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Cyp26b1 Limits Inappropriate Activation of Rarγ by Retinoic Acid During Murine Embryogenesis

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Cyp26b1 Limits Inappropriate Activation of Rarγ by Retinoic Acid During Murine Embryogenesis CYP26B1 LIMITS INAPPROPRIATE ACTIVATION OF RARγ BY RETINOIC ACID DURING MURINE EMBRYOGENESIS by Tracie L. Pennimpede A thesis submitted to the Department of Pathology and Molecular Medicine In conformity with the requirements for the degree of Doctorate of Philosophy Queen‟s University Kingston, Ontario, Canada March, 2010 Copyright © Tracie L. Pennimpede, 2010 Abstract Proper embryonic patterning requires precise spatio-temporal regulation of retinoic acid (RA) activity. Morphogenesis can be regulated at the level of RA distribution, mainly via its synthesis and catabolism by the RALDH and CYP26 enzymes respectively, and at the level of RA-mediated transcription through activation of its cognate nuclear receptor, the retinoic acid receptors (RARs) α, β, and γ. Loss of Cyp26b1 leads to increased local levels of RA in tissues such as the limb and craniofacial structures, and results in neonatal lethality. Visible gross phenotypic defects in neonates include phocomelia (shortening of the limbs), adactyly (missing digits), micrognathia (shortened lower jaw), and open eyes at birth. In addition, these embryos exhibit cleft palate and have a paucity of vibrissal (whisker) and pelage (hair) follicles. We have previously shown that ablating the gene encoding RARγ in a Cyp26a1-null background was able to rescue the caudal abnormalities associated with improper RA exposure in these embryos by limiting aberrant RA signalling, and thus rescuing expression domains of target genes involved in caudal development. I show here that ablating Rarg in a Cyp26b1-null background is able to partially rescue the defects associated with loss of CYP26B1. These include a reduction in the severity of limb defects, rescued vibrissae, fused eyelids, and recovered aspects of axial skeletal development. This compound-null murine model illustrates that RARγ plays a specific role in transducing the RA signal within tissues that are affected by the loss of CYP26B1. Further molecular analysis of the pathways responsible for directing limb bud outgrowth and eyelid fusion provided insight into pathways regulated by RARγ in these rescued tissues. ii Statement of Collaboration Generation of the mouse strain lacking Cyp26b1 by our laboratory was undertaken by Dr. Glenn MacLean, and has been described previously (MacLean et al., 2007; Maclean et al., 2009). Parts of this thesis concerning the limb phenotype (Chapters 2, 5 and 7) have been taken from a peer-reviewed publication (Pennimpede et al., 2010) which I prepared, but with input from my co-authors. Parts of the Literature Review (Chapter 2) and the results for Chapter 4 were prepared for my Comprehensive Examination (December 2007) and have been updated from that work. Don Cameron, co-author on the manuscript prepared with regards to the observed limb phenotype (Pennimpede et al., 2010), performed in situ hybridization for Cyp26b1 and Rarg on wild type embryos (Figure 4) and eyelid sections (Figure 20). iii Acknowledgements This has been a great journey and I have so many people to thank for making it the most wonderful time and learning experience. First and foremost I would like to thank my supervisor, Dr Petkovich, for being the best out of all the world‟s best supervisors, along with an incredible friend, mentor, punster, and person. Marty: I can‟t possibly thank you enough for this opportunity, for your creative vision and encouragement, and for the support that you and Patty have given to me (and all of us!) over the years. I wouldn‟t and couldn‟t have done this with anyone else. To my labmates, past and present, for making every day spent in Botterell (especially room 359) both interesting and entertaining. Even sometimes from a science perspective. Special thanks to Suzy, Ali, Kristen, Ana Paula, Olivier, Naomi, Hui, and Makoto for friendship and help with experiments; and the excellent summer students Helen, Katie, and Bilge. I am especially grateful to Glenn MacLean for his guidance and friendship and to Don Cameron, my compatriot – an incredible friend and benchmate. I can‟t possibly put into words how thankful I am to you both and how much I appreciated our time together. iv Thanks also to the wonderful group of colleagues and friends that I have had the pleasure of knowing in this life. Especially Team Wicked Awesome (for the many, many good times), but also countless others on the 2nd, 3rd, and 6th floors (and at this University) for chats and advice over beer on the Grad Club patio. And to my great friends Samantha, and the Chubsies (Cory and Alisha) for being there the whole time. To the Grad Club – my home away from lab – and all who work there. A place where many memories were forged (and some things forgotten). I am also grateful for the technical expertise of Matt Gordon, Jeff Mewburn, Jalna Meens, Dan Wainman, and ACS; and I would be remiss if I didn‟t express my appreciation for the many murine lives that went into making this thesis. Thanks also to the Pathology Department and my Supervisory Committee (Drs Lebrun and Davey) for advice and encouragement, and to Barb Saunders and Jason Palmer for administrative and IT support. Finally, thanks to my incredible family for understanding that being a lifelong student is an acceptable life choice and encouraging me as I pursued this endeavour. “It is not birth, marriage, or death, but gastrulation which is truly the most important time in your life.” – Professor Lewis Wolpert v Table of Contents Abstract ............................................................................................................................................ ii Statement of Collaboration ............................................................................................................. iii Acknowledgements ......................................................................................................................... iv Table of Contents ............................................................................................................................ vi List of Figures ................................................................................................................................. ix List of Tables ................................................................................................................................... x List of Abbreviations ...................................................................................................................... xi Chapter 1: General Introduction ...................................................................................................... 1 Chapter 2: Literature Review ........................................................................................................... 4 2.1 Vertebrate Morphogenesis ..................................................................................................... 4 2.1.1 Setting up the embryonic body plan and morphogenesis of the axial skeleton .............. 5 2.1.2 The developing limb as a paradigm for morphogenesis ................................................. 8 2.1.2.1 Models of limb P-D outgrowth: Progress Zone, Early Specification, and Two- Signal ................................................................................................................................. 10 2.1.3 Molecular mechanisms of eyelid closure ...................................................................... 12 2.2 Vitamin A metabolism, mechanism of action, and physiological roles ............................... 14 2.2.1 Vitamin A in nutrition ................................................................................................... 14 2.2.2 Early studies on the role of vitamin A in embryonic development ............................... 15 2.2.3 Canonical vitamin A metabolism .................................................................................. 15 2.2.4 RA binding proteins ...................................................................................................... 19 2.2.5 Transcriptional regulation by RA ................................................................................. 20 2.3 RA and morphogenesis ........................................................................................................ 24 2.4 Regulation of RA signalling during embryogenesis ............................................................ 28 2.4.1 RAR/RXR expression and function .............................................................................. 28 2.5 Regulation of RA distribution within the developing embryo ............................................. 30 2.5.1 Expression patterns of Raldh and Cyp26 isoforms in the developing mouse embryo .. 30 2.5.2 Raldh and Cyp26 knockout studies ............................................................................... 33 2.6 Rarg-null mice are resistant to RA-induced craniofacial and caudal defects ...................... 36 2.7 Cyp26a1/Rarg double knockout mice.................................................................................. 38 2.8 Hypothesis and Specific Objectives ..................................................................................... 39 Chapter 3: Materials and Methods ................................................................................................. 43 3.1 Creation of mouse strains and genotyping ........................................................................... 43 vi 3.2 Embryo Collection ..............................................................................................................
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