some almost cup-like, to shallow, analyzed concerns their lithic composition. or, in other words, no handle angularity worn indentations. Most are located near What specific types of rock were most fre­ (eg. Figs. 4, 11). Thirty-two pestles (53%) the central portion of the basal surface, quently selected and used by these had handles at some angle to the base although some are off center. Rare pestles

POLL

HANDLE

J—- BASAL [( 3 —BASE PERIPHERY BELL KNOBBED CONICAL PESTLE PESTLE PESTLE

Figure 1 (Morris) Comparison of three different pestle types illustrating pestle terminology used in the text. Not drawn to scale.

27 Archaic and later peoples to manufacture say, it is obvious that crystalline metamor- viduals who let me study pestles from their these stone tools? Are there any trends? phic and igneous rocks were most com­ collections for my earlier paper: Ron Of the 65 pestles observed, 61 (94%) are monly used by these Archaic people to Helman, Harold Brumfield and sons, Bill composed of hard, crystalline metamor- fashion their pestles. Specifically, meta- Likens, Larry Yowler, and Pat Welch. Data phic or igneous rock, in contrast to only 4 morphic rocks like quartzite and green­ from that earlier paper (Morris 1995) is pestles composed of the sedimentary stone (metabasalt and metadiabase), as incorporated into this paper. All of the pho­ rock, sandstone. One half (51%) of the well as igneous rocks like diorite, granite, tography and drawings in this paper were pestles studied are fashioned from meta- and diabase are all very hard and durable, done by myself. morphic rock, the most commonly used thus providing excellent raw materials for varieties being: "greenstone" (a common these grinding, crushing stone tools. The References name for metamorphosed basalt and dia­ easily accessible source of these types of base) - 12 pestles, quartzite - 12 pestles; rocks are the many cobbles and rock frag­ Converse, Robert N. and arkosic (feldspathic) quartzite - 5 pes­ ments present in the widespread glacial 1973 Ohio Stone Tools (Revised). The tles. Twenty-eight pestles (43%) are com­ deposits which cover nearly all of northern, Archaeological Society of Ohio, Columbus, Ohio. posed of igneous rock types, the most central, western, and southwestern Ohio. Gehlbach, D. R. common of which are: diabase - 7 pestles; 1998 Pestles with Cup-shaped Depressions diorite - 6; granite - 4; and unidentified, Acknowledgements in their Bases. Indian-Artifact Magazine finely crystalline igneous rock - 8 pestles. It I am very grateful and wish to thank the 17(3):20. must be noted that when analyzing stone following individuals who kindly allowed me Hothem, Lar tools as to their lithic composition, it is to examine, measure, and sketch pestles 1992 Indian Artifacts of the Midwest. Col­ often very difficult to determine the specific from their collections for this study. These lector Books, Paducah, Kentucky Indian Artifacts of the Midwest, Book II. rock type involved. This is due mainly to individuals, many of whom are members of 1995 Collector Books, Paducah, Kentucky. the degree of surface weathering present, the ASO, include the following: Randy including the oxidation and hydrolysis of Morris Robert W. Bernard, Steve Clark, Ron Jarvis, Shirley 1981 Variations in Shape and Composition of original minerals in the rock and amount of Kinzer, and Chris Shue. Many thanks also some Prehistoric Ohio Pestles. Ohio patination, all of which tend to obscure to Ron Helman who allowed me to study Archaeologist 31 (4):3 1. surface details of the minerals present. several pestles from the Vietzen Collection 1995 A Survey of Prehistoric Knobbed Pes­ Thus, some of the rock identifications which are included in this paper. In addi­ tles from Ohio. Ohio Archaeologist above are educated guesses. Needless to tion, I would like to thank the following indi­ 45(1):23.

Figure 2 (Morris) This dis­ Figure 3 (Morris) Com­ Figure 4 (Morris) An excel­ Figure 5 (Morris) Short Figure 6 (Morris) Knobbed tinctive pestle has a posed of grey quartzite, lent round top, knobbed knobbed pestle with a pestle, 6% inches tall widely flared knobbed this knobbed pestle has a poll pestle with tall vertical round top poll and medium showing handle tapering poll and rounded basal massive platform-type handle and rounded basal flared base. Composed of toward poll and minimal periphery. It is 5'A inches base and slightly concave periphery. Made of green­ granite, 4% inches tall. For­ flare at base. Composed of tall, composed of green­ basal periphery. Formerly stone, 6 inches tall, found merly in the David Collins diorite, from Clinton Co., stone, and found near in the C. West Collection, near West Liberty, Logan Collection, from Clark Co., Ohio. Enon, Clark Co., Ohio. 6% inches tall, locality Co., Ohio. Ohio. unknown, possibly south- em Ohio.

Figure 7 Figure 8 (Morris) Figure 9 (Morris) A tall Slightly knobbed (Morris) handled, pestle with tall Excellent knobbed cylindrical handle highly pol­ pestle with a and narrow flare at ished pestle flared poll. base. Composed with small Basal of diabase, 6% knobbed poll periphery inches tall. For­ and handle shows exten­ merly in the David expanding to sive prehistoric Collins Collection, flared base. damage and from Clark Co., Speckled wear. Banded Ohio. granodiorite, quartizite, 63A 5% inches inches tall, tall. Formerly locality in the John unknown. Pitzer Collection, from Darke Co., Ohio.

28 Figure 10 (Morris) A unique Figure 11 (Morris) An out­ Figure 12 (Morris) A tall Figure 13 (Morris) Side pestle having a very small standing knobbed pestle pestle with a nearly flat top view comparison of two knobbed poll and handle having a tall cylindrical knobbed poll and no basal pestles - Fig. 11 (left) and which expands rapidly to a handle, widely flared poll, flare. Base has severe Fig 12 (right). Note the flat­ massive, widely flared and narrowly flared plat­ damage and is abraded tened nature of both polls, base. Note extensive sur­ form-type base. Note the flat on two sides. Polished esp. Fig 11. face peck marks. Green­ overall "dumb-bell" shape. greenstone, 6'A inches tall, stone, 5'/Binches tall, Ohio. Composed of polished locality unknown. Formerly in the R. diorite, 6% inches tall, Fair­ Leatherman Collection. field Co., Ohio.

Figure 14 (Morris) Detailed drawings of a variety of knobbed pestles based on actual measured specimens. Drawn to scale.

A. Diorite pestle, 554 inches tall. Found on the Roberts Farm, near Mechanicsburg, Ohio; Shirley Kinzer Collection.

B. Small "dumb-bell" shaped pestle of diorite, 5'/B inches tall. Found near Greenville, Darke Co., Ohio; Ron Jarvis Collection.

C. Knobbed pestle of diabase with slightly pointed poll and platform-type base, 5'A inches tall. Found on the Moore Farm, Highland Co., B Ohio; Formerly in the Vietzen Collection. D. Pestle of dark brown quartzite with massive, almost bottle-neck base, 5VS inches tall. Found on the Rhinehart Farm, near Casstown, Miami Co., Ohio; Chris Shue Collection.

E. Pestle with distinct oval knobbed poll, 6 inches tall, composed of brown sandstone. Found in Clark Co., Ohio; Shirley Kinzer Collection.

F. Outstanding pestle having a distinctive knobbed poll defined by a raised ridge, 6'A inches tall, igneous rock, found in Fayette Co., Ohio; Randy Bernard Collection.

G. Six inch tall pestle of finely crystalline igneous rock. Fond near Ft. Hill, Highland Co., Ohio; Chris Shue Collection.

H. Very unique knobbed pestle having a highly convex rounded basal surface, 7 inches tall. Found in Summit Co., Ohio; Steve Clark Collec­ tion.

I. Tall pestle, 6'A, inches, having a slightly knobbed poll and straight vertical handle. Highly polished diabase; formerly in the Vietzen Collection; locality unknown.

J. Excellent tall knobbed pestle with a widely flared base, 63/. inches tall. Composed of finely crystalline igneous rock; formerly in the Vietzen Collection; locality unknown.

29 Figure 17 (Morris) Basal surface of the Fig 16 pestle showing old Katzenberger Collection label and granular nature of the quartzite.

Figure 15 (Morris) Small pestle with a Figure 16 (Morris) Unique "double round top knobbed poll showing exten­ knobbed" pestle having a slightly sive prehistoric wear on the basal knobbed poll and slight expanded periphery. Grey quartzite, 5'A2 inches ridge VA inches below poll top. Com­ tall. Formerly in the Goddard Collec­ posed of feldspathic quartzite, 6V< tion, found in Defiance Co., Ohio. inches tall. Formerly in the Katzen­ berger Collection, Greenville, Ohio.

Figure 18 (Morris) Large, distinctive, Figure 19 (Morris) Small, highly pol­ Figure 20 (Morris) Knobbed pestle showing "club like" pestle showing well devel­ ished pestle with slightly rounded large degree of handle angularity relative to oped knobbed poll and highly rounded knobbed poll and moderately flared the basal surface. Composed of granite, base. Composed of brown, micaceous base, 5 inches tall. Composed of tan from Champaign Co., Ohio. sandstone, 8'A inches long, found near quartzite, formerly in the T. Webster Clyde, Sandusky Co., Ohio. Collection, Illinois.

30 TWO LATE 18TH/EARLY 19TH CENTURY TRADE KNIFE TYPES FOUND IN OHIO by Stanley W. Baker 108 S. Galena Rd. Sunbury, Ohio 43074

Introduction and 10-13). Based on comparative evi­ Region. This general scheme does not Like prehistoric assemblages, a variety dence, knife styles did change through easily account for varying responses to of diagnostic historic artifacts including time. The frequencies of certain knife types contact, nor how well individual elements domestic equipment, personal items, and on contemporaneous site also vary. One of the changing material world were misc. tools and hardware can be used for can hypothesize the resultant distributional received. Quimby's units neither account archaeological interpretations. Available patterns may have been the result of native for American governmental influences to for study are a variety of manufactured population relocations or evolving land-use native groups, nor a subsequent stage of metal which can be included in strategies. For instance, the more infre­ history where native peoples were this list. Many researchers, including quent use of the Ohio River and adjoining removed from sub-regional areas. An myself, have faced the task of identifying areas during the late 18th Century prob­ appreciation of these factors allows for a the various knife forms found in archaeo­ ably influenced the distribution of some superior interpretation of material culture logical assemblages. Obviously, the knife types. For these reasons, certain as it is found archaeologically. Quimby underlying importance of any of these knives commonly found where Euro-Amer­ (ibid 67) does state his periods were con­ historic artifacts stems from a need to ican settlement flourished may have been veniently derived. He also advised more relatively date archaeological compo­ characteristically different from the (or shorter) divisions might be applied. nents from constituent artifacts. Such common knife types found where settle­ This author would agree that native peo­ information is especially important when ment was limited to native peoples. Before ples faced shifting political influences. Fur­ sites are found where poor or little his­ changing knife styles can be clearly under­ thermore, changing contact situations from toric documentation exists. The author's stood, certain methodological considera­ the French, then the English, and finally the greater interest is defining subtle varia­ tions need be addressed and a common American governments would have had tions in assemblages and defining unique shared chronological framework must be also impacted other aspects of life and or varying components when these dif­ devised for analysis. their material culture of native groups. ferences may shed some light on who However change within any period would may have been responsible for the occu­ Ethnohistorical Chronology not have uniformly occurred. Some form of pation. The author is particularly inter­ (1600 to 1843) temporal/regional subunits seem neces­ ested in being able to define those sites In many historic archaeological sary to accommodate: varying degrees of more exclusively related to Native Amer­ studies, only a pre-contact Prehistoric change; delayed responses to events; ican occupation. In other words, can a Period versus a single post-contact His­ and/or where social boundaries were better understanding of historic typolo­ toric Period have been recognized in the maintained between differing cultural gies, including knife types, help to distin­ discussion of late aboriginal life. How­ groups existed. The eventual occurrence guish assemblages related to either ever, any treatment must acknowledge of artifacts in an archaeological context, or Euro-American or native based activities the Contact situation and the presenta­ a registered change in the material record, across Ohio? Or, can they tell us some­ tion may require more than a provincial may possibly be more gradual than the thing about the people who used them? approach to understand or interpret changing historic events themselves. The The following article will not address change in the material record. The recog­ use of a system of both broad periods and every metal knife form but a selection of nition of at least two major cultural fac­ unique phases might be devised to knife types which are more exclusively tions (i.e. Native American and account for synchronic variation across linked to the Native Americans who lived Euro-American) must be equally treated space. Hypothetical^, definable archaeo­ in our region. Based on the author's to make any late chronology of Ohio fun­ logical phases can be prescribed for ongoing research, there seems to be two damentally sound. Changing economic analysis and interpretation (Table 1). types of rigid knives which have a direct and political factors must also be consid­ Generally, these later periods which are bearing on Ohio's late aboriginal life. ered as conditions which contributed to a concern of historic archaeology in Ohio These include the "Scalping Knife" (a change in the material record. The recog­ include: a Protohistoric Period, where simple half-tang utility knife) and the nition of these conditions helps to create native groups were only indirectly affected Brass-inlaid Knife (a cutlery form with a or define a series of historically unique by European influences; an Early Historic brass-framed handle). These two knife units (i.e. periods) through time. Historic Period, focused on nativistic populations types have been found in Ohio and have use of the region or the variety of recent interacting with an outside sphere of influ­ been reported from other parts of North occupational types divided these periods ence and a vanguard population of traders America, particularly around the Great into a number of unique and successive and squatters; a Middle Historic Period, Lakes region. The following will address phases for further interpretation. dealing with significantly acculturated both historical documents and compa­ The following chronology is slightly dif­ native populations and a developmental or rable site materials found beyond our local ferent than some previously proposed. rudimentary self-contained Euro-American region to add clarity to the following study. For instance, Quimby (1966: 7 and 67-68) population; and a Late Historic Period Ohio archaeologists have not intensively conveniently divided the historic era into marked by change in social and political studied metal knives. The frequency of three segments including: Early Historic conditions including highly technical mixed their occurrence and true distribution of Period (1610-1670) with the French being urban and rural population. many knife forms have not been discussed the dominant group in the western Great Major milestones on which the periods regionally. Prior to about 1840, the bulk of Lakes; a Middle Historic Period (1670- could be divided would include the fol­ the metal knives used in the Upper Ohio 1760) with the French dominating the lowing: 1) the initial development of the Valley appear to have been supplied from entire Valley; and a Late fur trade within the confines of the mer­ European manufacturers through the Historic Period 1760-1820) with the Eng­ cantile system; cultural change brought process of trade (Merriam et al. 1976: 5 lish dominating the Western Great Lakes about by the transmission of infectious

31 and fatal diseases; and the apparent artifacts to define a number of temporally blages directly reflect the supportive domination of the upper Ohio Valley in related phases (for instance, Buffalo, exchange network. The Early Historic the late 17th Century by the Iroquois (i.e. Clover, Foley, Neales' Landing, Orchard, Period can be characterized by the the Protohistoric Period); 2) The re-estab­ etc.) to aid in the characterization of the occurrence of a suite of imported tools lishment of native populations in the Protohistoric Period in the Upper Ohio and equipment which fulfilled many region; the development of direct trade Valley. Regardless of how these phases essential materialistic needs. Native by Euro-Americans in the upper Ohio were defined by the authors who coined people were exposed to both replace­ Valley; and militaristic/political interest such designations, most all would agree ment items (i.e. brass kettles for pottery which focused on the region (i.e. the the well-organized or nucleated settle­ jars and steel knives for chipped stone in Early Historic Period); 3) Euro-American ments (villages) of the Late Prehistoric this case) and whole new tool forms (i.e. domination of the Ohio Valley with the Period gave way to less well-organized firearms). Simply, evolving artifact styles; signing of a number of Indian treaties amalgamations of people or linearly influences from varying outside social including the Greenville Treaty and the associated households during the later groups; changing subsistence and settle­ formation of Ohio (Middle Historic Period); phase of the Protohistoric Period. ment systems; and the occurrence of and 4) The Industrial Revolution and the Historic evidence suggests the reloca­ social or nativistic movements all suggest economic affects of the Civil War (i.e. the tion and migration of local groups to other the occurrence of multiple phases within Late Historic Period). Obviously, native regions of eastern North American at the each of the historic periods. populations and their original land claims end of the Protohistoric Period. Archaeo­ European power struggles, particularly to the region were eradicated before the logical assemblages dating to the early during the mid-18th Century, would have Late Historic Period. 18th Century are unknown in Ohio, a situ­ profoundly caused a radical shift in the Prior to the spread of Euro-American ation which suggests few native groups styles of goods and their availability peoples into the Ohio country, native pop­ permanently lived in the region until well through trade (Quimby 1966: 69-68). In ulations were affected by coastal Euro­ after the beginning of the 18th Century. addition to new tools and equipment pean development. Certain diseases, not Interpretively, a functional, if not a social, made available by evolving contact situa­ known in North America before 1492, hiatus appears to exist at the end of the tions, the author believes there is good spread inland before these areas had been 17th Century. The reduction or eradication evidence that native taste influenced the thoroughly explored and described by lit­ of existing local populations allowed for manufacturing process. Specific styles of erate peoples. Native trade and exchange the introduction of new non-local native equipment were thus created which the patterns spread some goods of European populations to enter the region during the traders recognized as acceptable to manufacture inland. In fact, the Protohis­ second decade of the 18th Century (Baker native peoples' tastes and functional toric Period has been previously recog­ 1985). These "in" migrations seem to have requirements. When archaeological data nized by the rare occurrence of exotic coincided with the possible resettlement and historic records are brought items of trade found on certain terminally of former residents who were returning to together, one can recognize distinctively late sites. However, the assemblages from their original homeland after an absence new archaeological types which seem­ these sites are dominated by such items of nearly a generation. ingly developed during the later half of as characteristic ceramics, triangular pro­ Indigenous land-use during the Early the 18th Century (i.e. the late Early His­ jectile points, and distinctive pipes which Historic Period is documented both his­ toric Period), a time which coincides with can be considered to be pre-existing ele­ torically and archaeologically. Native set­ British domination of the region. In fact, ments (traits) retained from the Late Pre­ tlement systems of the period are the types designated in this study seem historic Period. characterized by the occurrence of fair to reflect these trends in design and Assemblages characteristic of the Pro­ weather horticultural towns and scattered style. These distinctive American types tohistoric Period also include exotic orna­ hunting camps which were principally were typologically unique from the "off ments (i.e. certain bead types) which used from late-fall to early-spring. Trade the shelf" items offered earlier which were in existence in the 17th Century was the primary impetus of contact on were indistinguishable from goods used (Baker 1986). Raw materials like brass or these sites. Cultural independence is contemporaneously in Europe. smelted copper have been found to suggested by the repetitious occurrence Regarding the onset of the Middle His­ occur contemporaneously and from of nativistic movements and the strategic toric Period, treaties eradicated local these materials other ornamental objects placement of native population centers. native populations from the southern half were produced. Metal tools rarely occur Native towns were isolated well away of the region. Although improperly and seem to be limited temporally to the from Euro-American settlements and defined, at least archaeologically, the late 17th Century. Certain pieces of regions which could be exploited mili­ development of small reservation areas equipment, for instance iron , only tarily. Native strategies on the Ohio main- bounded on all sides by European devel­ seem to occur in a very few terminally stem were limited to temporary opment marks the beginning of a Reser­ late components and have only been occupations by the beginning of the vation Phase in northwestern Ohio. After reported from sites overlooking the Ohio American Revolution. 1817, these reservations required the River (Baker 1984). Though historically recognized tribes abandonment of native subsistence pat­ Components in the Lake Erie Basin existed in Ohio, the study of remains terns and traditional divisions of labor. which bear characteristic traits of the from historic sites suggests material uni­ Native values were also brought into Protohistoric Period have been coined formity, or what Quimby (1966: 8) termed question by missionary schools and reli­ the Indian Hills Phase of the Sandusky a "Pan-Indian culture", in the archaeolog­ gious indoctrination. Tradition (Stothers and Abel 1991:121). ical record. The more homogenous mate­ Small assemblages containing silver Others contemporaneous phases might rial culture of the historic era versus more ornaments and other trade-related items also exist along the southwestern shore varied assemblages seen prehistorically have been found in southern Ohio. How­ of Lake Erie though late Whittlesey con­ was the result of individual tribal groups ever, native camp sites are sometimes tact sites are conspicuously absent moving away from craft-based activities shown on early maps and camps are fre­ (Brose 1978: 580). Occurrences of his­ and traditionally derived assemblages. quently mentioned in many local histories toric remains have been found on some Historically, acceptable foreign com­ (Baker 1994a: 48-49 and 1998: 50-51). Ohio Valley sites like Madisonville in modities became the sole source of the This evidence clearly implies native excur­ Hamilton County, Ohio. Various authors material wealth for most native peoples. sions into eastern and southern Ohio per­ have used the occurrence of these exotic The resultant archaeological assem­ sisted until the War of 1812. These

32 excursions were designed for the purpose Methodological Considerations shape, tang type, etc.). Upon comparison of extracting local resources from any The basis of any archaeological to knives found in other regions in North subregion not heavily settled. In order to research is the process of isolating America, nine other knife types were accommodate this Early Historic or unique archaeological types and recog­ physically discussed and defined. slightly later Middle historic land-use data, nizing key attributes to make these iden­ A similar study was also completed by Renegade Phase occupations must be tifications. Type definitions, or the C. Garrad (1969) with regards to "iron" recognized in any chronologic scheme. development of typologies, allow the knives found on historic Petun sites Obviously, the above mentioned excur­ archaeologist to explore cultural interpre­ found across southern Ontario. Garrad's sions are directly linked to the Reserva­ tations. Only with typologies in place can study emphasized the occurrence of key tion Phase both historically and components be clearly identified; unique attributes and the division of the sample stylistically. These phases were system­ phases defined; site assemblages rela­ into three constituent periods for con­ atically terminated by the early 1830s tively dated; inter-site comparisons be trolled comparison. Garrad expresses the when many local native groups were made; and cultural change discussed. need for practicality when defining his removed for Indian territories established Efforts related to archaeological analysis types. By looking for key attributes by the Federal Government west of the or the application of these basic tools of across a group of knives versus simply Mississippi River. Consequentially, identification are not limited to the inter­ describing stylistic variation in each Ohio's reservations were abandoned pretation of extinct cultures. example, Garrad's analysis focused before many social-boundary maintaining The same analytical techniques can attention on five morphologically similar mechanisms broke down. Hypothetical^, further historic re-interpretation or allow knife styles (i.e. clasp, collared, etc.). As a later Mission Phase may have devel­ us to gain a new or better perspective on a result, these served as a series of easily oped after ten or fifteen years or when known historic events. In historic con­ discernible or broadly meaningful analyt­ nearly a whole generation had been texts, types (at their best) should repeat ical units. In each of the above cases, associated with the reservation system. fact. The analysis should be abstract these units probably should not be con­ The Upper Sandusky Reserve may enough to identify commonly held traits sidered types in a true archaeological exemplify this trend since it was the only to fully explore evolving stylistic patterns sense. However, the attributes reservation which remained in existence within the framework of complex social addressed in some cases do have tem­ long enough for mission students to organizations. Research efforts may poral connotations. become the principle reservation resi­ focus on differing groups of attributes Historic artifacts from Fort Michili- dents. One major distinction between the depending on the basic research needs. mackinac (1715-1781) have been inten­ Reservation Phase (which more generally Individual traits or attributes might have sively studied by Lyle Stone (1974: occurred) and Mission Phase (only at the chronologic implications but may say 263-273). An artifact taxonomy (an open Upper Sandusky Reserve) is a shift in little about the synchronic relationships ended classification of historic artifacts) settlement. The earlier Reservation Phase of two or more components. Where was developed out of his research. The can be defined by the occurrence of boundary maintaining mechanisms are 512 knives and knife fragments were "towns" extending along river courses weak between two or more cultural divided into taxonomic units based on which were composed of socially and/or groups, or where traits are commonly class (i.e. articulation), group (handle politically knit family groups. This pattern borrowed, archaeological assemblages versus blade elements), series (blade was abandoned for a Mission Phase plan are less distinct. Regardless, the applica­ attachment morphology or handle form), reflected by the occurrence of isolated tion of an appropriate and demonstrative types (blade and handle shapes), and farms distributed in a pattern reminiscent typology is the sole basis for most forms varieties (minor shape differences). of independent landholding and isolated of cultural interpretation. Stone's approach attempts to hierarchi­ households in an American rural agricul­ The following article is not the first cally rank these various attributes or tural style (Baker 1985). Again, this is only attempt to accurately describe and type properties based on their relative signifi­ seen during the late Middle Historic metal knives traded to native people. One cance. As completed, many of his knife Period and what might be described as of the first summaries of "metallic" knives categories had only one or two examples the Mission Phase. was completed by Beauchamp (1902). which may be a product of the relative In the Ohio country, the Moravians (mis­ This work was more descriptive in nature rarity of a distinctive type. With little sionaries from the Church of the Unitus and is not really a typology. However, external comparison, blade and handle Fratrum) greatly influenced a faction of the many attributes of knives found across elements (though potentially related) Delaware Indians as early as the American eastern North America can be discerned could not be collapsed into one true knife Revolution (Baker 1994b: 42-46). Theoreti­ from the collection of knives studied by "type". Fewer actual types probably exist cally, the development and definition of an Beauchamp from upper New York state. if some of the individual blade and earlier Moravian Phase is required. The Some sixty years later, Gilbert Hagerty handle elements were originally derived resultant archaeological components, (1963) noticed some significant differ­ from the same knife. when compared to other Mission Phase ences with regards to trade knives from Knowing the range of decorative sites, appear to be unique. Moravian sites found in the Oneida country. extremes, as presented by Stone (1974), Phase settlements were obviously based Hagerty's approach was a traditional one might be helpful in some cases particu­ on European patterns of land-use and reli­ which looked at a series of individual larly if one only wanted to make simple giously prescribed town planing. Distinc­ attributes to provide a framework for typo­ identifications. However, with little inter­ tive ceremonial patterns, including unique logical classification. Stylistic differences pretive context, two sites might be burial plans (ibid. 45), also distinguish the were considered to have chronological related though the knife varieties being Moravian Phase from other factions of the implications since the metal knives reviewed may slightly or insignificantly Early and Middle Historic periods. In sum­ described were taken from a known differ. Interpretively, artifact variation mation, migration patterns, changing life sequence of historic Oneida sites. The might say little about inter-site relation­ styles, technological requirements, and recognition of various commonly held ships or aid in cultural and temporal the context of social interactions influ­ attributes permitted Hagerty to charac­ interpretations. Without comparisons, we enced material cultures. These factors are terize definite knife styles and show how have no way of determining what these just as important in drawing interpretive these styles vary through time. Of the 161 types really mean historically. Some doc­ conclusions as certain methodological reported knives, ten individual types were umentary perspective is also needed to considerations are needed to understand designated based on the repetitious com­ ultimately interpret the value of both archaeological typologies. bination of individual traits (i.e. blade types and individual traits observed in the

33 ground. Could these findings and the dles (Figure 2). The styles of knives are manufactured during the later half of the results be replicated or do the attributes definitely a reflection of site use but, Early Historic Period. Native demands mentioned have nothing but an internal when found, they themselves do not tell influenced or caused manufacturing meaning for the particular analysis? us anything about site ethnicity. In these processes to evolve. Earlier knives are Borrowed concepts, variation in manu­ cases, interpretation must be derived clearly related to common European cut­ facturing, and conspicuous attributes from the greater archaeological or histor­ lery forms. These contrast with styles may be temporally significant but offer ical context of the identified site itself. which were: 1) recognized by traders and little more for interpreting local phases at The following analysis is also less con­ manufactures historically; and 2) when hand. Each of the above analyses was cerned with some equally common found archaeologically can be interpreted handled as if the archaeologist were a butcher knives which became particularly into meaningful types. prehistorian presenting the typology of a prevalent during the early 19th century. Several knife types can be docu­ traditional (local) craft, its residues and By "butcher" knife I am referring to a rel­ mented on historic sites in North Amer­ the items produced. Most writers who atively wide knife with a clipped point ican and may occur in Ohio. The have focused, at least some, attention on (Figure 3). By the 1840's, both American following summary will look at knives typology have failed to consider that and English manufacturers were mass being described in trade records and many Protohistoric and very early historic producing this blade with a full width draw some conclusions about two recog­ knife forms are based on pre-existing tang covered by a pair of scales or grips nized knife forms. From this, a fairly stan­ forms borrowed from a strictly European attached by 5 to 7 thin iron rivets (Mer- dardized nomenclature and typology knife tradition. In fact, evidence for a riam et al. 1976). Later, these thin iron based on fact will be generated for European cutlery tradition has been pub­ rivets were replaced by three large non- archaeological interpretation. lished (see for example Hume 1969: 177- ferrous ones. It should be pointed out the 179 or Hayward 1956). blades on these knives range from rela­ Historical Perspective Though a particular knife might be attrib­ tively straight examples to the curved As previously indicated, a variety of utable to native occupation, most knives blade sometimes called a "skinning" manufactured cutlery knives and table­ from the 17th and early 18th Centuries are knife. Many of these knives are found ware identical to those produced in recognizable as European cutlery forms today, but date to a period well after Europe found their way to eastern North (Figure 1). Previously cited research like native removal from Ohio. America. The author has attempted to Stone's (1974) fails to address knives in Certain questions regarding artifacts review all known site data from the 17th their external historic context though inter- and types can only be answered from a Century. These early knife forms have site data (i.e. the era and sometimes the more blended appraisal. Hume's treat­ been found in eastern Pennsylvania, New local inter-cultural context) is mentioned ment recognizes many stylistic roots are York, and in Ontario. However, metal during the interpretation. In fact, it will be based on pre-existing European con­ knives have not been found on contem­ shown the true interpretive significance of cepts. However, were the natives merely poraneous Protohistoric Period sites in one rather late knife form was missed by the recipients of a transplanted tech­ the Upper Ohio Valley. This information Stone since his work is nearly devoid of nology or were they actually making suggests these knives spread by direct contemporary comments. choices which impacted the manufac­ trade only. Apparently, native middleman How types are designated and what turing process a half a world away? More traders did not commonly pass these traits are selected for interpretation may importantly, when did native people European knives to groups more have a lot to do with the analysis a begin to influence the design of knives remotely located away from areas of researcher is trying to stress or the which were ultimately traded in North European settlement. During the Early results in which a researcher is inter­ America? Such questions have to be Historic Period, or by the early 18th Cen­ ested. Types or traits might be used to answered before we will be able to fully tury, metal knives appear in the Upper define a series of components into a understand and appreciate cultural Ohio Valley as a result of Native Amer­ Phase. Though each of the above exam­ change. In fact, questions like these and ican population relocations and the ples appear taxonomically unique or dis­ understanding why types actually devel­ development of a direct overland trade tinctively different, each was at least oped can only be answered in more pattern. In other words, Euro-American partially successful in: characterizing recent contexts where supportive evi­ traders were on the heels of Native peo­ change; grasping meaningful attributes; dence is voiced in historic literature. In ples following them from coastal settle­ or identifying the range of knife variation. this case, we have to ask are the types of ments as the latter began to relocate into Stone's analysis accurately portrays the knives for Native American use divergent uninhabited portions of the lower Great array of knives from Michilmackinac from the styles of knives which were pre­ Lakes and Ohio region. while Garrad was able to quickly recog­ dominately used outside North America? By the mid-18th Century, an English nize attributes on which to segregate or More importantly, does diverging styles nomenclature had already developed identify knives found on 17th Century tell us anything about acculturation? regarding trade knives which were being sites in lower Ontario. However, could Such questions regarding the origins of exported to the natives. Existing historic such typologies be recognized contem­ stylistic change have not been typically or records suggest at least two discernible, poraneously or do they have any real adequately addressed in many archaeo­ and often repeated, knife types manufac­ meaning to the people who used the arti­ logical studies of the historic era. It can be tured in England were exclusively traded fact in question? Many historic artifact shown that after several generations, local in eastern North America during the late types have good temporal ramifications preferences developed and, ultimately, 18th and early 19th Centuries. These are but may tell us little about site ethnicity. influenced knife designs. In fact, several the "Scalping Knife" and the "Brass- There are several styles of cartouche manufactured "types" of knives came into inlaid (cutlery or cartouche) Knife". Both knives or case knives (not to be confused existence which were strictly designed for types have been previously recognized with "Case" the manufacturer) that tend trade in Eastern North America. These later as types developed for the fur trade to occur on late 18th and early 19th cen­ types were based on native demands (Hanson 1987a and 1987b). The former tury sites which will not be formally which influenced later styles of knives. was an easily manufactured half-tang addressed herein. These generally fall in Documentary evidence clearly shows utility knife with a wooden or bone to the category of bone- or wood-han­ European manufacturers were looking for handle. The second type was a particu­ dled cutlery knives which could be sold acceptable goods for the North American larly styled cutlery knife with a decorative as sets with forks having matching han­ fur trade. These forms were ultimately composite handle composed of horn

34 liner and a decorative brass overlay or Company). As late as the 1830s, "Barwood region. These knives are not well-known frame. The latter knives contemporarily Scalpers" were ordered from Wildes and today but they are clearly mentioned in described as "Brass-inlaid" will be dis­ Company, London (1832) and from Cutler trade era documents. Hanson (1987b) cussed later. and Stacey (1836). Orders for red-handled found an order dating as early as 1798 A vigorous trade in English knives has Scalping Knives continued throughout the from the Northwest Company containing been documented for the Ohio Valley by early 19th Century but their numbers were requests for camwood handled car­ the mid-18th Century. Some of the ear­ few and their delivery seems to have been touche knives, "common" cartouche liest comments have been preserved in limited to northern reaches of Canada. knives and "Brass-inlaid cartouche the papers of the "Suffering Traders" Hanson also suggests scalpers were knives". Obviously, the former were light­ from a period dating from 1752 to 1761 sometimes shipped with "green bone han­ weight knives with full tangs overlaid by (Bailey 1947: 38, 40, 44, 84, 123, 125, dles" but in lesser quantity. wood scales. The Brass-inlaid Knife of 168, and 170). Goods confiscated by the In 1776 a shipment of goods to Michili- concern herein and its significance will French in this instance or shipped to Fort mackinac included two dozen Scalping be discussed in greater detail later. Pitt included references to a variety of Knives with "split Barrwood" handles and Orders given to English knife manufac­ knives including large and small "Cutto", two dozen with "camwood" handles. This turers suggest the Brass-inlaid Knife was "Cuttoe", or "Cuttian" knives; "black former comment is important since the less popular by the 1840s since the ratio hafted" knives, "brass pen-knives" or term split handle hints to its appearance of "warranted cartouche knives" to "Brass handled Pen Knives" (i.e. most and is important in the identification of this "Brass Inlaid Knives" is reported to be 15 likely a type of clasp or folding knife knife type (Figure 4). Blade size is also to 1. Earlier (i.e. 1827) less than 7% of an though rigid pen knives are known), and described in contemporary accounts. In entire shipment of 320 dozen knives from "Common Pistol cap Knives" (i.e. pos­ another case, an order for 15 dozen Gillespies, Moffat, Finley and co., London sible English table cutlery). The earliest "scalpers" with six inch blades and 15 to the American Fur Company was reference (1769) for a Scalping Knife has dozen with 6 V? inch blades was made. The reported to be "Brass inlaid cartouche been identified by Hanson (1987a: 11- price for common scalpers was men­ knives" (Hanson 1987b: 2). 12). The Baynton, Wharton, and Morgan tioned. The U.S. Office of Indian Trade for­ Baldwin (1997: 21) reports the occur­ firm, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania for­ warded a shipment of "scalpers" rence of Brass-inlaid Knives as late as warded to the Illinois Country one gross calculated at 19 cents for smaller ones and 1848. In 1846, a group of Miami moved of "French trading knives" and two dozen 20 cents each for larger ones. from Indiana to Sugar Creek, Kansas. and eight "French scalping knives". Huge quantities of knives passed Here fragments of this type were dis­ Later, Baynton, Wharton and Morgan through the American Fur Company. In carded. Two years later, the surviving sent a consignment of knives to Illinois 1827, the Furniss Company produced members of this group moved further which included 'cutteaus, lance points (i.e. 600 dozen "warranted scalpers" and 300 west. Though this precisely dates the some form of dag or dagger), and 34 dozen "common scalpers" for the trade. archaeological context of these frag­ dozen "large scalping knives" (Hanson The difference between warranted and ments, one cannot determined how long 1987a: 11 -12). This dual entry of "cutteaus" common scalpers has yet to be deter­ these knives served the Miami or how and "scalping knives" in 1771, and a later mined, though occasionally a knife can long they were carried by their owner. In reference to the "Cutoe" or "Cuttian" be found that is stamped warranted. all likelihood, they were acquired in the knives also mentioned in the Suffering Interestingly, Hanson (1987a) found east before the Miami moved to Kansas. Traders Papers of 1776 (Bailey 1946: 409) another reference requesting 200 dozen Historic evidence indicates English suggests Scalping Knives and "cutteaus" "warranted scalpers" and 500 dozen manufacturers were producing at least were two distinct knife forms. The latter "common scalpers". Significantly, the two distinct knife patterns, or what can could have been some form of a rigid company of Hiram Cutler was asked to be termed types in archaeological par­ butchering tool or possibly even a folding pack these knives in seven casks (bar­ lance, for the trade in North America. knife. In summary, the term Scalping Knife rels) containing 100 dozen knives each. Such references allow us to identify seems to have first been mentioned just Historically a variety of knives might be these forms when they are found archae­ before the American Revolution. This name called cartouche knives, or case knives, ologically. Again, these references sug­ was then used continuously for the next which are a common table knives or eating gest a pattern system or standardized one hundred years (Hanson 1987a). This utensils of the period. Camwood and sham type developed out of necessity. Stylisti­ suggests the appearance of a recognized buck (i.e. bone imitating antler) handled cally acceptable knives were demanded knife pattern typologically important for "cartouche knives" were universally used in eastern North America because of their archaeological interpretation. Hanson's in the homes of early settlers but can also function and these definable patterns research has produced a number of other be found on the sites of native towns would have been more easily ordered equally interesting and important descrip­ (Figure 5). In fact, a variety of patterns tem­ from manufacturers, who were found a tions worth repeating. porally emerged as a result of changing half a world away. Some texts suggest common knives European etiquette and stylistic tastes were shipped from England without han­ (Hayward 1956). Blade and handle mor­ Scalping Knives dles but surviving orders of Scalping phology can be used to roughly date the The term scalping knife is an appropriate Knives typically describe a variety of depositional history or relatively date a site term, though typically misunderstood woods (barwood, camwood, red handled, assemblage. Many are less important today because of a romantic view of the etc.). Thus, it is suggested this knife type interpretively since archaeological evi­ past. Arguably the Scalping Knife was was shipped from England in a finished, dence suggests they were not exclusively employed in the taking of human scalps. ready-to-be used, condition. Barwood (i.e. used by any one ethnic group. Out of this However, the original terminology probably genus Lingoum) and/or camwood (Baphia tradition however, the Brass-inlaid Knife meant something different. In a broader nitida) were common fine-grained tropical developed, but at a slightly later date than sense, the term implied the removal of any woods (from Africa) of a reddish to dark the Scalping Knife. animal skin with hair not just the hair of our reddish brown color. Late references (see The brass-inlaid Knife is a typical late own species. The name scalper seems Hanson 1987a) simply describe knife 18th Century cutlery blade with an outer akin to the term scalpel (i.e. a small straight orders thusly: 132 dozen red hafted fretwork of brass or a brass-framed knife with a thin blade) solely used for scalping knives (1779 - Detroit) and from handle. They seem to have been solely surgery. Scalping Knife or "scalper" is an Phyn and Inglis, London 12 gross of "red shipped to North America and are most appropriate name for a form of tool directly handled scalpers" (1799 - The Northwest conspicuously found in the Great Lakes traded to the supply side natives. Its form

35 was principally designed to process fur specimens, morphologically similar knives forging, grinding and filing. Some varia­ and skins for trade and secondarily to are sometimes depicted in contempora­ tion in blade morphology and absolute supply meat from a variety of small to neous artwork and several have survive in tang or blade length might occur. Obvi­ medium size mammals. Its name and its ethnographic collections. For instance, ously, in archaeological assemblages physical appearance contrasts to the more the National Museum of Man, Ottawa, length and width would have been sub­ robust "butcher knife", a tool designed to Canada, has at least two Scalping Knives sequently impacted by their use (i.e. cut thick flesh and disarticulate the joints with their original wooden handles cov­ sharpening) and/or the effect of decom­ of larger animals (in particular large ered with tanned hide and quill-work. position in the ground. domesticated ones like hogs and cattle). (Brasser 1976: 102 and 124). Both are in Several years ago, a small cache of A basic typology of Scalping Knives the Museum's Speyer Collection and seven Scalping Knives was found along can be drawn from several sources were originally collected by the Earl of the Maumee River near Defiance, Ohio including primary historical comments Warwick, Warwick Castle. A third spec­ (Figure 6). Again, these knives demonstrate and specimens taken from datable imen with a quill- wrapped handle sur­ they were individually hand-crafted. Speci­ archaeological context. The most impor­ vives in the Benjamin West Collection mens from this cache are most interesting tant source of information has been pre­ found in the (Zender and since the knives show the range of varia­ sented by Hanson (1978a) during his Dale 1995: 118). These specimens are tion for the type and the common denomi­ long-term efforts conducted by the thought to date to about 1800 or slightly nators to define the type. Each blade Museum of the Fur Trade. While scouring before and each was apparently derived shows the rather acute tip with the curved fur trade records, Hanson (1987a: 9) from the Great Lakes region. blade edge ground to meet the back edge. found an original description of a The previously prepared "Historical Considering the back edge, only three of Scalping Knife on which to base the type. Perspective" summarized the chronology the blades were essentially straight and This information was penned in a letter to of the Scalping Knife based on refer­ two blades are slightly convex, while the the company of Inglis Ellice. In this letter, ences from the late Early Historic Period two other blades are slightly concave. Alexander Mackenzie and Company, (ca. 1760) through the entire Middle His­ Blade length also varies from six to 6 % partners of the North West Company, toric Period. In Ohio, they could poten­ inches or 15.5 cm to 16.5 cm (three exam­ were formally refusing a shipment of tially date as late as 1843 or to the final ples) to seven inches or 17.5 cm (four defective knives from this English com­ native removal at this time. A Scalping examples). Blade width ranged from one to pany. Importantly, the letter included a Knife was previously reported from Pick- 1 1/4 inches (25-30 mm). pen sketch of an acceptable scalper. awillany (ca. 1750) in western Ohio The tang is partially missing (rusted This drawing exhibits a straight-backed (Baldwin 1997: 13). However, those through) on one blade and totally broken knife with a narrow tapering blade. As knives were actually recovered from away on a second specimen. However, drawn, the knife measures about two and Tawa Town on the Auglaize River in Allen the other examples exhibit the short haft- one half times the length of the handle. County, Ohio (Figure 5). This town is con­ tang with three iron rivets so character­ Three closely spaced rivets are also temporaneously described by Captain istic of the type. Tang length ranges from exhibited reflecting the position of a short John Dunkin and Captain Henry Bird in one and one half to nearly two inches or half-tang. From this tang configuration, 1780. Later, Christopher Miller mentioned (40-48 mm). Tangs typically measured the handle could be easily constructed an old Tawa Town on the upper Auglaize three quarters of an inch (18-21 mm) from one piece of wood with the tang suggesting its abandonment by about wide with pronounced heel at the end of inserted into a saw kerf. 1794. This specimen exhibits a Maltese the blade. Rivet lengths suggest the han­ Occasionally, narrow bladed home­ cross and L touchmark suggesting the dles ranged from one half inch to three made knives with a rat-tail tang were use of this mark during the latter half of quarters of an inch (13-20 mm) in thick­ sometimes produced by local black­ the Early Historic Period. ness. Spacing between rivets vary from smiths. The rat-tail tang design was less Regarding the Pickawillany Site, we do specimen to specimen. However, in all complicated to make under primitive know the assemblage is dominated by observable cases the three rivets were conditions since the tang could be easily folding knives, a refuse pattern which equally spaced along the tang. driven into an antler handle. Secondly, seems to relate to the natives' more this design did not require precision commonly discarding French goods Brass-inlaid Knife drilling or the setting of rivets to attach acquired earlier during the first half of the As previously indicated, cartouche the handle material. Sometimes, these Early Historic Period. Quimby's (1966: 69) knives (i.e. European cutlery) were com­ individually crafted knives mimicked the study of various archaeological assem­ monly imported into North America in the standardized scalper blade. However, the blages found that the French clasp 17th and early 18th Century and were author is not aware of any early home­ knives are generally disassociated with solely traded to the natives prior to the made knives with multiple rivets through fixed-blade English butchering knives, a mid-18th Century (Figure 1). The car­ the tang as were being produced in Eng­ pattern seemingly indicative of the early touche knives include a variety of styles land. Review of the 17th century literature versus the late 18th Century respectively. which are likely to have been used in regarding sites in lower Ontario and New An assemblage from Lower Shawnee- almost any Euro-American community in York suggests the standardized Scalping town also contains remnants of folding eastern North American from the 17th Knife form dating after the mid-18th Cen­ knives (Pollack and Henderson 1984: 14- through the early 19th Centuries. In fact, tury was based on a similar knife being 15) suggesting folding knives were more they are sometimes found on 18th Cen­ produced in Europe for some time. How­ commonly used before mid-century. In tury aboriginal sites in Ohio (Figure 5). ever, the morphological origins of this Ohio, all available evidence also suggests The Brass-inlaid (cartouche) Knife, with a knife type are not clearly understood. the folding knife was replaced by rigid or composite handle of brass over a horn Scalping Knives are known to occur in fixed-blade knife forms soon after the filler, was a rarer type of cutlery. Their areas bordering the Great Lakes. Authors French and Indian War. distribution suggests they were almost like Baldwin (1997) and Hanson (1987a) Though Scalping Knives were pro­ solely used by native peoples. They have have previously reported the archaeolog­ duced in quantity during the late 18th only been found on sites closely associ­ ical occurrence of knives with the above and early 19th Centuries, they were still ated with the fur trade. These knives are typological characteristics. Similar knives being hand-made or individually pro­ not common in Europe and are only have occasionally been observed in Ohio duced. Obviously, some variation might found in collection containing assem­ collections. In addition to archaeological exist in the type through the process of blages from the Great Lakes region.

36 These knives are distinguished by a on a native site near the Green Bay area. Maltese cross over an "L" stamp on the cast brass decorative fretwork pressed The Royal Ontario Museum has a Paul blade. Later, 19th Century blades on this over a scale of dark horn. On dug speci­ Kane painting of a Fox River Menominee style of knife were commonly touched mens, the liner is sometimes referred to Chief (Brasser 1976: 190). This circa with an actual makers name. Again, the as tortoise shell (Brasser 1976: 100) or 1845 painting portrays a Brass-inlaid type of scabbard and the manufacturer even leather (Stone 1975: 267). Typically, Knife suspended in a neck scabbard. mark suggests this particular knife dates fretwork was in the form of a floral or vine Brasser (ibid. 100) also reports a Brass- very early in the 19th Century, if not the pattern. The composite handle was inlaid Knife from the Speyer Collection 18th Century. Again, the specimen attached to the blade by three nearly now in the National Museum of Man, recovered from Tawa Town dating to the equally-spaced brass rivets. Two of the Ottawa, Canada. This specimen was Late 18th Century also displays a similar rivets pass through a relatively narrow originally collected by Johann Georg marking device. Although Brass-inlaid three-quarter length tang while the third Schwarz, a trader in North America in Knives may date to either the 18th (i.e. only holds the frame and liner together. 1820-21. Later, he served at the Amer­ with the Maltese cross and L-stamp) or However, even fragmentary examples ican consul in Vienna (1827-48) and to the19th century (i.e. blades stamped from archaeological excavations can be added to his collection by his association with the maker's name), temporally easily distinguished based on the number with the Austrian missionary society. unique specimens show remarkable simi­ (three through the tang of the Scalping Again, these references and occurrences larly in design and execution of the brass Knive and two through the tang of the clearly portray a distribution pattern overlay (Figure 7). Brass-inlaid Knife) and placement of closely associated with native life during Stone (1974: 267) reports two pairs of rivets. The first rivet on the Brass-inlaid the early 19th Century. perforated brass handles from Fort Knife is near the tang and blade juncture Other examples have been found in the Michilimackinac. One pair (ibid. 268, (Figure 7). The type is also distinguished southern Lake Erie drainage basin. For Figure 162N) is stylistically, metrically, by a blade with nearly parallel sides instance, a fretwork fragment was found and morphologically similar to the other which converge into a mid-line spear- in 1986, by the author, on an archaeolog­ "brass-inlaid case knives" as they are point near the end of the blade. ical site in Erie County, Ohio (33ER465) described in this study. Obviously, the blade on one of the col­ near the mouth of the Huron River. The Stone (ibid. 12) mentions the British lected specimens in Figure 7 is well used site on the Huron is estimated to date to began dismantling the fort during the and has been sharpened to a blade length a period from 1795-1805. Another spec­ winter of 1780/81 and moved the facility to of 7 5/8 inches (195 mm). Rough measure­ imen has been reported by Baldwin Mackinac Island. Stratigraphic evidence ments of whole specimens like the one (1997: 13) and was said to have been (i.e. the occurrence of this specimen in the marked "A. Hatfield" (24.5 cm) in the found at Pickawillany (1747-1752) in closed context of the fort deposit) clearly Museum of Man, Ottawa, Canada (Brasser southwestern Ohio. However, it was indicates this style of knife was in use 1976: 100) and a similar specimen from actually found on the Auglaize River, a before 1780. It should be pointed out, this Ohio also indicate they were originally major tributary of the Maumee River handle fragment was interpreted to be about 9 5/8 inches long, (see Zender and (Figure 7). The specimen was recovered from a French clasp knife (ibid. 267). All Dale 1995: 117). A comparison of this knife from a site called Tawa Town which was available data suggest the specimen with unsharpened blades suggests the principally settled only during the last two should be reinterpreted to the latter Eng­ lesser example in Figure 7 is missing about decades of the 18th century. As previ­ lish occupation of the Fort. two inches of its original length. Interest­ ously indicated, the Brass-inlaid Knife The second pair of brass frets (ibid. 268, ingly, the collected specimen from south­ from Tawa Town was found in conjunc­ Figure 162M) are obviously from a clasp western Ohio is marked "Johnson". The tion with a scalping knife and three or folding knife given their overall mor­ occurrence of makers name may be common English cutlery knives, all dating phology and the asymmetric placement of indicative the Early 19th Century. to the late 18th Century (Figure 5). Both the leading rivet. This placement allows The Brass-inlaid Knife is also distin­ of the Ohio sites where Brass-inlaid the blade to pivot around a fixed spring. guishable, like all good English cutlery of Knives occur date well before the War of This is the only example of this style of a the 18th Century, by a forge welded 1812 and/or the Reservation Phase. brass-inlaid clasp knife known to the "puddle scar" between the blade element Although known orders for knives with author. Again this decorative fretwork is and tang placing it just forward of the "Brass-inlaid" handles date from the late morphologically distinct from the knife handle or scales 9 (see Figure 7 bottom). 1790s to the 1840s several comments can type reported herein. Regardless, the evi­ This allowed for a tough iron tang to be be made which suggest this knife type dence from Michilmackinac provides the forged-welded to a shear steel, or blister can date slightly earlier (probably as early earliest evidence for Brass-inlaid knives in steel blade designed to hold a better cut­ as the American Revolution). For instance, either a rigid or clasp knife form. ting edge. Like many cutlery knives this the fretwork from such a knife within a type is a diminutive form. The pistol grip neck scabbard is depicted in a painting of Conclusions handle averages just a half an inch wide Sir John Caldwell which hangs in the Several conclusions can be drawn with and is exposed from the blade for less Merseyside County Museum, Liverpool, regards to metallic knives commonly than three and one half inches. The tang England. Sir John Caldwell was stationed used historically by aboriginal people. In on the Scalping Knife is relatively wider in North America during the American Ohio, the rigid or fixed-blade knife forms (3/4 inch) than the tang (1/2 inch) on the Revolution. During much of his military seem to replace the more commonly Brass-inlaid Knife. service in North America, he was posted occurring folding knives soon after the Although relatively rare, Brass-inlaid in the west and principally worked out of French and Indian War. The refuse Knives are seen in some Ohio collections Fort Detroit. In addition to the knife, Sir assemblages dominated by folding and other references to them do occur. John Caldwell also collected an entire knives found at Pickawillany and Lower Similarly, other morphologically similar native costume. It seems entirely possible Shawneetown appear to related to the knives have been found in the region sur­ this knife may have been secure in North contextural replacement of French trade rounding the Great Lakes. An excavated America in the 1780s before this painting goods more commonly used during the specimen, now found in the Museum of was commissioned first half of the Early Historic Period. the Fur Trade, was reported to have been Another similarly Brass-inlaid Knife in Quimby (1966: 69) also reports French found in Wisconsin (Hanson 1987b: 3). an Ottawa-type neck scabbard is also clasp knives are generally disassociated Another, in the Jim Dressier collection found in the British Museum (Zender and with fixed-blade English knives, a pattern Indianapolis, Indiana was probably found Dale 1995: 119). This example exhibits a which can seemingly be used to date sites

37 either early or late in the 18th Century. change brought about by long term inter- work gave rise to product dependency. Two easily recognizable knife types are cultural contact. The process may show As such, the dependence of European known to occur on aboriginal sites in the signs of sequencing in addition to the hard goods made the natives vulnerable Ohio frontier and the Great Lakes region. transmission of values, systems, and to outside interests and political policies Both the "Scalping Knife" and the via direct contact (SSRC beyond their immediate control. Eventu­ "Brass-inlaid Knife" types were com­ 1954: 974). However, it is a dynamic ally, rapid cultural change would occur monly traded into the region during the process marked by delays; slow adjust­ during the Middle Historic Period when latter half of the Early Historic Period. The ments; reactive consequences; and natives were eventually placed on restric­ use of both continued through the Middle selective adaptations. Contact situations tive tracts of land. The acceptance of Historic Period. The known distribution of are sometimes equated with a unidirec­ metal knives helped set the stage for these knives corresponds to the reported tional continuum of behavior from later, more rapid changes. locations of native people in northern native/ethnic to conformist/assimilated The stage of cultural change repre­ Ohio. In fact, the author has not seen (see Spicer 1961: 532). However, it has sented by metal knives occurred as a either knife type reported from south­ been found that living minorities seldom result of direct contact. Phases of the eastern Ohio or associated regions of exhibit either an incorporative attitude Early Historic Period are distinctive from Kentucky or West Virginia. This disasso- nor assimilative tendencies. earlier Pre-contact Phases since many ciation with the Ohio River mainstem John White (1975) has attempted to production processes (stone tool knap­ suggests their close affinity to relatively show levels of acceptance in recipient ping, ceramic manufacturing, etc.) were late native land-use patterns. However, cultures may exist and changes from old abandoned by the end of the Protohis­ native excursions into southern and (i.e. traditional) artifacts to new (i.e. intro­ toric Period. Freed energies seem to eastern Ohio continued well after the end duced) artifacts may be used to address have been redirected toward an intensi­ of the 18th Century. Their occurrence cultural change. It is assumed accep­ fied animal procurement pattern to sup­ may someday help to document such tance and change in material remains are port the fur trade network which brought ethnohistoric events. directly related to change in other cultural new into the Eastern Wood­ The occurrence of these two types as realms. White suggests the acceptance lands. Metal knives were successfully they appear in an archaeological context of a new tool type, where there was no used in this new economic direction. (assemblages) forms arguable traits for native counterpart, might be indicative of The acceptance of metal knife types further interpretation. Both documentary more cultural change than a tool which had a greater effect than simply creating evidence and archaeological data sug­ has a direct traditional counterpart. Simi­ a regionally homogenous or less distinc­ gest these knife types have ethnic con­ larly, Jeffrey Brain (1979) suggests inno­ tive material cultural. Again, there is evi­ notation. This does not mean they were vation values might be assigned to dence for the breakdown of some exclusively carried or used only by native artifacts. Such value judgement can only supportive sociologic/technologic sys­ peoples. Obviously, single examples of be made by considering both the artifact tems. However, such changes cannot be these knives from a site may not reflect and its context in which it was used. described as strictly conforming to their common occurrence but incidental In the context developed herein, one western thought or undermining all tradi­ artifact loss near, stolen from, or left with could argue that knives were not a cata­ tional social values. In this case, native contemporaneous non-native people. lyst or an example of artifact which demands did influence knife design and There are historic records indicating caused rapid cultural change. Though it has been shown these knife types ful­ knives were occasionally given to Euro- visually different than their Photohistoric filled a unique or particular function in American settlers. In fact, one was said counterparts, these technologically supe­ Woodland societies. Knives played a role to have taken many scalps before it was rior tools were simply substituted for at this stage of the acculturation process. given as a gift in exchange for food more traditional stone artifacts. It can However, assimilation would wait for (Baughman 1911:90). hardly be argued acceptance of metal more insidious events which occurred at The archaeological occurrence of these knives required some behavioral change a late period in time. knife types does imply some relationship to take place undermining a large set of By design, both the Scalping Knife and to native land-use and/or patterns of trade traditional social values. the Brass-Inlaid Knife were created to be which carried these forms into the interior In many cases, Hallowell (1945: 187) directly traded to the natives, who were and allowed for their deposition as archae­ reports that, acculturation " ...takes place intent on processing and harvesting fur. ological remains. In a substantial quantity on a modest scale through selective The two types reported herein functioned however, they may help to identify the processes...without radically re-adapta­ as small utility knives. Their use to process ethnic group responsible for an archaeo­ tion in the behavior of the individual or a fur and skins, to provide sustenance on the logical deposit. In concert with historic reshaping of the total mode of life". It has trail, and in general to perform kitchen documentation, the occurrence of either also been pointed out by Herskovits activities is reflected in their proportion and knife type can help to distinguish the (1938: 38) that a new trait would be wel­ design. The hallmark types discussed absolute position of a late 18th or early comed and immediately borrowed if the herein were adequately designed for 19th Century native community. foreign element does not clash with common native species including small Archaeologist and ethnohistorians usu­ already existing traits. It would appear game, deer, and bear. These knife types ally view the spread of European culture the introduction of metal knives immedi­ physically contrast to the more robust form and its technology as disruptive to tradi­ ately changed only the least resistant of butcher knives designed to expeditiously tional native lifestyles. In contrast, reten­ aspect of life (the object form of one render larger carcasses of animals, like tion of certain cultural value systems material item). hogs and cattle, which have thicker flesh would argue that historic contact may Considering acquisition of European and massive joints to disarticulate. Simply, have only superficially changed native goods, the more serious effect to tradi­ the natives did not demand these large life. Such contradictions clearly indicate tional life was not how they were used. knife forms because of their carrying weight that the real effect European technology Acceptance of the new technology and the function in which they would be had on Eastern Woodland societies has caused the eventual abandonment of employed. Though made a half a world not been successfully articulated. With production processes and systems which away, native demands directly influenced this in mind, do these knife types supported classic patterns of creativity. the design of knives which came to the bespeak cultural change or can they aid Abandonment of traditional or local pro­ Ohio frontier. In conclusion, the Scalping in interpreting cultural change? duction processes can be considered Knife and the Brass-Inlaid Knife are defin­ able types in every sense of the word. By definition, acculturation is cultural devastating because the fur trade net­

38 Acknowledgments Baughman, A. J. Pollack, David and A. Gwynn Henderson Several individuals were very helpful in 1911 History of Morrow County, Ohio. The 1984 A Mid-Eighteenth Century Historic the completion of this research. The Lewis Publishing Co., Chicago-New Indian Occupation in Greenup County, author would like to thank Clarence York. Kentucky. In Lafe Prehistoric Research in Kentucky. Kentucky Heritage "Gabby" Cathers, Louis Simonis, and Beauchamp, William M. Council, Frankfort. Bob Williams for their help. In particular, 1902 Metallic implements of the New York Rick Bratt proof-read and commented on Indians. New York State Museum Bul­ Quimby, George I. an earlier draft of this article. The author letin 55, Albany. 1966 Indian Culture and European Trade would especially like to acknowledge Jon Brain, Jeffery P. Goods: The Archaeology of the Historic Period in the Western Great Lakes 1979 Tunica Treasure. Papers of the Anspaugh's understanding of early local Region. The University of Wisconsin Peabody Museum of Archaeology and history and his experience in the study of Press, Madison. Late 18th Century material cultures. More Ethnology 71. Harvard University, Cam­ than enjoyable, our years of collaboration bridge, Massachusetts. Spicer, Edward H. has been of great help to me and is Brasser, Ted J. 1961 Perspectives on American Indian Cul­ tural Change. University of Chicago 1976 "Bo'jou, Neejee!" National Museum of intrinsic in this article's perspective. Press. Chicago, Illinois. Man Ottawa, Canada. References Cited Brose, David S. SSRC (The Social Science Research Council) Bailey, Kenneth P 1978 Late Prehistory of the upper Great 1954 Acculturation: an exploratory formula­ 1946 The Ohio Company Papers, 1753-1817 Lakes Area. Handbook of North Amer­ tion. American Anthropologist 56(6): being primarily the Papers of the "Suf­ ican Indians: Northeast 15: 569-582. 973-1102. fering Traders" of Pennsylvania. Hanson, Charles E, Jr. Edwards Brothers, Inc. Ann Arbor. Stone, Lyle M. 1987a The scalping knife. Museum of the Fur 1974 Fort Michilimackinac 1715-1781: An Baker, Stanley W. Trade Quarterly 23(1): 8-12. Archaeological perspective on the Rev­ 1984 An iron trade from the Neale's 1987b The cartouche knife. Museum of the olutionary Frontier. Publications of the Landing Site. 46WD39, on Blennerhas- Fur Trade Quarterly 23(2): 1 -4. Museum, Michigan State University, sett Island. West Virginian Archeologist Hayward, J. F. East Lansing. 36(2): 50-53. 1956 English Cutlery Sixteenth to Eighteenth Stothers, David M. and Timothy J. Abel 1985 Acculturation and Evolutionary Change Century. Her Majesty's Stationary 1991 Beads, Brass, and Beaver: Archaeolog­ in the Historic Settlement/Subsistence Office, London. ical Reflections of Protohistoric "Fire practices in the Southern Lake Erie Nation" Trade and Exchange. Archae­ Basin; the Wyandot Example. Mineral Hallowell, A. Irvine ology of Eastern North America 19 and Biological Museum, Heidelberg 1945 Sociopsychological aspects of accul­ (Fall): 121-134. College, Tiffin, Ohio. turation. IN The Science of Man in 1986 Early seventeenth century glass trade World Crisis. Columbia University White, John beads from the Upper Ohio Valley. Press, New York. 1975 Historic contact sites as laboratories Ohio Archaeologist 36(4): 21 -24 Herskovits, Melville J. for the study of cultural change. The 1988 Neale's Landing ceramics: a perspec­ 1938 Acculturation: The Study of Cultural conference of Historic Site Archaeology tive on the Protohistoric Period from Contact. Auoustin Press, New York. Papers 9 (1974): 153-163. Blennerhassett Island. West Virginia Zender, Jan and Rochelle Dale Archeologist 40(2): 40-53. Merriam, Robert L., David S. Brown, Richard A. Davis, Jr., and Michael E. Buerger 1995 Great Lakes and Eastern Woodland 1994a Cultural resources literature search for knife sheaths. The Book of Buckskin- the proposed MUS-60-17.88 corridor 1976 The History of the John Russell Cutlery Company 1833-1936. Bete Press, ning 7:106-133. Scurlock Publishing from Zanesville to Dresden, Ohio. Co., Texarkana, Texas. Unpublished reported prepared by the Greenfield, Massachusetts. Ohio Department of Transportation, Office of Environmental Services and Table I: A general outline of historic archaeological resources in Ohio. on file at the Ohio Historic Preservation Office, Ohio Historical Society, A.D. Historic Archaeological Phases Euro-American Columbus. Timeline Periods Native American Events 1994b Preliminary archaeological investigations 2000 for the COS-US36-20.48 highway rede­ Late Historic mixed urban/rural velopment project through Keene population Lafayette, Oxford, and Tuscarawas 1860 1850 rural/agrarian Townships, Coshocton County, Ohio. population Unpublished reported prepared by the 1843-- -native removal- Ohio Department of Transportation, 1833 Mission Phase (Upper Sandusky only) Office of Environmental Services and on 1817 Reservation Phase legitimized or (northwestern Ohio only) 1st settlement file at the Ohio Historic Preservation Middle Historic Office, Ohio Historical Society, 1803 Columbus. 1800 Renegade Phase (eastern and southern Ohio only) 1795 (native depopulation of all areas south of the Greenville Treaty Line) 1998 Phase I and II cultural resources survey military and for the ADA-SR136-21.51 bridge 1772 Moravian Phase religious interests replacement project located in Win­ (an atypical native response) chester Township, Adams County, 1750 Nativistic Phase 1st trading/ Early Historic (direct contact) squatters Ohio. Unpublished reported prepared 1728-- by the Ohio Department of Transporta­ (native cultural hiatus -ca. 1680-1728) tion, Office of Environmental Services 1700 and on file at the Ohio Historic Preser­ 1680 - - pre-contact vation Office, Ohio Historical Society, (native phases poorly defined) 1650 Columbus. 1600 Late Protohistoric Baldwin, John 1575 - - Early Protohistoric 1997 Early Knives and Beaded Sheaths of Madisonville Phase • (associated with the Ohio drainage) the American Frontier. West Olive, Indian Hills Phase* (associated with the Lake Erie Basin) Michigan. 1550 1500 Late Prehistoric 1492 - •reported as a transitional phase with some components devoid of historic materials.

39 Figure 2 (Baker) Early 19th Century European cutlery forms produced in England and com­ monly shipped to North America.

Figure 1 (Baker) Typical Late 17th Century European cutlery found on native sites in New York State (from Beauchamp 1902; Plates 26 and 27).

Figure 3 (Baker) Characteristic butcher and skinning knives commonly used by Euro-Americans from the Middle to Late 19th Century.

Figure 4 (Baker) Detail photograph of a Scalping Knife showing the rivet placement and the one piece wooden handle with a saw kerf to accept the half tang.

40 Figure 5 (Baker) Collection of knives recovered from Tawa Town on the Auglaize River including: three common cutlery knives, a Brass-inlaid Knife, and a Scalping Knife.

Figure 6 (Baker) Cache of seven Scalping Knives recovered along the Maumee River near Defi­ ance, Ohio.

Fig. 7 (Baker) Photo­ graphic comparison of the Brass-inlaid Knife recovered from Tawa Town with two views of a Brass-inlaid Knife collected from south­ f^SSfCi eastern Ohio.

41 AN ENGRAVED PEBBLE by Steve Gebhardt 2477 Mt. Zion Rd. Bucyrus, Ohio 44820

As I am in the hardwood lumber business I am often in the Fig. 1 (Gebhardt) woods looking at timber. In a woods along Perry Creek near Photo of engraved Leesville in Crawford County, I found a small Archaic pebble from Crawford and when I jumped down to investigate an eroded bank I saw the County. piece shown in Figure 1. It appears to be an unaltered but engraved pebble of shale about two inches across. After bringing it home and washing it off, within two hours it began to delaminate. I put it in a solution of water soluble glue and washed off the excess which has stabi­ lized it. The engraving is crude but its elements are easily distinguish­ able. On the left is a - portrayed as if suspended in air. The arrow points to the right at an antlered animal - either a deer or an elk. The purpose of this crude engraving is, of course, Fig. 2 (Gebhardt) Drawing showing the unknown but it may portray a successful hunt or perhaps a token elements of the in anticipation of one. engraving.

(Editorial. . . continued from page 3) The Archaeological Society and the new law. For ASO members who thought we shared at least some common The "privilege to do so" provision. ground with the OAC and the Ohio Preservation Office because of our The November 21,1997, letter by the OAC Legislative Issues Committee interest in archaeology, we must now re-assess that relationship and (members Butterworth, Otto, Pape, Reichwein, Ruffini, Skinner and Tonetti) reconsider the information and cooperation which in the past we have reveals the professional interpretation of the "privilege" clause and the atti­ shared with professional archaeologists. This is a law against all non-pro­ tude of the professionals regarding remains on private property. It states: In fessional archaeology. In the state of Washington, for example, it is both cases the "privilege to do so" clause remains in effect. Therefore, against the law to surface hunt artifacts without a license granted by the anyone with the privilege to disturb a cemetery as defined in these two state. We have learned a valuable lesson and we should not forget it. As statutes may do so without being subject to the vandalism and desecration stated by the founding fathers "the price of liberty is eternal vigilance." statutes. ORC Section 2901.01 defines privilege as "an immunity, license, or From now on we will be especially vigilant. right conferred by law, or bestowed by express or implied grant, or arising Since these various factions have chosen to politicize archaeology, out of status, position, office, or relationship, or growing out of necessity. perhaps it is time for the Archaeological Society of Ohio to look to the This exemption applies to archaeological investigations where the investi­ interests of our members. We should give serious thought about intro­ gator has privilege, i.e., as part of a cultural resource management investiga­ ducing legislation of our own to make the public aware of the widespread tion pursuant to federal, state, or local laws and regulations, or with the and publicly financed professional projects which are kept secret by the permission of the landowner, assuming that a landowner can "own " Amer­ Ohio Preservation Office under their absurd and illegal "need to know" ican Indian human remains buried on the owner's property. In other words, policy. Does not the public have the right to know about the non- those engaging in the financially rewarding contract archaeology business reporting and non-publishing of archaeological projects and the hidden have the privilege to go on private property to investigate archaeological costs to taxpayers of contract archaeology? sites by virtue of a "privilege" granted in this law with or without the In my opinion the Archaeological Society of Ohio can no longer stand by landowner's permission. and have our members characterized as "treasure hunters" by gullible legis­ The challenging words "assuming that a landowner can 'own'" empha­ lators and be treated as second class citizens against whom laws are sizes the growing arrogance of professional archaeologists who more and needed. Apparently the line has been drawn and we must begin to think more are asserting some peculiar right which takes precedent over that of a about our own rights and exercise our own political influence. property owner. Such a "privilege", if ever upheld in a court of law, is uncon­ The members of the Archaeological Society of Ohio believe that archae­ stitutional and would introduce a new dimension to the government's con­ ology should be the most exciting and fascinating of all sciences. Ohio is at tinued erosion of private property rights. It is ironic that at the very time the the center of the Hopewell, Adena, Glacial Kame, Red Ocher and Fort Ohio Legislature passed this law, which is a direct assault on private property Ancient cultures - no area surpasses Ohio in our Archaic and Paleo legacies. rights, they are considering a "takings" bill to thwart such laws. Our Society has endeavored to publish sites, artifacts and reports from these cultures to make the world aware of Ohio's unique heritage and its The net result of the "cemetery" law. wealth of prehistoric material. However, instead of a stimulating field with a This poorly defined law jeopardizes the property rights of every promising and exciting future, archaeology is turning into a contentious, landowner and farmer in Ohio as well as possibly criminalizing such busi­ jealous, faction-ridden, money-driven, legally burdened science. nesses as farming, quarry operation, developing and construction. Those Archaeologists and anthropologists often complain that they don't have engaged in such activities will be less than likely to report any discoveries large public constituencies. Passing laws, keeping reports secret and and simply bulldoze them into oblivion. The farmer, surface hunter, or pandering to factions who would, if they could, outlaw archaeology itself, inadvertent picker-upper of a "thing" would do well to keep his informa­ and disparaging its largest non-professional audience, the avocational- tion to himself or he may find himself prosecuted under the vague and ists, will only increase the public's cynicism and do little to enhance obscure provisions of this law. archaeology's public image.

Robert N. Converse Editor

42 A.S.O. CHAPTER PRESIDENTS 1998 Taken at the Chapter Presidents meeting, November 15, 1998 A.S.O. November 1998 State Meeting Aladdin Shrine Temple, Columbus, Ohio

Seated (L-R): Craig Alward, Alum Creek Chapter; Larry L. Morris, Sugarcreek Valley Chapter; Bill Mitchell, Cuya­ hoga Valley Archaeology Society; Skeeter Kish, Chippewa Valley Chapter; Joel D. Embry, Flint Ridge Chapter; Jim Bartlett, Blue Jacket Chapter.

Standing (L-R); Bill Pickard, Standing Stone Chapter; Jeff Bendle, Aboriginal Explorers Club; Kevin Boos, Their Fires are Cold Chapter; Dale Stansbery, Sandusky Valley Chapter; Brian Foltz, Six River Valley Chapter; Jeff Zem- rock, Johnny Appleseed Chapter; Don Weller, Seneca Arrow Hunters Chapter; Art Heaton (VP), Miamiville Archaeo­ logical Conservation Chapter; Randy Kauth (VP), Fort Salem Chapter; John Mocic, Dividing Ridges Chapter.

NEW BOOK

The Dunlap Farmstead: Historical Archae­ tionary War soldier Robert Dunlap (1752- ology at 33Wo41, The 19th Century Home­ 1834) and his family by his third wife Anna stead of Revolutionary War Soldier Robert Williams (1797-1839). Excavations of the Dunlap and Family, Middleton Township, cabin structure, the grave site, and recovery Wood County, Ohio of a rich, material culture provide a snapshot by David M. Stothers, Patrick M. Tucker, of frontier life in the Maumee Valley of Ohio VOLUNTEERS and Jason M. Koralewski during the 1830s. The history covers the Laboratory of Archaeology Publications, Revolutionary War service of Pvt. Robert NEEDED Occasional Monographs No. 1, The Univer­ Dunlap and his family's residences in New sity of Toledo, Toledo, Ohio Jersey, New York, and Ohio. Your Society needs volunteers for The Dunlap Farmstead Combines Histor­ Historical records are used in document various jobs at state meetings. We ical Archaeology, History, and Genealogy To linkages between the material culture and need people to help with table Tell The Story of A 1st Generation Scotch- behavior patterns of Dunlap family members rentals, the Fraudulent Artifact Irish American Family's Experience In North in the reconstruction of family lifeways. Committee, to help with the raffle, America Paper (soft-cover bound), 1998, 204 pp., name tags and other duties. If you Archaeological and historical investigations 30 figures, 19 tables, 32 plates, and 12 would like to help please tell any of of 33Wo41 revealed a multi-component site appendices our officers. spanning some 2,000 years of time. One pre­ Cost $30.00 - Postage and handling $3.00 historic and two historic occupations are Add 6.25% Sales tax. delineated: Late Archaic - Early Woodland Make check or money order payable to: (600 BC - AD 1); Dunlap-Hollister (AD 1831- Patrick Tucker 1857); and Post-Industrial (AD 1875+). The study focuses on the 19th century, 2816 Worth St. rural farmstead and grave site of Revolu­ Oregon, OH 43616-1624

Back Cover: This fine fluted point was recently found on the Franklin-Delaware County line. Collection Doug Hooks.

43 OBJECT OF THE SOCIETY The Archaeological Society of Ohio is organized to discover and conserve archaeological sites and material within the State of Ohio, to seek and promote a better understanding among students and collectors of archaeological material, professional and non-professional, including individuals, museums, and institutions of learning, and to disseminate knowledge on the subject of archaeology. Membership in the society shall be open to any person of good character interested in archaeology or the collecting of American Indian artifacts, upon acceptance of written application and payment of dues.