sign in sign up
<<
Home , Mandate of Heaven, Mencius, Mencius (book)

Reading (Day One)

A note on the revival of in , particularly, in the past two decades  The rise and fall of Confucianism as a state in China  As a part of a movement of cultural revival that takes new interest in discussion and assessment of Chinese cultural heritage in a new global context  China's global ascendance in the past three decades  China's domestic problems due to its rapid economic development

A brief description of the Confucian model

Founded by , this school of thought is called “ru jia” (roo gia) in China. Confucianism puts human beings at the center stage with the firm belief that human beings are solely responsible for creating a (Note: there is little reference to gods' role in this endeavor). In order to fulfill this goal, individuals, especially the ruling class, must first learn, cultivate, and practice such as benevolence, rightness, the observance of rites, , and trust. In this sense, the former sage in the past are the good role models for people to follow. The Confucian envisions a hierarchical society ruled by a benevolent , in which people of different classes are bound together harmoniously by due respect and reciprocity. Each individual performs his/her duties diligently as a share of social responsibility according to his/her social position, so that social order and stability can be ensured. The of benevolence should be practiced first at home through and then spread to society as a whole.

A brief historical background

Mencius (372-289 BC) is widely regarded as the second most important scholar (after Confucius) in the school of Confucian thought in Chinese history. His name is Ke and is called Meng Tzu in China. The Book of Mencius was established as one of the most important classics in the Confucian canon since the Southern Song (1127-1279).

Mencius lived in a historical period called the Warring States (roughly 475-221 BC). This period, as the name suggests, was characterized by constant war fares that caused enormous devastation and loss of lives throughout the land. In the previous period, “the Spring and Autumn” (approximately 771-476 BC), which gave birth to two most revered Chinese , Lao Tzu and Confucius, it saw the beginning of this long struggle among different states vying for dominance and supremacy as the dynasty declined. Imagine that there once existed over a hundred states, but by the time of the Warring States, there were only seven major states left that were strong enough to contend for hegemony. Several hundred years of continuous wars had brought such chaos, that indeed, “things fall apart,/the center cannot hold.” It was during this critical historical moment when many schools of thought emerged and competed fiercely to spread their teachings and influence. Thinkers and scholars of different schools sought or were sought to become advisers/counselors of a /duke. Among a hundred different schools of thought, the four most prominent were Confucianism, , , and Legalism, each advocating a different approach to bring about and order. Mencius, of course, was one of the most outstanding representatives of Confucianism during his life time. His teaching in the Book of Mencius not only responded to the crisis of his time, but it also responded to different views represented by many other schools of thought regarding the crisis.

It is important to note that all these four aforementioned schools of thought tried to address the causes of this crisis they were faced with. They agreed more or less that the ultimate solution to the chaos was unification. However, they differed greatly from one another in their approaches to this end. Moreover, all their theories and proposed policies also reflected their interpretations of history, as well as their understandings of human .

Mohism, developed by or Mo Tzu (470-391 BC), advocated “impartial” or “universal” love as a way to address the fundamental issues of the time. His belief was that if we all loved others the same way in which we loved our parents and children, there would be no wars. Thus, peace and order would be restored. Mozi openly challenged the Confucian model that saw bringing benevolence from the family to the state and beyond as the Way. In his view, humans by nature were selfish. Therefore, to love one's family first was precisely what had caused many of the social problems. Moreover, while promoting impartial love, Mohists were not pacifists. Rather, they were often highly trained brave warriors and engineers who would actively assist small states in defense against the invasion of a powerful state.

Taoism advocated an approach of following the example of nature (be natural, “,” and live in the flow of the cosmic force because there exists in nature an order, like the cycle of four seasons) and practicing non-action or no forced action (“wuwei”). It promoted the idea of returning to an early “golden” stage of human society that was characterized by small government and simple people. For Taoist thinkers, the problems were all caused by human desires to be great, rich, and powerful. In their opinions, moral teachings as promoted by Confucianism would only cause more troubles than solve them. They believed that when left alone, people knew how to take care of themselves. As a result, if everyone knew how to take care of him/herself, then the world would return to peace and order.

While Confucianism, Mohism, and Taoism all seemed retrospective and found inspirations in the examples of the sage kings or in a distant golden age, Legalism was a school of thought that was more forward looking and believed in establishing and maintaining social order and stability by clearly defined harsh laws. For example, (390-338 BC), a Legalist scholar, contemporary of Mencius, reformed the state of Ch'in () through harsh laws and turned Ch'in from a relatively weak state into one of the strongest in 18 years. He advocated that everyone should be treated equally in front of the law. When prince committed a crime, he punished him by cutting off his nose. For that he made many enemies in the court and eventually died a most gruesome death. To some Legalists, moral teachings such as Confucianism would never work to strengthen a state's economic, military, and political power in the struggle for survival and dominance because they were merely empty words.

Some of Mencius' contributions to the development of Confucianism

1. The theory of benevolent government or the Kingly way as the only correct way to rule because it relies on the transforming influence of by winning people's hearts and minds (as opposed to the hegemonic way that relies on coercive power).

2. This benevolent government has to be founded on a new interpretation of the : it is the people who are the roots/foundation of the empire—hence the true mandate of heaven. In terms of importance, people come first, society next, and then the king. “The business of the people must be attended to without delay” (97). Any ruler who abuses his power and causes people's will lose the mandate of heaven and can be overthrown.

3. is good. People are born to have the potentials that can be developed into the four hearts: the heart of leads to benevolence; the heart of shame to duties; the heart of courtesy and modesty to observance of rites, and the heart of right and wrong to duties. This is why the rule of benevolence will work because it responds to and inspires what is deep inside every one of us. It also suggests we can improve ourselves and achieve greatness. “The Sage, too, is the same in kind as other men” (80).

4. Sustainable economic policy and moral education should work side by side to achieve social harmony. The relationship between the two is important. Mencius understands that the social stability builds upon a sustainable economy that provides the people with basic needs, but it is not enough. To maintain social order and stability, moral education must play an important role in teaching the people ethics that promotes a harmonious social relationship.

5. Personal cultivation: to strengthen oneself spiritually, morally, psychologically, and intellectually through constant self-reflection, self-learning, self-criticism, and self- improvement. As Mencius said, “I am good at cultivating my flood-like ch'i” (77).

6. The division of labor: Those who use their minds rule and those who use their muscles are to be ruled (101). This theory reflects Mencius' understanding that a complex society must have labor division.

Mencius was, no doubt, the most influential Confucian scholar at the time. However, we know very little about his biography except for his childhood and his influential mother. Much of our impression of him as a person and scholar comes from the Book of Mencius. From Mencius, we get a sense of him as a just and wise person, a lucid and profound thinker, and a confident and persuasive speaker, whom kings, dukes, scholars and students eagerly sought out for advice on politics, governance, filial piety, self-cultivation, and a wide range of other issues. The book is written in a of conversational dialogue. Each chapter in the Chinese version of the book is entitled by the name of the person Mencius spoke with in the first section; for example, Book 1is entitled as “King Hui of Liang.” Although there is no direct indicator of a central theme at the beginning of each chapter, all the sections in each chapter do have some a focal point.

Book 1 A: In this chapter, Mencius advocates political reforms by urging the rulers to promote the Kingly way that is built upon benevolence and righteousness. He argues that only the rule of benevolence that cares for and protects the people can win the support of the people and thus can bring back peace and unification. He repeatedly stresses the point that the foundation of benevolence is filial piety to one's parents and children, and such a practice, though started at home, can and should be extended beyond to the whole empire. Whoever is able to practice the rule of benevolence to the people—for example, to provide thoughtful economic policy and reasonable laws that ensure people's livelihood and maintain social order and stability, as well as to provide moral guidance, will be the true king. As Mencius points out, “The benevolent man has no match” (53). Anything, however, to the contrary, such as indifference to people's sufferings, killing or brutal dominance, will only bring more chaos and disaster.

Suggestions for discussion:

1. Divide the class into small groups of 3-4 and assign each group a section from Book 1. Ask each group to figure out the central point in the given section by stating it in a concisely worded sentence of their own words. Then each group will report to the whole class by 1) giving a summary of the section and 2) by reading out its statement.

2. Or turn this exercise into a short writing assignment. Assign a passage and ask students to restate the central idea of that passage in a concisely worded statement. Then ask the class to share some of their statements. Section 1 would be a good choice.

Main points in each section:

1. The single-minded pursuit of profit will leads to the destruction of both moral and social fabric that holds a state together. “All that matters is that there should be benevolence and righteousness” (49). This line is repeated twice. 2. Only the good and wise man can truly enjoy something beautiful because he shares the enjoyment with his people. Whereas King Chieh (Xia Jie), though compared himself to the everlasting sun, people hated him and would rather wish the sun to parish. 3. The first step of the Kingly way: in order to maintain social order and stability, a considerate economic policy should be implemented to ensure people's basic needs; then use the village schools to teach people morals and duties. (Specific description of such a policy on pp. 51-52). The opposite of the Kingly way is to deny the ruler's responsibility and refuse to change but, rather, put the blame on nature when people suffer from starvation and death. 4. As the parents of his people, the King is supposed to take care of them. Therefore, his misrule that causes people's starvation and death is “amount to leading the animals to devout the people” (52). And this cannot be tolerated. 5. To respond to King Hui of Liang's question on how to wash away all his shame of being defeated in the hands of his neighboring states, Mencius advises him to practice “benevolent government” that provides people with basic economic and social stability and security. Thus, united as one, the people are willing to fight at the call of the king and can defeat any enemy (see the second paragraph on page 53). 6. Who can end the chaos in the world? Only the rule of benevolence can achieve this goal: “One who is not fond of killing can unite it” (53). 7. A more elaborate discussion on the Kingly way vs. the hegemonic way (despite King Hsuan of Ch'i's request to hear the history of Duke Huan of Ch'i and Duke Wen of Chin in the , who both made their states the hegemon of their times). Mencius' argument is 1) King Hsuan has compassion (his attitude toward animals reflects that) which is the foundation of benevolence; 2) the king's failure to be the true King is not due to the inability to act, but the refusal to act; 3) practicing benevolence first at home and then extending it beyond; 4) the king's approach to fulfill his ambition is worse than “looking for fish by climbing the tree” (57), because it heads in the wrong direction and can only reap disaster; 5) Only benevolent rule can truly protect people by providing them with basic needs (and that in turn creates social order and stability) and winning their hearts and minds.

Book 2 A: This chapter focuses on the practice and teachings of benevolence by the former sage kings and Confucius, as well as on cultivating and developing one's heart of benevolence. The underlying argument is the rule of benevolence is the best and most feasible way to bring about peace and unification, because it is the morally correct way that not only wins the people's hearts and minds, but is also sanctioned by the mandate of heaven (“He who has no match [because he is benevolent] in the Empire is a Heaven-appointed officer, and it has never happened that such a man failed to become a true King” (82)).

Points suggested for discussion:

1. What is the strength of the rule of benevolence that relies on the “transforming influence of morality” (80)? How does it differ from other approaches such as the rule by coercive power, or the rule by the “Ten Commandments” in Exodus, or our modern version of the rule of law?

2. In Section 2, Mencius discusses cultivating his flood-like chi (77). How does this discussion related to the story of a man from Sung who helped the rice seedlings to grow by pulling them up (78)?

3. In Session 6, Mencius discusses the four hearts as the defining characteristics of every human being (without which one is not regarded as human). 1) What is your thought on this argument? 2) Can one just develop one or two of these hearts and ignore the others? In other words, what is the relationship among these four hearts? Why should they be viewed as a unity and developed simultaneously according to Mencius?

Book 3 A: This chapter addresses a number of important issues. First, it reiterates the importance of ruling/leading by the influence of a good role model. A good role model is the best moral teaching to the people (Sections 1 & 2). Second, moral education is crucial, but it has to come after people's basic needs are met (Section 3). Third, it argues for the necessity of labor division in a society as a response to some Taoist teaching (Section 4). Fourth, it addresses the problems with the impartial love that Mohism promoted (Section 5).

Suggestions for discussion:

1. What do you think about this quote-- “If one's aim is wealth one cannot be benevolent; if one's aim is benevolence one cannot be wealthy”(97)? 2. How do you respond to Mencius' argument about the division of labor – those who use their minds rule and those who use their muscles are to be ruled?