Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities Review (JSSHR) Vol. 3, Issue. 2 (101-123) © Author(s) June 2018 ISSN: 2279-3933

FROM DEFICIENCY TO AFFLUENCE: DYNAMICS OF KANDYAN PEASANTRIES AND THE RISE OF RURAL ELITE IN K.A Samitha Udayanga1

Abstract During the past few decades, enormous changes in Kandyan 1 Department of peasantries have caused its restructuration, though some significant Sociology, University older structures still remain intact swaying people’s behaviour. For example, attitudes toward the caste have been changed of Ruhuna-Sri Lanka tremendously, but again it plays a significant role in contemporary rural Sri Lanka. Therefore, this paper focuses on how people in [email protected] Kandyan peasantries have been involved in the market-oriented m development process, and in particular, why the low-caste people in Kandyan highland peasantries benefitted from education, once they https://orcid.org/0000- have secured their economic gains while the high caste people have 0002-9826-691X not. The research conducted using ethnomethodology reveals that the rural sector in Sri Lanka has undergone a convincing transition, while some traditional institutions were preserved. Within this transition, as the authoritative identity of the high caste people disturbed their education, in turn, prevented their upward mobility that of the low caste communities. Moreover, the market economy stimulated the upward mobility of low caste people in the contemporary Kandyan peasantries. As the market economy prevails in the country, some specific tasks performed by the low became market-oriented that and hastened the rise of rural elite from the low castes in Kandyan peasantries. The life of low caste elite then became stable and inspired them to drive toward a prestigious social status, during which education provided necessary means. Keywords: Caste System, Education, Elitism, Entrepreneurship, Kandyan Peasantries, Rationality

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INTRODUCTION Even though it is believed that the modern “Rationality” is an epistemologically society is being administered by so-called positioned argument by which modernity is rational values and principles (Weber, justified and has been adopted in 1947), still some significant factors, out of understanding people’s everyday lives in rational-realm, are highly influential the modern day (Shah, 2012). Though it is (Paramsothy, 2018). Caste is one among rather possible to argue that the concept of them. Many anthropologists understand the rationality is a quality which emanates caste system as a traditional stratification intrinsically from the society as it evolves system that cannot be defined in line with acquiring material growth and ideological modernity since rationality is not applicable sophistication, discrete extraction of to the caste system (Douwe van der Ploeg, irrationality is practically impossible since 2010) since ‘Rationality’ defined by human action is difficult to determine by modern philosophers clearly distinguish it way of rationality or irrationality, and from what laypersons perceive as rational. hence the human action would be a product [Note: Rationality and Irrationality are major of socially justified rationality, that is sociological concepts theorized by Max comprehended as rational solely by lay Weber(Weber, 1947). Rationality of the society persons (Chung, 2013; Tepicht, 1975). is not just a spontaneous result, but an outcome However, ‘rationality’ defined in of a historical development of a particular modernism is clearly distinguished from society with specific affiliations with science lay perceptions, though it seems to have and technology. In fact, rational institutions are interconnections between rationality and clearly distinguished from irrational societal irrationality. Education, a more rational structures such as caste, race and the kind.] On the contrary, “class” is identified as a institution, for example, might intersects modern stratification system, since it can be with the caste resulting unexpected understood through rational principles consequences even in modern and complex delineated by some social anthropologists urban societies. (Ember & Ember, 2015). Rationality is one Moreover, as the nation-state is engaged in of the main characteristics, which a rational policy-making process, to ensure distinguishes modern societies from that the development of the country is traditional societies. However, both rational achieved has become the ultimate objective and irrational factors are equally important of its political agenda. Since decolonization in understanding human action, since of the country, national leaders have strived human interactions do not depend solely on to develop the country in many dimensions. deliberate rational or irrational thinking In this process, a systematic human (Moran, 2000). Beliefs on which intervention with a justification through laypersons relied in a society are always rational principles was required, and hence rational to them, but nevertheless, those economic measures came forward at the beliefs can perhaps be reinterpreted as outset of the development discourse as it irrational by an outsider provided that comprises of rational principles such as nonconventional and contextual-insensitive causation (Desai & Potter, 2011). Although methods were employed though they can be the development process goes about in line more scientific (Husserl, 1965; Rescher, with rational principles, the challenging 2003). Living experiences of people are, issue is to involve people since they comply therefore, more important since people with lay-specific rationalities over imposed often comprehend those experiences are modern rationalities (Shiva, 1991). more rational to them (Schutz, 1977).

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So-called rational interventions, therefore, The administrative interventions in rural Sri might be reinterpreted in accordance with Lanka did not emphasize any ascribed perceived rationality by laypersons, that statuses theoretically, though in the practice would result in unexpected consequences. it is associated with conventional social structures (Robinson, 2007). The Furthermore, as the globalization, a rational regulations instructed administrators to and inevitable process prevails, every select suitable peasants to some rural corner of the world might experience administrative positions were purely made significant changes alongside challenges on the qualification basis, but the (Eckes & Zeiler, 2003; Giddens, 2003; administrative positions (such as Held, 2004; Held, McGrew, Glodblatt, & agricultural instructors in rural Sri Lanka) Perraton, 1999; Stiglitz, 2002). were allocated to the high caste people Globalization reshapes the world. Global since the social structure did not support capital accumulation alongside otherwise. This disturbed many aspects of technological networking provides the social organization including economy, necessary means for the globalization, religion and politics of rural Sri Lanka. which is also interpreted as a more rational Furthermore, as confusions of this process (Giddens, 2003). Globalization transition highly affected conventional brought several unprecedented changes in social structures, peasants adopted new the third world and had challenged many value systems in their every day lives to go irrational structures (such as caste) and along with the changing society (Spencer, harnessed the mobility of people (Beteille, 1990). Rationality, therefore, shall be 2015; Leach, 1960; Roberts, 1995). interpreted not in accordance with Sometimes, as existing structure changes, modernity but based on people’s perception unprecedented troubles too emerged in relation to their everyday experiences. particularly in peasantries in Sri Lanka [note: As Raghavan (1957) specifies that (Robinson, 2007; Spencer, 1990; Uphoff, rodiyas (Rodi or Gadi is the lowest caste in the 1992). Furthermore, upward mobilization Sinhalese caste hierarchy) perceive of peasantries has been largely supported themselves as a special and important group by prevailing global values emanating from in the society while other high caste people the systematically established education consider themselves inferior. This asserts system, which in turn reinforced that perceptions of being a member of a inculcating the mode of modern thoughts in particular caste or a group are significant in the rural people. Peasantries in Sri Lanka understanding people’s behaviour.] too were influenced by the re-systematized global education during the past two This makes it clear that rational decades, due to interventions by global interventions such as development cannot institutions such as UNICEF and UNDP separate from practices of the people, (UNDP, 2017). which are more rational to them though they might not be rational in the modern As Robinson (2007) posits rational political sphere. Many studies show that rational and administrative interventions after the institutions might intersect with irrational 1950’s in Sri Lanka, highly impacted on the institutions, as they are interconnected rural society. Traditional political within the social structure. Education like structures, particularly administrative rational institutions, therefore, might institutions of many rural societies were support upward mobility of the low caste changed, but consequences were people without considering conventional unexpectedly severe (Robinson, 2007). and ascribed identities, consequently, caste structure would reappear even in the

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Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities Review (JSSHR) Vol. 3, Issue. 2 (101-123) © Author(s) June 2018 ISSN: 2279-3933 modern society with new faces prosperity, which in turn challenged and (Paramsothy, 2018). This paper will, questioned the existing social structure in therefore, investigate how education has many Kandyan peasantries. contributed in the achievement of economic

Map 1: Ceylon Map showing Kandyan highlands, the 1900s

Source: 4th edition of Meyers Konversationslexikon (1885–90)

LITERATURE REVIEW but less success in non-European countries since the contextual mismatch (Frank, Caste and Rural Development 1993). However, developing countries had no choice except complying with the Since the British government imposed the colonial administration in order to seek the capitalism on the society in spite of having nation’s development. Therefore, a feudalistic identity in the country, it failed colonization can be considered as the to initiate its own industrialization predecessor of all phenomenal causes of (Jayawardena, 2000). The industrialization social change including globalization, made most of the countries opulent, but urbanization, modernization and nevertheless resulted in unexpected social liberalization (McLeod, 2010; Patel, 2017). pathologies (Bandarage, 2007). Development with industrialization inflates As conventional values hold out while the economic growth, implying the social modern values prevail widely over the development at last (Frederick, 1991). This country due to different global forces, the was more successful in European countries, rural society in Sri Lanka has undergone as it emerged within the European context,

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Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities Review (JSSHR) Vol. 3, Issue. 2 (101-123) © Author(s) June 2018 ISSN: 2279-3933 many changes confronting several particularly twisted around the caste challenges in terms of development and system. The Kandyan rural societies still stability (Silva, 1999; Spencer, 1990). More search for those caste functionalities, and than any other reason, globalization has which is likely to have some importance in steadily affected the rural society reshaping the social order of peasantries. its existing social structure (Cruickshank, Furthermore, the caste system comprises of Lysgård, & Magnussen, 2009; Henegedara, a strong socio-economic dimension and 2012). The process of ‘Rural Development’ particularly entwined with the rational has been one of the interventions supported social institutions such as education, health by global agendas. The concept of and the kind. Seemingly, education is also development is identified as rational, associated with caste like irrational though the implementation goes ahead on institutions in rural Sri Lanka. irrational societal structures, especially in rural areas (Manogaran, 1974). Therefore, Prosperity, Community and Rational those so-called rational interventions Institutions through which rural development This research mainly focuses on how low programmes brought in, have struggled caste people became the rural elite, quite with inescapable socially constructed opposed to the foreseeable high castes in obstacles emanated from the rural social Kandyan peasantries. This was not just a structure. For example, IRDP (Integrated result of a single-linear process, but a by- Rural Development Programme in Sri product of acquiring education, once the Lanka) was more often bore upon by caste low caste people became economically like conventional social structures. stable in the contemporary market Rural development as a successful economy. Therefore, how peasants development approach had been introduced comprehend prosperity or economic to Sri Lanka even before the 1980’s in stability alongside material development is which community development principles worth delineating. were introduced (Chambers, 1983, 1997). “Prosperity” is identified as the ultimate Later, community development alongside goal of human life, which in turn makes some other government-driven community people more self-reliant (Rogers, 1980). development projects strived to involve Except for a few qualities, prosperity is not peasants in the Kandyan highlands, in universal since the prosperity highly particular, consequently, social structure depends upon peoples’ perceived was reorganized (Uphoff, 1992). So that experiences, for example having a vehicle irrespective of the modern intervention, might inflate the self-efficacy in a society, ascribed social structures like the caste on the contrary in a different context the system were associated with many same case might not inflates the self- development projects on the whole efficacy. The prosperity, therefore, can be (Scudder, 1997, 2005; Uphoff, 1992). considered as a perceived fullness that is However, the ways in which different caste aligned with socio-cultural experiences; groups interacted with these development this is what makes the difference in the interventions were quite different. perception of rationality in different The feudalistic ideology was not contexts. transformed into a considerable extent with Some argue that prosperity is the expected structural transformation of the country wellbeing and which is threefold, i.e. even after the British colonization and post- Physical, Social and Psychological colonization (Jayawardena, 2000; Roberts, (Maslow, 1956). Until recently, measures 1995) so that, every aspect of peasantries used in gauging prosperity were those influenced by that ideology, which is economic indexes, and hence some

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Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities Review (JSSHR) Vol. 3, Issue. 2 (101-123) © Author(s) June 2018 ISSN: 2279-3933 significant social determinants of As a peasant society, Sri Lankan village prosperity were neglected. Therefore, demonstrates the importance of understanding the multidimensionality of togetherness to the individualism, since the prosperity, that look into different social structure has long been constructed measurements is important since this by common effort or through social capital. research posits that caste like so-called Since the present situation is a result of irrational institutions might help reaching historical developments, when developing prosperity within rural communities. rural societies in Sri Lanka, the past would be a decisive determinant (Ouellette & Even though there are different types of Wood, 1998). Caste, a product of the development approaches, the historical development of the society is, entrepreneurial approach is considered to therefore, likely to affect present social be a micro-level, self-driven mechanism currents. which enhances peoples’ capability so as to reach the expected prosperity. “Expected The socio-cultural orientation of a society Prosperity” is highly contextual and influences how much entrepreneurship specific, therefore, expected prosperity there is within a community. Different might be different from one society to levels of entrepreneurship may stem from another. Any small-scale or grass-root cultural differences that make activity that drives toward expected entrepreneurship more or less rewarding prosperity would be an entrepreneurial task, personally (Drucker, 1985). For example, a that more often requires community culture that accords high status to the “self- participation and social capital. For some efficacy”, the individual is more likely to economists, the entrepreneur is one who is encourage entrepreneurship, resulting in willing to bear the risks of a new venture if prosperity. Notwithstanding, there is a significant chance for profit. entrepreneurship is not a personal thing, but Schumpeter (1994) views entrepreneurship can be encouraged through social capital or as a force of ‘creative destruction’. The common effort. Culture and social context, entrepreneur carries out ‘new therefore are inevitable aspects of combinations’ thereby help rendering old entrepreneurship which help to achieve endeavours obsolete. These are highly expected prosperity, because culture economic descriptions, but risk-bearing represents every aspect of a social structure capacity and profit-seeking mindset are two and organization, it might include every of the significant characteristics in which rational and irrational institution, that is the caste system involves in. Therefore, perhaps difficult to separate, and hence it though entrepreneurial activities are highly might influence how people act and make understood as rational, the influencing decisions in achieving expected prosperity. social structure comprises of rational and irrational institutions can be a matter of The outcomes of an action may direct concern to many anthropologists toward prosperity if it accords with rational (Jayawardena, 2000; Roberts, 1995). principles, though the defined and perceived rationality of a particular Drucker (1985), took the above idea community may be different from another. further, describing an entrepreneur as one The rationality is justified more who actually searches for change, responds appropriately by the community in which to it, and exploits change as an opportunity. the expected prosperity stems. Therefore, The entrepreneurship seems like a new any action, which helps achieving term, as if it did not exist even though prosperity, might be termed as community members of traditional entrepreneurship, a more rational process. societies sought for changes, responded to It is, therefore, clear that so-called irrational it and exploited change as an opportunity. institutions, however, may influence so-

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Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities Review (JSSHR) Vol. 3, Issue. 2 (101-123) © Author(s) June 2018 ISSN: 2279-3933 called rational processes since they link-up regulations for each profession (Hussein, together within the social structure. 2013; Silva, 2014). Caste, Entrepreneurship and Education The caste system in Sri Lanka is different from the Indian caste system, as the Caste is defined “as a small and named profession determines the caste rather than group of persons characterized by religious justifications. Caste divides the endogamy, hereditary membership and a society into strata, but unlike in India, Sri specific style of life which sometimes Lankan caste stratification is a complex includes the pursuit by tradition of a one, since constructing an appropriate particular occupation and is usually hierarchal system is rather difficult. associated with a more or less distinct ritual However, Yalman (1967) proposed a status in a hierarchical system”(Beteille, hierarchy which can be used to understand 2015, p. 45). Stratification, furthermore, the caste system particularly in up-country can be described as one indispensable rural areas in Sri Lanka. He argues that aspect of a society and hence at least gender different castes cannot be positioned in a stratification can be seen, though hierarchy since the dignity is relative to speculatively all other stratification systems each other. Even though, it is possible to can disappear. As many anthropologists make a hierarchy, making out a feature of posit, caste has been one of the stratification every caste based on their dignity is systems which originated directly from the difficult. He, therefore, introduces a caste social system (Dumont, 1972; Hutton, hierarchy comprises of four different levels. 1946; Nanjundayya & Iyer, 1928). Any On top of the hierarchy, religious leaders institution like the caste system of a society are placed, since their caste identity is likely may function as long as it provides a to have disappeared, however, entrants to function to the society (Fortes & Pritchard, the religious domain are strictly limited by 1940), so that, there are several lay caste norms (Yalman, 1967). Then so- justifications as to why caste system is still called high caste or cultivators (govigama) preserved, though it does not concord with can be placed beneath the religious leaders. modern rationalities. To exemplify, Thereafter, so-called low castes relative to justifies the caste system in govigama (Cultivators) are altogether India, whereas for Sri Lankans it is the considered as service caste and placed profession castes bring off. The integrity of under the govigama caste. The bottom layer several professions and the smooth of hierarchy constitutes most polluted functioning of the social system in the castes such as rodi and gattara. This is a country highly depended on the caste more empirical delineation of the caste system since it provided rules and system particularly in Kandyan peasantries in Sri Lanka. Table 1: Caste hierarchy in a Kandyan village

Buddhist Monks Govigama Caste

Service Castes: Berava, Wahumpura, Nawandanna, Hunu, Pedi, Hannali,Rada

Most Polluted Castes: Rodi and Gattara

Source : (Yalman, 1967)

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Identifying a particular group of people 1999) have critically described issues relatively high or low is highly around caste system and its new faces, controversial since it is difficult to pinpoint which influence societies tremendously. qualifiers in labelling a person or a group. However, peoples’ life-world experiences Early classical anthropological accounts can be used as general guidelines in order such as “Under the Bo Tree”, “Pul Eliya”, to make out the societal placement ( high or “Land Tenure in Village Ceylon”, “Caste in low) of a particular group in the society Modern Ceylon”, more often discussed the (Husserl, 1965; Luckman, 1978). nature of the caste system alongside its Philosophically it would be difficult to importance, and further asserted the justify the placement of castes, though the significance of that caste system in the placement has always been justified by social order. Nonetheless, changes of castes laypersons. Yalman (1967) appropriates the and its relationship with modern and ethnomethodology in order to understand rational structures were studied by Roberts up-country caste system in Sri Lanka, and (1995) based on low-country caste system it was explained that exact placement of and elitism, a phenomenal study. Roberts middle level or service castes can be argues that the Karave Caste of low- difficult to identify since their position country Sri Lanka climbed-up over other might be variant according to the persons’ high castes due to wealth accumulation perceptions and experiences (Pieris, 1956). under the colonial administration (Roberts, However, the position of the high caste 1995). This argument further exemplified people (govigama) and mostly polluted by Jayawardena (2000) specifying that castes (rodi and gattara) have never nobodies including low castes had later changed. The best way, therefore, is to become somebodies owing to the wealth prepare a caste hierarchy in relation to they accumulated through various colonial govigama and most polluted castes. enterprises. Jayawardena (2000), furthermore studied how caste identity Caste, some anthropologists argued as a set influenced gaining prestige and which in of rules and regulations for the integrity of turn uplifts the status of low castes, which professions (Leach, 1960, 1961; Srinivas, helps them exploit chances of the society 1962, 2003), whereas some argue that caste including political positions and higher comprises of a moral order which governs positions in branded enterprises. every aspect of people’s behaviour (Dumont, 1972). Marxist anthropologists Changing identities of castes significantly would prefer to look at caste as a influenced the political power as to whom stratification system which discriminates should be given the responsibility and people (Redfield, 1956; Wolf, 1966). authority to exert it. Politics is all about acquiring power and making decisions. As far as studies on the caste system in Sri Politics plays an important role in every Lanka is concerned, some significant corner of an organized society. Though the studies have been conducted in line with a acquiring power and making decisions are cultural-anthropological perspective. interrelated, sometimes they can be However, most of them are highly separated but consequently, anarchy may conscious of the importance of the caste be stemmed (Castells, 2010). Elitism, a system. They also strived to understand its concept which introduces a group of people relevance in the contemporary Kandyan who have the decision making power peasantries. Some of the studies, provided that they are comprised of furthermore, have been conducted to reveal economic, social and political prestige, can changes in the caste and its impact on be identified in situations where acquiring human behaviour. Even today, some power and decision making are separated researchers (Paramsothy, 2018; Silva, (Fierlbeck, 1991; Mills, 1956).

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As the British invasion changes the society imparting or acquiring general knowledge, in many ways, it also caused the political developing the power of reasoning and stability of the country alongside the judgment, and generally of preparing economic prosperity, since the invasion oneself or others intellectually for mutual severely challenged the existing caste life (Gelpi, Shimahara, & Ipfling, 2017; system by introducing arbitrary non- Harber, 2014; UNESCO, 2016). Even contextualized policies such as the though education is considered a highly abandonment of Royal Tributary System rational process, it links up with irrational (Rajakari Kramaya). [Note: Rājakāriya institutions, since it functions on a society was a political system in ancient Ceylon that where rational and irrational institutions are was based on feudalism in which the king and interrelated. other aristocratic people were given prominence. Offering a royal tributary, a Typical caste system had been preserved responsibility of all people, carried out the for a long period in Kandyan peasantries feudal system in ancient Sri Lanka. This was unlike that of the low-country, as invasions solely performed by the caste system. The land, of British rulers were not succeeded until a scarce resource in the Kandyan Kingdom was 1815 (Pieris, 1956). However once the distributed among different castes as a Kandyan kingdom was captured by British permeant wage, so that people were bound to rulers, many changes took place in the apportion of their labour and profit from lands, and supposed to tribute to the King, in Kandyan highland peasantries. Even the sense political system of the country was though in the name of rationality, several functioned on the basis of tributary system]. government interventions took place in This influenced the low country caste terms of rural development, the people have system and low-castes had given the chance experienced various unexpected obstacles to rise since their profession was quite (Henegedara, 2012; Scudder, 2005; aligned with entrepreneurial principles that Uphoff, 1992). In spite of those obstacles, could not be seen in other castes. Karave( rational interventions somehow encouraged Fishermen), Durave (Distillers) and some peasants, particularly the low caste (Cinnamon Producers) had been people to enrich life chances utilizing their really aligned with the expectation of professional capabilities in the market foreign rulers such as Dutch and British economy. This was furthered due to (Bieddermann & Strathern, 2017). vernacular school education prevailed in Therefore, those caste groups escalated Kandyan highlands, after 1960’s public their status mostly through economic gains policy reforms of the country (Robinson, or wealth accumulation. Later, they 2007). struggled for political power and were able Kandyan highlands of the country had to achieve it, and hence they could act as remained untouched by foreign invaders for elite, however, they could exert the many decades, unlike many low country achieved power only after accompanying peasantries in the country; therefore, people high caste families through marriages, and of the low country experienced several they gained prestige through it, which changes within the colonial period when otherwise could not (Jayawardena, 2000). compared to Kandyan people. Due to At the inception of the class formation administrative and economic policies based on specific castes, education did not introduced by the British government, the play a major role, but later it did in order to low country peasantries became acquire the prestige, even in low country modernized, and hence elite formation in peasantries (Roberts, 1995). Education is a line with traditional caste identities powerful tool to acquire achieved status, bespoke. On the contrary, in Kandyan which stimulates the self-efficacy of the peasantries, though some government people. Education is the act or process of interventions took place after 1815 AD,

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Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities Review (JSSHR) Vol. 3, Issue. 2 (101-123) © Author(s) June 2018 ISSN: 2279-3933 people in remote areas were reluctant to interventions in many different ways. stand with those British policies. During this period how Kandyan Consequently, several insurgencies have peasantries have involved in the market- emerged in early and mid ninetieth century oriented development process, and in of the Kandyan kingdom. Those uprisings particular why the low caste people in were not just movements against the British Kandyan highland peasantries benefitted administration but were a representation of from education, once they have secured troublesome transitions in the social their economic gains whereas the high caste structure in rural areas of the country. Since people could not do is quite an intriguing reflections toward the British problem that is worth investigating, administration in up-country Sri Lanka therefore. were quite nontolerant, the transformation of its structure had some differences that of The objective of the study, therefore, is to the low country caste system in Sri Lanka. understand how low caste people in a Importantly, elite formation and rural Kandyan village adapted their mindset to development appeared to be different from acquire economic benefits in the market the low-country situation in Sri Lanka. economy. However, class formation promoted by METHODOLOGY caste identities, particularly in Kandyan Meanings of social action emanate from peasantries has not been studied thoroughly everyday life-world reasoning, but not through a cultural anthropological beyond it (Garfinkle, 1967). The perspective except for a few studies responsibility of a researcher is, therefore, conducted to understand caste and its to find out that lay perspective on social functions within the social organization. actions, by capturing a complete picture. This research, therefore, endeavoured to Therefore, conventional knowledge in help understand how class formation which laypersons understandings are (promoted by caste identities) came off as a involved, shall be revealed in order to by-product of rural development processes understand the reality. Meanings of that include educational interventions, people’s action in a structured society are which is in fact, a mechanism of legitimized by themselves, but not by intensifying modern values in rural areas. theoretical explanations produced Problem and Objective of the Study (Garfinkle, 1967). Therefore, ethnomethodology was employed as the Peasantries in Kandyan highlands have methodology in this research. Since the undergone numerous changes over the past objective of this research was to identify few decades due to various reasons, though how Kandyan caste system has been interventions by the government in terms of restructured, once the forces of development brought up some benefits. globalization came into rural societies, After 1978, it was obvious that different therefore, how laypersons have perceived policy reforms impacted on the rural social their social situation must be revealed. The structure, particularly in Kandyan most suitable methodology, therefore, highlands, as most of the development would be the ethnomethodology. projects directed toward and more focused on up-country peasantries (Scudder, 2005). Though Kandyan highlands have For about several decades, since Kandyan undergone several changes during the past peasantries in Sri Lanka had preserved its few decades, there are some peasantries inherent and historically developed social still preserved. So that, following the structure and constricted foreign invasions, guidelines provided by ethnomethodology even after decolonization, that traditional a field study was carried out in five social structure affected rural development traditional villages in divisional

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Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities Review (JSSHR) Vol. 3, Issue. 2 (101-123) © Author(s) June 2018 ISSN: 2279-3933 secretariat (a remote rural area located in development interventions considerably District). Rasingolla, have not reached these people, in the sense, Dambagolla, Karndagolla and Kotambe high caste people were not involved in are four adjacent villages of this area; those development-related activities as therefore, the researcher stayed at a village those were considered more universal, house for about two weeks (December, which disqualified conventional structures 2017) and collected data. Then, Teripaha, a like ascribed status, that feared those high remote village of the area have been studied caste people, as they would dispossess their (One week, January, 2018). Interviews and traditional authoritative identity. High caste direct observation methods were employed people, therefore, did not involve those in the data collection phase. The collected rational interventions, because they were data thus were analyzed thematically. just satisfied with the inherited prosperity aliened to dignity and identity from FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION generation to generation. This is quite a hidden case to the knowledge already The social organization of rural Sri Lanka existing. has undergone several changes while preserving some traditional institutions Many development interventions have during the transitional period after catered to high caste people since they are neoliberal reforms introduced. Once in a more advantageous position, though it neoliberal reforms were introduced, though has not been the case in the studied area. several changes took place in Kandyan Non-Governmental Organizations were peasantries, some traditional institutions seriously conscious about matters regarding have not been diminished as they the low caste communities and provided significantly influenced the social structure. necessary facilities to enrich their well- As people’s identity and experiences came being. This appears to be a positive from their relationship with those discrimination of achieving justice; traditional structures, people were strongly however, those so-called high caste reluctant to accede with unconventional communities were not only discriminated practices. This was why some conventional but were ideologically readjusted not to social structures influenced unconventional seek mobility, since they ideally believed or novel interventions in the rural society. that they were the highest. Therefore, the Furthermore, since neoliberal policies were mobility of the Kandyan high caste imposed on the feudal social structure in Sri communities has been lessening when Lanka, later development interventions too compared to the low caste communities of brought some benefits, though that bespoke Kandyan highlands. some inequalities, because inequalities in traditional rural society were again affected Particularly many women in high caste the rural development process. Findings groups (Govigama: Nilamakkara and Govi) furthermore reveal that neoliberal could not attend schools, because the mode interventions in the contemporary Kandyan of thought constructed in line with the caste peasantries have altered the conventional or identity did not allow it. traditional social structure largely. I can remember that schooling was Identity, Mobilization and Education restricted to me. My mother also did not have any positive idea toward Due to its traditional and authoritative schooling. They thought that it was identity, high caste communities could not appropriate to her status (since she was mobilize upwardly like that of the low a kumari hamy [a high caste woman]), castes. Inherently high caste groups had a and we were able-bodied in the sense socially accepted and justified dignity and we could possible survive without identity. Therefore, seemingly rural having education, at that time. Unlike

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today, we did not think education to be resulted in dissatisfaction in latter stages of a necessary thing. Many girls in my their lives. family did not enter schools. This was quite similar to many govigama Nandawati [person’s name] together Families in our village. (Woman, 56) with some other wahumpura (a low caste) girls came to the school in this This makes sense that intersections are village, so my father suggested me to highly influential on how people behave in go to the school in the near city, the society. Caste is not just a discrete because he did not like to see me stratification system, and it intersects with playing and get along with low caste other societal stratification systems. Caste people (Adu kule Minissu). As intersects the gender stratification, in the suggested, just I went to the City high sense caste is gendered. Gender is socially school, but it was quite difficult, as I had to travel every day for a long constructed in which identities and roles of distance. Therefore, after SSC male and female are specified, and hence Examination (now Ordinary Level or the caste influences men and women Grade 11 examination) I refrain from differently. This is quite evident in attending the school. Now I regret that Kandyan rural areas too. The high caste improvident decision, when I look at women were considered more prestigious Nandawati teaches at this village and have not exposed to the public since it school. At that time, I did not realize was highly believed that women might the importance of the education, nor cause caste contamination. The structural my parents; but we had much money. arrangement of the rural society favoured Now I am just a housewife who cooks men in the purity of caste, as contamination and does household chores. However, Nandawati like low caste women went might happen probably due to misconduct up. (Woman, 53) of women, who would bear a child by a caste-exogamic parson (a person outside the The high caste people were not conscious caste). on outcomes of the education, as they As conceived by Kandyan peasants, caste already possessed a substantial social status can be contaminated if a low caste man and they were the elite. Therefore, they did impregnates a high caste woman. In the not want to lose their identity by getting on past, high caste men were allowed to have with the low caste people. So that, women low caste women as concubines, but the of the high caste communities have not first woman to marry must be from a high exposed to the public sphere thereby caste. Low caste men can have concubines, deviating them from a formal education to but they were not allowed to marry high a considerable extent, and which resulted in caste women by the norm. Quite opposed to poverty, later. On the contrary, many low what Yalman (1964) observed, now caste girls have enjoyed quite a greater polyandry is not practised in these level of freedom in gaining a good peasantries, though some caste norms education that of the high caste girls, related to marriages still persist. Marriage- consequently, they acquired a self- related caste norms perhaps hinder satisfaction. women’s progress in peasantries in the All my family members made jaggery modern day. When compared to the low and sweets. In the mid 50’s caste women, the high caste women, government established a school in our therefore, held back from the public sphere village. So I went there, and I wanted particularly because of the marriage-related to be a teacher. Now I am a teacher in caste norms. Consequently, women from the same school. Fortunately, the high caste groups were held back from school was established very close to education institutions in rural areas; this my home. When it was established some govigama girls came, but

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eventually they did not. It was because captured by Ryan (Ryan, 1953). The they did not want to intermingle with specificity of the identity, one that us. But we girls from whumpura oppresses the low caste people encouraged (jaggery making) caste remained to search for a new identity, that was learning. (Woman, 52) supported by the market economy and Except for few cases, women in the high education, that of the high caste people. caste families kept out of the public sphere. Many high caste men too have not attended The high caste women just wanted to go schools as inherent aristocratic identity and along with traditional caste principles and societal prestige hindered them from they remained at home, and consequently, mixing with other caste people. They did their upward mobility was hindered. The not want to mingle with low caste members less mobility has resulted in the less in schools since that would have harmed advancement among high caste women. their aristocratic identity and the highly Women and even men were kept far from prestigious mindset. the modern education system, at the outset of rural development interventions due to I just wanted to go to a school. Exactly identity conflict among different caste I went, but I myself found that it was groups. The parents of high the caste difficult to intermingle with many low families were seriously conscious of their caste boys. Then I stopped schooling… aristocratic identity, and they did not like to Later I went to school in an urban area, renounce it, as though other benefits too however, that was also not very denounce at the same time. In addition, they comfortable since transportation facilities were very bad at that time. In continued to go with what they had been the end, I had to stop schooling and I doing for several generations, and children opted to take care of the family were expected to do the same thing. property. (Man, 42).

Some teachers from different areas were not very enthusiastic to teach us. Since many of them were from high

castes, they were reluctant to teach us. It was only after three times I passed

the SSC Examination. Nevertheless, I somehow entered the Peradeniya University later and became a teacher. It was quite a hard time. (Man, 46)

The inherited specific identity, on the other hand, encouraged the low caste people to go along with the market economy, thereby mobilizing their potentials to play an active role. Moreover, those low caste people strived to enrich their lives through economic gains acquired utilizing their professional potentials, so that they got along with modern rationalities, children from those communities too entered schools, as parents were so keen on the identity that can be achieved through education, in spite of having a high pressure from the high caste people. Aristocratic pressure and its impact on the low caste people in relation to education was clearly

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Picture 1: A Deteriorated Govigama house, Teripaha

Source: Author, Captured: 31st December, 2017

Alongside preserving their caste identities, modern market economy. They utilized men have to go along with professional their inherent professional abilities, activities, as an inherent responsibility, furthermore formal government education since they are considered to be active supported them, by and large, despite members of the patrilineal descent system. aristocratic oppression persisted to a Men, therefore, bear traditional considerable extent. professional responsibilities, and this would be more opportune to low caste men Caste, ideological change and elitism that of the high caste men, since high caste Two significant features that fudge together men are not specialized in any profession in the caste system in Kandyan peasantries are the traditional societal sphere except for the inherited profession and the agriculture and tobacco production. This professional identity, which presents in the indirectly helped the low caste men to public and private spheres. Bonded or the mobilize themselves in line with rational inherited profession demonstrates the interventions like rural development and material aspect of the caste, whereas education. For example, jaggery makers identity shows the ideological/subjective (wahumpura caste) who can make sweets aspect. Ideological aspect is rather and jaggery started small businesses such as important as it governs the behaviour of the “Sweet Stalls” that would bring money. people in such a way that the community This makes it clearer that being a member members are solidified. Identity might be of a low caste encouraged them to look for represented in the society with “high” or a new identity that does not oppress them “low-level” dignity relatively. The high longer. This was a collective ideology, and caste groups are likely to have high dignity, hence the low caste people more often on the contrary, low dignity with the low searched for new opportunities in the castes. The level of dignity can be identified

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Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities Review (JSSHR) Vol. 3, Issue. 2 (101-123) © Author(s) June 2018 ISSN: 2279-3933 as highly influential in rational beauty salon, it is a profitable interventions to rural development. As high enterprise. Anyway, my father still caste communities are comprised of a runs the laundry. (Man, 32) greater level of dignity, they just strived to The income was, furthermore, a matter of preserve their existing status complying caste identity in the past, now, however, it with existing norms and it did not require has been changed. Now class identity any arbitrary effort by peasants as the formation would be a result of economic norms were already there in the society. gains. Low caste groups did not have a At that time, washermen came home to prestigious identity, therefore they wash our clothes, despite having the struggled to become prestigious and ability to wash our clothes, our father benefitted group through education and instructed us not to do it and give those being entrepreneurs based on their caste clothes to washer-men. Moreover, they related capabilities. For example, Berava were just paid. Father might have people (tom-tom beaters) used their ability thought that it could be the to make income through providing wedding responsibility of washer-men to wash ceremony banquet services. Caste-based high caste people’s clothes. (Woman, occupations became prominent in the 40) market due to its specificity and necessity, The above excerpt demonstrates how a therefore service castes could engage in norm was prevailed and complied by the market-oriented income generating society. This can be interpreted using activities. structural functionalism (Fortes & Pritchard, 1940), though our endeavour is The reflections of peasant-life is another to identify to what extent the caste significant determinant, which determines influenced entrepreneurship of the people the structure of peasant social organization. which then enhanced by the government What people perceive being a member of education, giving rise to rural elite those the society, particularly in a caste group who were influential in making decisions in affects how they behave in that society. rural societies, later on. Low caste Though it seemed the low caste people communities sought for a high dignity by identified themselves as inferior to high any mean, but at first, it was difficult to castes, they have not interrogated it since challenge the ideology since it had been they were just adjusted to the social constructed over a long societal history. structure and lived with it. So that Therefore, it seems that they directed their unconsciously, low castes were more often consciousness toward material gains at suppressed, but they did not perceive their first, as it would obviously align with situation as bad. In addition, no opportunity modern-rational principles in the formation was available for them to come out of the of class identities, in the market-oriented stamped identity since social structure society. inherently favoured the high caste people. However, when the market economy I am from the washer-man (rada) caste. entered the rural society, the suppressed Now I am running a Beauty Salon. I low castes began to compare themselves earned a diploma from an institute. My with those who enjoy equal rights. This was father told me that he did not have a where the peasant’s status quo ideology sufficient knowledge except for transformed. washing clothes, so he started a laundry. Through that he earned money. Then he came to the city of this area and set-up a house. However, I do not like to run a laundry. Therefore, I earned a diploma and now running a

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Picture 2: Newly constructed shrine at the Buddhist temple, Teripaha

Source: Author, Captured: 31st December 2017

The ideological transformation stimulated class in peasantries, since they possessed a them to think beyond existing structural substantial amount of monetary capital that boundaries so that low castes started to affects the social structure of peasantries. mobilize their existing professional The low caste people invested the money capacities aligned with the market and they also spend it on religious and economy. cultural events to gain a social acceptance. Moreover, the high caste people understood These people know everything though that it might be difficult to persist without that does not need. Mobile phone and the low caste peoples’ cooperation in the TV seriously transformed this village. Unlike in the past, they now try transforming peasantries, though low caste to do new things. It is ok, but there are identity kept as it was. The low caste several unexpected disadvantages too. people, therefore, strived to uplift their Some berava people now offer banquet social identity in many different ways, such packages. I do not know how this new as acquiring education and sponsoring generation learns these things. Many religious and cultural events in the village. low caste people in this village are (See picture 2) more job focused. (a Buddhist monk, 60) Bearava people are now an essential group of this village. Earlier they The low castes entered the market economy respected us unconditionally. Now we in many different ways since they had have to respect them, why? without necessary professional capacities, their contribution, we cannot organize consequently, the monetary capital was even an annual procession of the congregated around the low castes. temple. Dambagolla, a tom-tom Therefore, they became the new hegemonic beaters’ village is now so full-fledged than our area. Earlier, we had walawwas [marvellous aristocratic house], but now they have been

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deteriorated, while low castes built-up has been weakened gradually. So that, modern houses. The main reason was afterwards the low caste people struggled to we did not try since our high caste search for a social prestige, during which identity hindered it. (Man, 66) education was chosen as the best possible mechanism. Furthermore, those low caste The aristocratic mindset hindered people were more often engaged in mobilization of high caste peasants. community service activities, in search of a Rasingolla, Theripaha, Dmabagolla like socially justified prestige in their villages. peasantries were started by aristocrats from Therefore, newly constructed buildings in the central Kandyan kingdom, therefore religious places were most of the time aristocrats did not have any specific sponsored by those low caste people professional ability that suits the modern (Picture 2: Teripaha). market economy. The peasant feudal system persevered due to norms introduced Entrepreneurship, caste and elitism by those aristocrats, however, once global values prevail over traditional rural Except for a few high caste persons, many societies, aristocrats could not further their low caste people became entrepreneurs aristocracy. The mismatch between that since they demonstrated a high level of aristocratic ideology and prevailing global specialization in some professions, values hindered mobilization of the high creativity, dedication to the work, castes while strengthening the low castes’ determination and the self-confidence upward mobility. comes from the bonding social capital. [Note: Bonding social capital is a type of social Adopting modern norms and capital that describes connections within a transformation of the identity group or community characterized by high levels of similarity in demographic As the economic globalization prevails, characteristics, attitudes, and available norms and values appropriated in the information and resources. Bonding social market economy swallowed the rural capital exists between ‘people like us’ who are society. Peasants, therefore, adopted those ‘in it together’ and who typically have strong norms in their lives, so that particularly close relationships. Examples include family anything marketable became more members, close friends, and neighbours]. The prominent. During this period of transition, table 1 shows how Tom-tom beaters’ caste professions performed by low castes (Berava) demonstrates entrepreneurial became market-oriented. This facilitated qualities. them to appropriate their labour in the market. Though the caste related identity have not been changed, what they have done were reinterpreted during this transformation, consequently, the low caste people struggled to earn money by utilizing their inherent capacities.

For example, wedding banquet package service (Berava, Badde), laundries (Rada), sweet makers (Wahumpura), hotel owners (wahumpura) popped out in rural areas. Once low caste people have earned a sufficient amount of wealth through appropriating their inherent capabilities in the market economy, the inferior mindset

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Table 2: Qualities and Characteristics of tom-tom beaters, which make them entrepreneurs

Quality Characteristic Existing Knowledge Producing drums, Dancing, Performing rituals, Astrology Creativity Make use of the existing knowledge to satisfy contemporary capitalist needs (banquet services) Dedication Dedicate time and other resources to acquire more skills and perform their duty in a well-organized way Determination Coming out from the low caste identity at first, then to be successful in the modern society Bonding-social capital Strong links among community members

Source: Author reluctant to access with a market-driven society. Therefore, ironically it emerged as The entrepreneurial qualities of many low a conflict between high and low castes, caste people helped utilize existing though it was not apparent.] Education has capabilities in the market economy. provided necessary means for the Afterwards, during their walk toward sustenance of low caste households thereby gaining high social prestige, education making those people more resourceful in provided a substantial support. Education knowledge and skills. On the contrary, a reinforced the rise of the low caste people conducive environment was not there to as an elite group, which in turn encouraged make use of those skills, so that they were them to further their capital seeking motivated to migrate to urban areas from endeavour. Unlike earlier times, after many the current living place. Out-migration also decades, school education tremendously intensified, because of the school supported the second and third generation’s education. However, temporarily migrated low caste people in getting benefits from persons, in turn, sent remunerations from the market economy. Furthermore, identity urban areas to the village; this caused transformation too sustained due to school sophistication of caste pockets. Caste education. pocket can be identified as a specific area in the community, which is more developed Out-migration and emergence of rich- when compared to other parts of the village. caste pockets I passed the advanced level Out-migration of resourceful persons from examination and completed a low caste groups due to inner rural unrest, computer diploma too. However, it in turn, contributed to the sophistication of was quite difficult to use my caste groups. [Note: Rural Unrest - knowledge and skills in the village Inherently there was a conflict among since I was labelled as low caste. different castes in Kandyan peasantries, Therefore, I migrated to though different ground level mechanisms and got married to a girl, but hindered it. Harmony of rural societies was regularly visit my hometown as maintained by the religion. Functional well. (Man, 35) integrity of different castes too contributed to the harmony of Kandyan peasantries. When the transformation of rural social However, once transformation started, low structure intensified, suppressed and low castes claimed their equal rights in the identity of service castes had declined society. On the other hand, high caste gradually, adopting a new identity in line people stressed their high caste identity and with values obtained from modern and rational education.

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Becoming elite in rural areas landowners. The land was distributed among different castes so that they The elite determines how society should were required to provide a service in run since they possess the political power return. Now things have been changed. over other inhabitants in the society. The My Mutta [the earliest ancestor] constructed the temple of this village, elite constitutes a group of people, who but now no one knows that. (Man, 70) share the same identity alongside common norms and values, and they are The aristocrats were forced to give up their distinguished from the commons control over the village, as the low caste particularly in rural areas. The aristocrats or people owned economic growth through the high caste govigama were the elite in their enterprises. As described earlier, the past, as they owned the political power during past few decades, service castes in the village. Two distinct aspects have become wealthier, in the sense they determine the rural politics, such as the were able to secure their economic stability greater level of economic stability of the that might influence the rural society in group and the high level of identity granted different ways. Furthermore, service or low by the society. The aristocratic govigama castes could acquire a relatively high level people have had those qualities in the past of social identity through school education, as they claimed, however, once so that they could legitimize their modernization appropriated the rural importance of the presence in the society. society they were relinquished. Having Therefore, the ownership of the political authority over the village by high caste power has been gradually shifted from the people has now become a legacy. high caste govigama aristocrats to the low caste people. Teachers, Schoolmasters, Three generations back, one of my Agricultural instructors, Sellers and ancestors purchased this land from the British government and constructed a moneylenders took the control over the village. At that time, they ruled this village, despite some resistance have been village, because they were the strategically dealt with. Table 3: Elite identity formation of low castes and gaining prosperity in a Kandyan Village

Bonding Social Capital Elite Identity

Entrepreneurship and economic Achieving Dignity Caste gains Pocket Low Caste Community

Market oriented Gaining prestige Skills through Education Prosperity

Source: Author

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The significant role of high castes has been considerable transformation had been taken steadily declining, though their high level place, some significant social structures of traditional identity remained unchanged. were not changed, as they were decisive However, the traditional identity of the high drivers in the social organization. The paper castes has no stake in the transitional rural perceived this paradox in line with the societies, as the low castes or the service argument of prevailing rationalities over providing castes take over the control of irrational domains, particularly in peasantries. This makes it clear that the low contemporary Kandyan peasantries The castes (service castes) benefitted that of the forces of globalization vastly affected the high castes once the forces of globalization rural social structure in Sri Lanka, so that came into the rural society. modernization began even in rural societies with different faces. As a result, so-called How those low caste communities achieved modern rational values were instilled in their prosperity and in which ways Kandyan peasantries, even though beliefs education like rational institutions regarding traditional caste system were not contributed to it, is conceptualized in the completely disappeared. Some of the Table 3. (This will be summarized in the development interventions (including conclusion). government education), therefore had to go along with those traditional social CONCLUSION structures, which resulted in unexpected The globalization has prevailed even in consequences, such as conflicts among remote rural societies, particularly getting different castes, out-migration, them adjusted in the market economy. deterioration of ethics and the kind. Mainly, Therefore, during the past few years, low castes (service providing castes) have peasantries in Kandyan highlands have benefitted from this transformation, while undergone significant changes, this high caste people have not. Low castes, included transforming the rural social except for rodi, have benefited during the structure that appropriates the market transitional period, mainly because they economy. Many cultural anthropologists have had more appropriate and market- have studied changes and their impact on oriented professional capabilities. This was human behaviour tremendously, later supported by the school education. In particularly in Kandyan highland addition, there were several other factors peasantries. They understood that, though a contributed to the upward mobility of the low castes in this area. Low castes were specialized in professions the gradual transformation of those more valued in the market economy. peasantries. When service castes accede Relatively the low level of identity of those with the structural transformation of the service-providing castes was tolerated in village, they furthermore perceived the past, as they were not conscious on and themselves different from other high caste did not reflect their true status in the govigama people, during which internal hieratical social structure, even though later bonds (bonding social capital) this began to change. When the market strengthened, that resulted in a struggle to economy came in, service castes were able acquire economic power and high level of to make use of their professional social identity over other high caste people. capabilities in order to earn money, this The economic gains together with elevated resulted even in ideological change. social identity directed the society toward a Moreover, the low castes also seemed to low caste elitism, through which the low have some entrepreneurial qualities that castes exert their micro-level political encouraged them to be more active during power on the village.

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