WARD, MONICA R., Ph.D. Little Tallassee: A Creek Indian Colonial Town. (2019) Directed by Dr. Greg O’Brien. 331 pp. This dissertation explores the role of the Upper Creek Indian town of Little Tallassee in Creek History, beginning with the town’s origins during the 1740s and 1750s and ending with its decline in the late 1780s and early 1790s. Little Tallassee is a unique place as it was a product of a colonial encounter and originated as a center of Euro- exchange and Atlantic trade. Yet under the leadership of headman and warrior Emistisiguo, Little Tallassee evolved into a prominent Creek town that saw the creation of a formal town structure as well as a ceremonial space in which to conduct international diplomacy and manage trade. The vast majority of American Indian histories of the Native South have attached Little Tallassee’s identity to its most notable resident, Alexander McGillivray, a mixed- ancestry Creek and arguably one of the most notable historical figures to emerge out of the American Southeast. Contrary to existing historiography, I argue that Alexander McGillivray was first and foremost a trader who held little political authority within Creek society. An examination of the town’s history reveals Emistisiguo to have been the individual most responsible for Little Tallassee’s prominence as a Creek town within Creek society. McGillivray’s activities actually contributed to the town’s subsequent decline. Placing Little Tallassee at the forefront of Creek and colonial American historiography challenges the current scholarship on Alexander McGillivray’s power and authority and restores agency to Creek Indians at the local level in their own domestic and foreign affairs. Scholars have cast their gaze far too long at western-educated mestizos and cultural brokers like Alexander McGillivray, and as a result have obscured other Native architects of diplomacy and trade who dominated the economic and social realms of Indian societies throughout the eighteenth century. By restoring credit to Emistisiguo as the engineer behind the transformation of Little Tallassee from a mere trading post to a leading Upper Creek town and center of diplomacy, this dissertation addresses this significant oversight in Creek and Southeastern Indian historiography. LITTLE TALLASSEE: A CREEK INDIAN COLONIAL TOWN by Monica R. Ward A Dissertation Submitted to the Faculty of The Graduate School at The University of North Carolina at Greensboro in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy Greensboro 2019 Approved by Greg O’Brien Committee Chair © 2019 Monica R. Ward To my loving parents, James and Jill Ward To the memory of my Grandfathers Al Niedzwicki (1932-2014) James R. Ward Sr. (1927-2011) ii APPROVAL PAGE This dissertation, written by Monica R. Ward, has been approved by the following committee of the Faculty of The Graduate School at The University of North Carolina at Greensboro. Committee Chair Greg O’Brien Committee Members Colleen Kriger Mark Elliott Peter Villella February 8, 2019 Date of Acceptance by Committee February 8, 2019 Date of Final Oral Examination iii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I am overwhelmed by the generous support I have received from scholars, institutions, colleagues, friends, and family in order to complete this dissertation. It seems like only yesterday I scribbled in my high school year book that I wanted to be a history professor. This dissertation is a step toward achieving that dream. The following acknowledgements are my attempt to express my gratitude to all who have been a part of this process. I am indebted to my mentor and committee chair, Greg O’Brien, for his advice, wisdom, and support. This dissertation is the product of countless drafts and revisions that he read over patiently, providing copious notes and invaluable feedback. I am humbled to have worked with such a great mind, scholar, and historian. Thank you, Greg, for taking a chance on me and granting me the opportunity to become the historian I have always longed to be. I could not have asked for a better dissertation committee. Mark Elliott provided insight that enabled me to convey the larger historical significance of Little Tallassee. Peter Villella’s knowledge of Ethnohistory assisted in my interrogation of European and American sources, which enabled me to extract and subsequently bring Creek voices to the forefront of my study. Colleen Kriger’s extensive knowledge of historical linguistics, oral traditions, and Native Institutions strengthened my larger argument. Perhaps, most of all, I am grateful for the encouragement and enthusiasm each committee member provided throughout the process. iv Friends have been a vital part of life and in many ways are responsible for the completion of this dissertation. Virginia (Ginny) Summey, my former colleague and now an accomplished historian, made me feel at home in the South. Finette-Llerman Russak is the strongest person I know and inspired me to believe a similar strength lay within myself. I am forever indebted to my physician Eugene Eskow. He saved my life, and without him this dissertation simply would not have been possible. It is with open arms that I thank my dear friend and former professor, Camilla Townsend. Outside of my family, I cannot think of one person who has been more supportive of my dreams than Cami. I am grateful to have benefited from many years of her guidance and wisdom. My greatest debts are those I owe to my family. The memories of my grandfathers, Al Niedzwicki and James Ward Sr., are fresh in my mind as is their love for the subject of history. My grandmother, Jeanine Ward, is the most enthusiastic person I know. Her positive attitude is infectious and I am grateful to have benefited from it throughout my life and graduate career. I am equally grateful to my only sibling, Jennifer Rakhit. I smile when I think about our long walks on cool autumn days at the Manasquan Reservoir. My sister always listened patiently while I attempted to overcome the challenges of writer’s block by talking about my chapters out loud and I am thankful for her thoughtful advice. I am additionally thankful towards my two aunts, Jan Spohn and Nancy Niedzwicki Hollabaugh. The encouragement they have provided over the years has given me a confidence in myself that I never knew I had. My Great Dane, John v ‘Quincy’ Adams, has offered me his paw, a listening ear, and a loving gaze as I continued to plug away day and night at this dissertation. Lastly, I would like to thank my mother and father, Jill and James Ward. I cannot adequately put into words the gratitude I have for my parents for the countless sacrifices they have made, financially and emotionally, to support my dream of becoming a historian. My parents have taught me the definition of unconditional love and for that I will always be truly grateful. This dissertation is for them. vi TABLE OF CONTENTS Page LIST OF FIGURES ......................................................................................................... viii CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................1 II. PEOPLE AND PLACES ....................................................................................34 III. TRADE AND DIPLOMACY 1761-1765 ..........................................................97 IV. WAR 1765-1776 ...............................................................................................142 V. REVOLUTION 1776-1783 ..............................................................................194 VI. A NEW LEADER? ...........................................................................................238 VII. CONCLUSION .................................................................................................310 BIBLIOGRAPHY ............................................................................................................322 APPENDIX A. PERMISSION TO USE MAPS AND OTHER SOURCES .................330 vii LIST OF FIGURES Page Figure 1. Creek Country during the Eighteenth Century ..................................................41 Figure 2. Bernard Romans, “A Draught of the Upper Creek Nation,” May 1757 (Small Maps), William L. Clements Library, The University of Ann Arbor, MI ......................................................................................................46 Figure 3. William Bonar, “A Draught of the Upper Creek Nation,” May 1757, (Manuscript Maps) William L. Clements Library, The University of Ann Arbor, MI ..............................................................................................47 Figure 4. Caleb Swan’s Sketch of the Junction of the Coosa and Tallapoosa Rivers from His Visit in 1791 Highlights the Details of Alexander McGillivray’s Plantation ...............................................................................51 Figure 5. Formal Boundaries of Georgia and Adjacent British Colonies, 1764- 1776 .............................................................................................................107 Figure 6. Map of Creek Country and Trade Paths ..........................................................113 Figure 7. Map of the Province of West Florida ..............................................................228 Figure 8. The Taking of Pensacola, Engraved by H. G. Berteaux and Nicolas Ponce, Paris, 1784 .......................................................................................233 viii 1 CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION The Upper Creek town of Little Tallassee