POLI 212 Introduction to International Politics

Session 3- in International Relations

Lecturer: Dr. Bossman E. Asare [email protected]/[email protected]

College of Education School of Continuing and Distance Education 2014/2015 – 2016/2017 Session Overview

– Overview . In this session students will be introduced to diplomacy . Students will understand the different types of diplomacy . We will also look at the embassies and high commissions

Slide 2 Session Outline

The key topics to be covered in the session are as follows: • Topic One: Diplomacy • Topic Two: Diplomatic Missions

Slide 3 Reading List

• Bossman E. Asare, 2016. International Politics: The Beginner’s Guide- Updated and Expanded, Digibooks, Ghana. Read chapter 1 • Charles W. Kegley Jr. and Shannon L. Blanton, 2010. World Politics: Trend and Transformation, Wadsworth: Cengage Learning. Read chapter 1

Slide 4 Topic One DIPLOMACY

Slide 5 DIPLOMACY

• States in the global system interact on a number of levels. In the midst of and other conflicts they still try to engage in discussions and negotiations. Diplomacy is one of the central means used by countries to interact with one another. • Diplomacy primarily means the practice and process of conducting negotiations, holding discussions and meetings between accredited representatives of countries and intergovernmental organizations. Those who engage in diplomacy are called . • In a number of countries, there are two main ways to become a . There are career diplomats and those diplomats appointed by politicians. Career diplomats are those who work with the departments or ministries of foreign affairs of their countries and they rise through the ranks to become diplomats.

Slide 6 DIPLOMACY (Contd.)

• Those appointed by politicians often change with a change of government, but career diplomats rarely change with a change of government. • In many countries, to become a career foreign service officer or diplomat, one has to complete a bachelor’s degree and pass competitive examinations and/or interviews. • Diplomats enjoy diplomatic privileges in the countries where they are stationed. • These privileges are referred to as . • Diplomatic immunity means the privileges diplomats enjoy on the job. • Some of the privileges are that, diplomats are immune from criminal prosecution at their duty posts and they are recognized at important functions in the countries they serve.

Slide 7 DIPLOMACY (Contd.)

• Nonetheless, diplomats can be stripped of their immunity when they do things considered unacceptable by the countries where they are working and, at times, too by their own governments.

• Some of these can be engaging in espionage activities. This is when diplomats spy on the countries where they are working and send a report to their home governments that these countries, for instance, are developing new weapons or engaging in certain activities that will affect the international community negatively, among others.

• Once countries get to know that diplomats have sent reports like these outside, they can issue statements indicating that they do not want the diplomats in their countries anymore. The term used for this in international relations is .

Slide 8 DIPLOMACY (Contd.)

• Persona non grata means the diplomat is not welcome in the country of duty. Persona grata means the diplomat is welcome in the country. • Other criminal activities such as money laundering and murder by diplomats could also lead to them being stripped of their immunity. • Diplomats can also be stripped of their immunities by their home governments especially when they do things abroad considered unacceptable by their countries. • A typical example is when they give certain important information about their countries to other countries.

Slide 9 DIPLOMACY (Contd.)

• In diplomacy, once a country declares that the envoys or diplomats from other countries are unwelcome, those countries often respond by declaring that some of their diplomats are also unwelcome in their countries.

• During the presidency of George W. Bush in the United States in 2006, Hugo Chavez, the president of Venezuela, expelled a US diplomat (John Correa, a naval attaché to the US Embassy in Venezuela) and the US responded swiftly by declaring that Jeny Figueredo Fias (the chief of staff to the Venezuelan in the US) was persona non grata and she was given 72 hours to leave the country.

Slide 10 Types of Diplomacy

There are several types of diplomacy: • Standard diplomacy involves the interactions between governments and intergovernmental organizations at the highest levels. Usually you have presidents or other senior officials of countries and intergovernmental organizations engaging in discussions directed at addressing common problems or promoting international understanding between the parties involved in the discussions. • Bilateral diplomacy is the kind of diplomacy between only two countries. For instance, when accredited representatives or diplomats from Ghana engage in discussions or negotiations with their counterparts in Nigeria or Sierra Leone, this is bilateral diplomacy, because only two countries are involved. • Multilateral diplomacy involves at least three countries engaging in diplomacy. This means those engaged in this diplomacy could be as many as all the countries in the world. With this type of diplomacy, the representatives of the countries engaged in diplomacy are from different regions of the world. You are going to have some countries in Africa, Asia, Europe, North America, and others involved in multilateral diplomacy.

Slide 11 Types of Diplomacy (Contd.)

• Regional diplomacy is a type of multilateral diplomacy that takes place in a particular region of the world. The difference between regional diplomacy and multilateral diplomacy is that those involved in the latter come from different regions of the world, and for the former, the diplomats are from one or a particular region of the world. • So when three or four representatives of countries from Africa meet to discuss issues on African unity, trade in Africa and other topics, this becomes regional diplomacy because all the representatives are from a particular region of the world, which is Africa. Similarly, when members of the European Union or the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) hold discussions, it becomes regional diplomacy.

Slide 12 Types of Diplomacy (Contd.)

• is concerned with the various strategies and ways used by countries and intergovernmental organizations to communicate directly to people of other countries rather than the politicians and the senior officials of countries. In public diplomacy, countries and intergovernmental organizations can use people who serve in official capacities or in unofficial capacities. • The United Nations and its specialized agencies have used individuals like Angelina Jolie and Mia Farrow (Hollywood Actresses), Wycliffe Jean (Musician), and George Oppong Weah (former world soccer player of the year) in public diplomacy and as Goodwill . Countries and intergovernmental organizations at times use movie stars and well-known athletes in public diplomacy. These stars often promote the good image of their countries and champion programs that are considered important by countries and intergovernmental organizations.

Slide 13 Types of Diplomacy (Contd.)

• Other types of diplomacy are , coercive and shuttle. is where a third party or country serves as a mediator between two parties who do not want to sit down and talk with each other. The job of the diplomat is to shuttle between the two parties to get them to normalize relationship. There have been instances where the United States and other intergovernmental organizations have sent diplomats to the Middle East to speak to Israeli government officials and Palestinian officials separately. • The main objective of this type of diplomacy is to get the two parties on the discussion table and to restore diplomatic relations between them. Gunboat diplomacy is when countries display their military might in the pursuance of their foreign policy. Here countries tell those countries that are the focus of their foreign policies that if they do not follow certain directives, they would be attacked. • This is a direct threat and countries are expected to comply in order to avoid any military intervention. This type of diplomacy was widely used by the great powers before World II and during the . The United States’ military interventions of Afghanistan and Iraq in 2001 and 2003, respectively fit this type of diplomacy.

Slide 14 Types of Diplomacy (Contd.)

• is when countries threaten or force other countries to follow certain foreign policy directives. • Unlike gunboat diplomacy, where military power is displayed so that parties or countries that do not yield are attacked, with coercive diplomacy, countries are more likely to impose economic sanctions rather than military intervention. Military intervention is usually a last resort in coercive diplomacy.

Slide 15 Sample questions

• Identify and explain any three types of diplomacy. • Discuss any two importance of diplomacy. • What are diplomatic privileges?

Slide 16 Topic Two DIPLOMATIC MISSIONS

Slide 17 Diplomatic Missions

• Diplomatic missions are a group of people from one country who work in another country on behalf of their country. Countries that are members of the United Nations have diplomatic missions to the UN called Permanent Mission to the UN. Diplomatic missions are typically called Embassies or High Commissions.

• The Embassies and High Commissions are pretty much the same thing. The main difference is that, the High Commission is a from a Commonwealth country to another Commonwealth country. Ghana, Britain, India, Canada, Nigeria, Australia, and Kenya are all members of the Commonwealth. The diplomatic mission from anyone of these countries to the other becomes a High Commission.

• The Commonwealth is an intergovernmental organization made up of 54 independent countries. Most of these countries were once colonies of the British Empire.

Slide 18 Diplomatic Missions (Contd.)

• The Embassy is when the diplomatic mission is from a Commonwealth country to a country that is not a member of the Commonwealth, or when the diplomatic mission is from a country that is not a member of the Commonwealth to another country that is not a member of the Commonwealth. • The United States of America is not a member of the Commonwealth, so the diplomatic missions from the United States to Ghana and vice versa are Embassies. In the same way, both France and Italy are not members of the Commonwealth, the diplomatic missions between the two countries are Embassies. • The head of the High Commission is the , and the head of the Embassy is the Ambassador. Vatican City also has diplomats called Apostolic or Papal Nuncios. These diplomats represent the Pope and Vatican City in other countries and regions of the world.

Slide 19 Diplomatic Ranks

• Apart from the rank of Ambassador/High Commissioner, diplomats of the ranks of Extraordinary and Minister (simply Envoy), Minister Resident, and Chargé d'affaires (literally charged with the affairs), can also head the missions in the absence of the ambassador or the high commissioner. • These ranks follow the ambassador/high commissioner in order. This means the rank of chargé d'affaires is the lowest and the ambassador/high commissioner is the highest. • Some countries refer to their ambassadors as Ambassador Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary. The plenipotentiary means the diplomat has the full authority to represent his or her government in other countries.

Slide 20 Functions of the Embassy/High Commission Diplomatic missions perform some functions in the country where they work:

• One of these functions is consular services. Here, diplomatic missions issue visas to those who want to visit their countries. The section of the Embassy that issues the visa is the or Consular Section. At times, this office will be in the same building as the Embassy or the High Commission. It is also possible for the Consulate to be in a different building. • Embassies or High Commissions give information to their home governments. This information could range from political development (democracy, transparency in public management, human rights violations, corruption), economic development (per capita income, gross domestic product (GDP), private sector participation in the economy, interest rates, and etc.) to social development (literacy and numeracy rates, access to quality healthcare and housing, road infrastructure, and etc.). A number of countries require their diplomatic missions to submit such reports on regular basis to inform the policies of their governments.

Slide 21 Functions of the Embassy/High Commission (Contd.) • Cultural and educational exchange programs also feature prominently in the activities of diplomatic missions. Usually, the missions have specific offices responsible for cultural and educational exchange programs so that those interested in such programs can get the relevant information. • In Ghana, for instance, we have a number of international students on educational and cultural exchange activities in our public universities who came to the country largely through collaborations involving Ghana’s diplomatic missions in their countries, educational and cultural institutions in Ghana, and institutions in their countries. • United States’ diplomatic missions in almost all countries have public affairs sections or departments that give information to people who want to study in the United States and other relevant information about the US.

Slide 22 Functions of the Embassy/High Commission (Contd.) • Moreover, diplomatic missions sign agreements on behalf of their countries. These agreements can involve a number of issues, such as financial assistance (loans or grants), technical assistance, capacity building for some professionals, and several others. In most instances, these agreements should be signed by presidents or prime ministers and because they have a lot of domestic commitments, at times, they allow the heads or senior officials of their diplomatic missions to sign on behalf of their countries. • Some diplomatic missions also sponsor programs in the countries where they are located. These are more often than not diplomatic missions from rich countries. In Ghana, as a quintessential case, diplomatic missions from Canada, France, Britain, the United States, Germany, the Netherlands, and Denmark have been known to financially and technically support a number of programs.

Slide 23 in International Relations

• As far as diplomatic missions are concerned, some countries also have what is called Consulates. • According to international law, diplomatic missions can only be located in the capital cities of countries. However, some countries are too large that the Embassy or the High Commission in the capital city cannot attend to all the people who want to do business or acquire some vital information. As a result of this, diplomatic missions (or the home countries of the missions) set up offices in other parts of the countries so that those offices can attend to the needs of the people in these areas. These offices are known as Consulates. • For example, countries like the United States of America, India and the Peoples Republic of China (hereafter China) are so large that having Embassies in Washington, District of Columbia (DC), New Delhi and Beijing, respectively, will not be able to attend to the many people living in different parts of these countries. Based on this, a citizen in Los Angeles (about 1000 miles from Washington, DC) who wants to travel to Ghana will be required to go to Washington, DC for the visa to go to Ghana.

Slide 24 Consulates

• For the reason that it is difficult for those living far away from the capital cities to access the services of the diplomatic missions, this necessitates the setting up of Consulates. Although Ghana’s Embassy in the United States is located in Washington, DC, we have Consulates in New York City, Atlanta, Houston, Chicago, and Los Angeles to serve Ghanaians in the United States, United States’ citizens, and nationals of other countries living outside the Washington, DC area. • According to the website of the Ghana Embassy in Washington, DC, consular services are performed at Washington, DC and New York City. This means those who will contact the other Consulates will be assisted to contact the offices in Washington, DC and New York City.

Slide 25 Consulates (Contd.)

• Another meaning of the Consulate is that, due to several factors including financial, even rich countries do not have Embassies or High Commissions in all countries of the world. • What countries do is that they will have the Embassy or the High Commission in one country, out of say three or four countries, in a particular region of the world, but neighboring countries will have Consulates. • For instance, the Embassy or High Commission may be in Ghana, but Togo, Burkina Faso and Ivory Coast will have Consulates. The implication here is that, people who want visas to travel to countries where they do not have Embassies in their countries will have to apply for visas through the Consulates. The officials of the Consulates will then have to send the visa applications to the nearest Embassy or High Commission so that visas can be issued to applicants.

Slide 26 Sample questions

• What are the two meanings of consulates in diplomatic relations? • Describe any three functions of the embassy. • What is the meaning of Diplomatic Mission?

Slide 27 Conclusion of Session Three

• This session has looked at diplomacy in international relations. • We have discussed the various types of diplomacy, the meaning of diplomacy, and the distinction between the embassy and the high commission. • The session has also explored the diplomatic missions against the backdrop of their functions and consulates in diplomatic relations. • I am certain you are now conversant with Diplomacy.

Slide 28 References

• Bossman E. Asare, 2016. International Politics: The Beginner’s Guide- Updated and Expanded, Digibooks, Ghana. • Charles W. Kegley Jr. and Shannon L. Blanton, 2010. World Politics: Trend and Transformation, Wadsworth: Cengage Learning.

• Art, Robert (2007) Coercive Diplomacy, in Robert Art and Robert Jervis, International Politics: Enduring Concepts and Contemporary Issues (8th edition). Pearson Longman, New York, USA.

Slide 29