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The Effect of Violent Video Game Play on Gamer's Views of Victims Of The Effect of Violent Video Game Play on Gamer’s Views of Victims of Crime A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements of Nottingham Trent University for the degree of Doctorate of Psychology Lavinia McLean May 2015 Page 1 of 281 Contents Acknowledgements 10 Abstract 11 Chapter 1: The psychosocial impact of video games: A review of the literature 13 1.1 Video game play demographics 15 1.2 Advanced technology and changes: Implications for video game playing 17 1.3 Video game playing genres 18 1.4 The effects of video game playing 21 1.4.1 Positive effects of video game playing 21 1.4.2 Negative effects of video game playing 27 1.5 Research on the effect of violent video game playing 28 1.5.1 Desensitisation 28 1.5.2 Aggressive cognition 31 1.5.3 Aggressive behaviour 32 1.5.4 Aggressive affect 36 1.5.5 Other effects 37 1.6 Video game addiction 38 1.7 Structure of videogames 42 1.7.1 Social features in videogames 44 Page 2 of 281 1.7.2 Immersion and Identification in videogame playing 47 1.7.3 Rewards in video game play 49 1.7.4 Realism and graphics in video game play 51 1.7.5 The experience of playing video game playing 52 1.8 Mediators of video game effects 53 1.8.1.Cogntion and arousal 54 1.8.2 Developmental Stages 5 6 1.8.3 The general aggression model 57 1.8.4 Structural characteristics of video games 60 1.8.5 Individual characteristics 62 1.8.6 Character identification and game involvement 65 1.8.7 Parental monitoring and cultural factors 68 1.9 Conclusion 69 Chapter 2: Justification and Rationale for methodology 75 2.1 Quantitative and qualitative research 76 2.3 Mixed methods research 77 2.3.1 Conducting mixed methods research 79 2.4 Using the internet for research 80 2.5 Advantages and Disadvantages of surveys 81 Page 3 of 281 2.6 Semi structured interviews and vignettes 82 2.6.1 Semi structured interviews 84 2.6.2 Method of analysis 86 2.7 Discussion forums 86 2.8 Ethical issues 89 2.8.1 Ethical issues in qualitative research 89 2.8.2 Ethical issues in online research 90 Chapter 3: Violent video games and attitudes towards victims of crime: An 94 empirical study among youth 3.1 Introduction 94 3.1.1 Attitudes 95 3.1.2 Attitudes towards victims 93 3.1.3 Video game research 97 3.1.4 Moderator variables explored in the present study 103 3.2 Method 106 3.2.1 Participants 106 3.2.2 Materials 106 3.2.3 Procedure 109 3.3 Results 111 3.3.1 Exposure to violent video games 111 Page 4 of 281 3.3.2 Gender Differences 111 3.3.3 Age 112 3.4 Discussion 113 Chapter 4: Gamers attitudes towards crime: An interview study using vignettes 118 4.1 Introduction 118 4.1.1 Research on video game playing and attitudes 121 4.1.2 Use of Vignettes 124 4.2 Method 125 4.2.1 Participants 125 4.2.2 Measures 126 4.2.3 Procedure 129 4.3 Results 130 4.3.1 Attitude towards perpetrator 130 4.3.2 Victim Liking 130 4.3.3 Victim Blaming 132 4.3.4 Victim Helping 134 4.4 Discussion 135 4.4.1 Limitations and future research 138 Table 1: Three types of victims described in vignettes in Study 2 142 Page 5 of 281 Table 2: Ratings for vignettes in study 2 143 Table 3: Attitudes towards perpetrate bipolar adjective scale in Study 2 144 Chapter 5: Female gamers: A thematic analysis of their gaming experience 147 5.1 Introduction 147 5.1.1 Motivation to play violent video games 148 5.1.2 Character stereotypes in video games 149 5.1.3 Character identification 150 5.2 Method 152 5.2.1 Data collection 153 5.2.2 Ethical Issues 153 5.2.3 Process of Identifying Issues 153 5.3 Results 154 5.3.1 Identity theme 154 5.3.2 Social theme 159 5.3.3 Motivation theme 162 5.4 Discussion 165 5.4.1 Identity 165 5.4.2 Social 168 5.4.3 Motivation 169 Page 6 of 281 5.4.4 Limitations and future research 171 Table 5: Main categories of discussions (Study 3) 173 Table 6: Main Themes and sub themes (Study 3) 174 Chapter 6: Exploring moral disengagement as a framework for understanding 175 violent video game play and attitudes towards victims 6.1 Introduction 175 6.1.1 Moral disengagement 176 6.1.2 Moral disengagement and video game playing 177 6.1.3 Moral Disengagement and Sports 179 6.1.4 The impact of competition in games 181 6.1.5 Virtual victims 181 6.2 Method 185 6.2.1 Participants 185 6.2.2 Materials 186 6.3 Results 187 6.3.1 Moral disengagement 187 6.3.2 Gender differences 187 6.4 Discussion 189 Table 7: Mean moral disengagement scores for violent video game players, 195 sportspeople, and controls (Study 4) Page 7 of 281 Table 8: Mean and standard deviation of moral disengagement scores for males and 196 female participants across violent video gamers, sportspeople, and controls (Study 4) Chapter 7: Moderators and mediators of the effects of video games 197 7.1 Implications of these studies to psychological literature on video games 203 7.2 Developmental stages 205 7.3 Game structure 206 7.4 Individual characteristics 208 7.5 Identification and immersion in video game play 210 7.6 Strengths, limitations, future research and implications for parents and 211 industry 7.7 Contribution to theory 217 7.7.1 The role of cognitive processes in gaming 217 7.7.2 Attribution of blame 218 7.7.3 Moral disengagement 219 7.7.4 Gender differences 220 7.7.5 General aggression model 222 7.8 Conclusion 222 References 225 Appendix 1: Victim Concern Scale (Study 1) 266 Appendix 2: Video game and demographic survey (Study 1) 271 Page 8 of 281 Appendix 3: Vignettes employed in Study 2 277 Appendix 4: Moral Disengagement Scale (Study 4) 280 Page 9 of 281 Acknowledgements I would like to thank my Director of Studies Professor Mark Griffiths for his excellent supervision and support throughout this research, and for the encouragement he always gave me. I would also like to thank my colleagues who were often the people who I ran things by initially and frequently pointed me towards a more realistic approach. In particular I would like to thank Emmett and Siobhan for all their help. I would like to express thanks to all of the young people and the adults who participated in the research. I am also very grateful to those who provided their expert opinions and feedback on video games and the issues around how to access gamers. I would like to acknowledge my family, my parents, in particular my mother who has always believed in me and my four children Kate, Cormac, Isabelle and Ewan who made the times outside of this process so important and reminded me how to prioritise and enjoy the time I did have free. Finally I would like to thank my husband Andy, without whom none of this would be possible. For on- going child-minding, helping me, placating me and generally providing unwavering support and encouragement throughout the last few years I will be forever grateful, and will never forget. Page 10 of 281 Abstract This research was designed to explore the relationship between violent video game play and attitudes towards victims. As the violent genre of games become more popular and as the graphics and content becomes even more realistic and immersive, there has been concern that this media form offers a different perspective on violence to players than more passive forms of media. Much of the research in the area of violent video game research has focused on changes in players in terms of aggressive behaviour, following exposure to these games. The present research was designed to explore any changes in affect and cognition, in terms of attitudes, that may be associated with video game play, and also to explore any factors that may moderate or mediate these changes in players, with a particular emphasis on adolescents and female gamers. The overall aims of the thesis were to establish i) the attitudes of gamers towards victims of crime ii) the role of moral disengagement strategies in violent video game play iii) the nature and experience of female violent video game play. The aims were addressed through four stages of linked research utilising a multi method design including a survey of adolescents (n=206), semi structured interviews (n=50), an online and paper survey (n=605) and analysis of a female gamer online discussion posts, in order to explore the impact of violent video game play The principal findings of this thesis noted young people who played violent video games reporting less concern for victims of crime, and attributed more blame to the victims of crime, particularly non serious victims and those that could be viewed as culpable for the crimes. While moral disengagement has been proposed as a mechanism through which people may justify immoral conduct, in the current studies the video game players were less likely than sports players to endorse moral disengagement strategies. They were found however to use a specific set of moral disengagement strategies (cognitive restructuring) than sports players and this may be related to the structures of the games, both virtual and sporting.
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