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Accounting for the Other 95%: Conservation and Assessment Of ACCOUNTING FOR THE OTHER 95%: CONSERVATION AND ASSESSMENT OF DATA LIMITED MARINE INVERTEBRATES IN THE CENTRAL PHILIPPINES by Kyle Murray Gillespie B.Sc.H., The University of Guelph, 2011 A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY in THE FACULTY OF GRADUATE AND POSTDOCTORAL STUDIES (Zoology) THE UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA (Vancouver) July 2021 © Kyle Murray Gillespie, 2021 The following individuals certify that they have read, and recommend to the Faculty of Graduate and Postdoctoral Studies for acceptance, the dissertation entitled: Accounting for the other 95%: Conservation and assessment of data limited marine invertebrates in the Central Philippines submitted by Kyle Murray Gillespie in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Zoology Examining Committee: Amanda Vincent, Institute for the Oceans and Fisheries, UBC Supervisor Daniel Pauly, Institute for the Oceans and Fisheries, UBC Supervisory Committee Member Scott Hinch, Forestry, UBC University Examiner Evgeny Pakhomov, Institute for the Oceans and Fisheries, UBC University Examiner Additional Supervisory Committee Members: Isabelle Côté, Biological Sciences, Simon Fraser University Supervisory Committee Member Christopher Harley, Zoology, UBC Supervisory Committee Member ii Abstract Intense human pressures require that conservation be nimble and action-oriented even in the face of significant data limitations. In the ocean, invertebrates comprise over 95% of animal biodiversity and are a major component of fisheries catch. Yet, exceedingly little effort is dedicated to supporting conservation of these taxa. The goal of this thesis is to measure how coral reef invertebrates and invertebrate communities respond to conservation action based on limited data and then to suggest how such action can be tailored to maximize invertebrate abundance and reproductive output. I focused on no-fishing zones (marine reserves) and setting limitations on catch of juvenile animals in the Central Philippines—a region of immense ocean biodiversity, but also of enormous human fishing pressures. In my first data chapter (Chapter 2) I focused on the best timing for sampling invertebrates and I found that surveys at night significantly increased detection, having large impacts on both the number of animals and the number of taxa observed for mobile species. In Chapters 3 and 4, I examined if marine reserves increase invertebrate abundance and alter their communities. I found that reserves have 1.5 to 2.3 times more invertebrates for taxa important to local fisheries. The best outcomes were found in older reserves with complex habitats. Surprisingly, I found no correlation between abundance of fish and of invertebrates. Invertebrate communities often differed between fished and reserve areas, with the latter showing greater abundances for traits like bearing a shell and filter feeding. In Chapter 5, I used invertebrate catch data from intertidal fisheries and developed indicators for reproductive output and fishing mortality. For some species, a substantial proportion of catch was either juvenile animals or animals below a body size that would otherwise optimize yield. Introducing a minimum size limit would substantially increase spawning output and yield. Given iii the significant challenges facing these taxa and the fisheries they support, I urge a combination of marine reserves and size-limits to conserve invertebrates. Such an approach should also support food security in the often marginalized fishers who rely upon them. iv Lay Summary Invertebrates—animals lacking a backbone—constitute 95% of ocean animal taxa but are largely overlooked in conservation despite being critical for food security and regulating ecosystem processes. This thesis explores conservation actions for invertebrates in the Central Philippines and how to increase their effectiveness. I focused on how invertebrates respond to 1) closing areas of the ocean to fishing and 2) applying fishing limits on juveniles. I found that on average, areas closed to fishing had 1.5 to 2.3 times more invertebrates important in fisheries. Surprisingly, invertebrates respond differently to fish when they are protected. The largest effects were in areas protected for long periods of time and with complex habitats. Reserves also had more animals with particular traits, such as filtration capacity. Combining closed areas with catch limits for juvenile animals will likely increase the abundance of marine invertebrates and support human food security. v Preface This thesis represents my own work, some of which has been published elsewhere. Two chapters in this thesis have been published in peer-reviewed journals (Chapters 3 and 4). Two chapters are being prepared for submission (Chapters 2 and 5) at peer-reviewed journals. I am (or will be) the lead author on all four papers. I was primarily responsible for conceptualization, experimental design, collecting information (with help from research assistants), data management, data analysis, and writing in each of the manuscripts. Dr. Vincent had a central role in facilitating research in the Philippines and conceptualizing the thesis and ideas for each chapter. Dr. Vincent played a critical role in securing funding for my research. My co-authors have made significant contributions and improved the manuscripts substantially. I list my co-authors and outline their contributions to each specific chapter below. A version of Chapter 2 is in preparation for submission as “Gillespie KM, and Vincent ACJ. Night sampling is best for detection of coral reef invertebrates”. Dr. Vincent gave feedback on experimental design and provided edits throughout the analysis and writing of the manuscript. A version of Chapter 3 has been published in Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems as “Gillespie, K.M., Vincent, A.C.J., 2019. Tropical invertebrate response to marine reserves varies with protection duration, habitat type, and exploitation history. Aquat. Conserv. Mar. Freshw. Ecosyst. 29, 511–520”. Dr. Vincent gave feedback on the design of scientific surveys, fisher interviews and provided edits throughout the analysis and writing. vi A version of Chapter 4 has been published in Biodiversity and Conservation as “Gillespie, K.M., Vincent, A.C.J., 2019. Marine reserves drive both taxonomic and functional change in coral reef invertebrate communities. Biodivers. Conserv. 28, 921–938”. Dr. Vincent gave feedback on the design of scientific surveys and provided edits throughout the analysis and writing. A version of Chapter 5 is in preparation for submission as “Gillespie KM, Pauly D, Kleiber D, and Vincent ACJ. Using life history and size data for assessment and management of data- limited invertebrate fisheries”. Dr. Kleiber collected fisheries catch data and provided edits to the manuscript. Dr. Pauly guided the theoretical approach, supported modeling analyses, and provided edits to the manuscript. Dr. Vincent gave feedback on the design of scientific surveys and provided edits throughout the analysis and writing. All fieldwork in this dissertation was approved by UBC’s Behavioural Research Ethics Board (certificate H13-00900; see appendix A3). Animal care approval was not required as UBC’s animal care committee does not oversee invertebrate research. All scuba dive based research was approved by UBC’s Canadian Association for Underwater Science panel. vii Table of Contents Abstract ......................................................................................................................................... iii Lay Summary .................................................................................................................................v Preface ........................................................................................................................................... vi Table of Contents ....................................................................................................................... viii List of Tables .............................................................................................................................. xiv List of Figures ............................................................................................................................. xvi List of Symbols .............................................................................................................................xx List of Abbreviations ................................................................................................................. xxi Acknowledgements ................................................................................................................... xxii Dedication ................................................................................................................................. xxiv Chapter 1: Introduction ................................................................................................................1 1.1 Rational ........................................................................................................................... 1 1.2 Background and Context................................................................................................. 3 1.3 Marine Protected Areas................................................................................................... 6 1.4 Managing Fisheries Outside of Reserves .....................................................................
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