Bernard of Clairvaux

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Bernard of Clairvaux (Latin: Bernardus Claraevallen- pledge allegiance to Innocent. He traveled to Sicily in sis), O.Cist (1090 – August 20, 1153) was a French abbot 1137 to convince the king of Sicily to follow Innocent. and the primary builder of the reforming Cistercian or- The whole conflict ended when Anacletus died on 25 Jan- der. uary 1138.[2] In 1139, Bernard assisted at the Second Council of the Lateran. Bernard denounced the teach- After the death of his mother, Bernard sought admission into the Cistercian order. “Three years later, he was sent ings of Peter Abelard to the pope, who called a council at in 1141 to settle the matter. Bernard soon saw one to found a new abbey at an isolated clearing in a glen Sens known as the Val d'Absinthe, about 15 km southeast of of his disciples elected as Pope Eugenius III. Having pre- Bar-sur-Aube. According to tradition, Bernard founded viously helped end the schism within the church, Bernard the monastery on 25 June 1115, naming it Claire Val- was now called upon to combat heresy. In June 1145, lée, which evolved into Clairvaux. There Bernard would Bernard traveled in southern France and his preaching preach an immediate faith, in which the intercessor was there helped strengthen support against heresy. the Virgin Mary.”[1] In the year 1128, Bernard assisted at Following the Christian defeat at the Siege of Edessa, the Council of Troyes, at which he traced the outlines of the pope commissioned Bernard to preach the Second the Rule of the Knights Templar, who soon became the Crusade. The last years of Bernard’s life were saddened ideal of Christian nobility. by the failure of the crusaders, the entire responsibil- On the death of Pope Honorius II on 13 February 1130, ity for which was thrown upon him. Bernard died at a schism broke out in the Church. Louis VI of France age 63, after 40 years spent in the cloister. He was the convened a national council of the French bishops at first Cistercian placed on the calendar of saints, and was Étampes in 1130, and Bernard was chosen to judge be- canonized by Pope Alexander III on 18 January 1174. tween the rivals for pope. After the council of Étampes, In 1830 Pope Pius VIII bestowed upon Bernard the title extquotedblDoctor of the Church extquotedbl. Bernard went to speak with the King of England, Henry I, also known as Henry Beauclerc, about the king’s reser- vations regarding Pope Innocent II. Beauclerc was scep- tical because most of the bishops of England supported 1 Early life (1090–1113) Anacletus II; Bernard convinced him to support Inno- cent. Germany had decided to support Innocent through Norbert of Xanten, who was a friend of Bernard’s. How- Bernard’s parents were Tescelin, Lord of Fontaines, and ever, Innocent insisted on Bernard’s company when he Aleth of Montbard, both belonging to the highest nobility met with Lothair III of Germany. Lothair became In- of Burgundy. Bernard was the third of a family of seven nocent’s strongest ally among the nobility. Despite the children, six of whom were sons. At the age of nine years, councils of Étampes, Wurzburg, Clermont, and Rheims he was sent to school at Châtillon-sur-Seine, run by the all supporting Innocent, there were still large portions of secular canons of Saint-Vorles. Bernard had a great taste the Christian world supporting Anacletus. At the end for literature and devoted himself for some time to po- of 1131, the kingdoms of France, England, Germany, etry. His success in his studies won the admiration of his Castile, and Aragon supported Innocent; however, most teachers. He wanted to excel in literature in order to take of Italy, southern France, and Sicily, with the patriarchs up the study of the Bible. He had a special devotion to of Constantinople, Antioch, and Jerusalem, supported the Virgin Mary, and he would later write several works Anacletus. Bernard set out to convince these other re- about the Queen of Heaven.[3] gions to rally behind Innocent. The first person whom Bernard would expand upon Anselm of Canterbury's role he went to was Gerard of Angoulême. He proceeded to in transmuting the sacramentally ritual Christianity of write a letter known as Letter 126, which questioned Ger- the Early Middle Ages into a new, more personally held ard’s reasons for supporting Anacletus. Bernard would faith, with the life of Christ as a model and a new em- later comment that Gerard was his most formidable oppo- phasis on the Virgin Mary. In opposition to the ratio- nent during the whole schism. After convincing Gerard, nal approach to divine understanding that the scholastics Bernard traveled to visit the Count of Poitiers. He was adopted, Bernard would preach an immediate faith, in the hardest for Bernard to convince. He did not pledge which the intercessor was the Virgin Mary. allegiance to Innocent until 1135. After that, Bernard spent most of his time in Italy convincing the Italians to Bernard was only nineteen years of age when his mother died. During his youth, he did not escape trying tempta-

1 2 2 ABBOT OF CLAIRVAUX (1115–28)

The Vision of St Bernard, by Fra Bartolommeo, c. 1504 (Uﬃzi).

tions and around this time he thought of retiring from the world and living a life of solitude and prayer.[4] Bernard exorcising a possession, altarpiece by Jörg Breu the El- In 1098 Saint Robert of Molesme had founded Cîteaux der, c. 1500. Abbey, near Dijon, with the purpose of restoring the Rule of St Benedict in all its rigour. Returning to Molesme, he left the government of the new abbey to Saint Alberic, vaux to pursue religious life, leaving only Humbeline, his who died in the year 1109. In 1113 Saint Stephen Hard- sister, in the secular world. She, with the consent of her ing had just succeeded him as third Abbot of Cîteaux husband, soon took the veil in the Benedictine nunnery when Bernard and thirty other young noblemen of Bur- of Jully-les-Nonnains. Gerard of Clairvaux, Bernard’s gundy sought admission into the Cistercian order.[5] older brother, became the cellarer of Citeaux. The abbey became too small for its members and it was necessary to send out bands to found new houses. In 1118 Trois- Fontaines Abbey was founded in the diocese of Châlons; 2 Abbot of Clairvaux (1115–28) in 1119 Fontenay Abbey in the Diocese of Autun; and in 1121 Foigny Abbey near Vervins, in the diocese of Laon. The little community of reformed Benedictines at In addition to these victories, Bernard also had his tri- Cîteaux, which would have so profound an influence on als. During an absence from Clairvaux, the Grand Prior Western monasticism, grew rapidly. Three years later, of Cluny went to Clairvaux and enticed away Bernard’s cousin, Robert of Châtillon. This was the occasion of the Bernard was sent with a band of twelve monks to found [3] a new house at Vallée d'Absinthe, in the Diocese of Lan- longest and most emotional of Bernard’s letters. gres. This Bernard named Claire Vallée, or Clairvaux, on 25 June 1115, and the names of Bernard and Clairvaux would soon become inseparable.[4] During the absence of the Bishop of Langres, Bernard was blessed as abbot by William of Champeaux, Bishop of Châlons-sur-Marne. From that moment a strong friendship sprang up between the abbot and the bishop, who was professor of theology at Notre Dame of Paris, and the founder of the Abbey of St. Victor.[3] The beginnings of Clairvaux Abbey were trying and painful. The regime was so austere that Bernard became ill, and only the influence of his friend William of Champeaux and the authority of the general chapter The abbey of Cluny as it would have looked in Bernard’s time. could make him mitigate the austerities. The monastery, however, made rapid progress. Disciples flocked to it in In the year 1119, Bernard was present at the first general great numbers and put themselves under the direction of chapter of the order convoked by Stephen of Cîteaux. Bernard. His father and all his brothers entered Clair- Though not yet 30 years old, Bernard was listened to 3.1 Schism 3

with the greatest attention and respect, especially when he developed his thoughts upon the revival of the primi- tive spirit of regularity and fervour in all the monastic orders. It was this general chapter that gave definitive form to the constitutions of the order and the regulations of the Charter of Charity which Pope Callixtus II confirmed 23 December 1119. In 1120, Bernard authored his first work, De Gradibus Superbiae et Humilitatis, and his homilies which he entitled De Laudibus Mariae. The monks of the abbey of Cluny were unhappy to see Cîteaux take the lead role among the religious orders of the Roman Catholic Church. For this reason, the Black Monks at- tempted to make it appear that the rules of the new order were impracticable. At the solicitation of William of St. Thierry, Bernard defended the order by publishing his Apology which was divided into two parts. In the first part, he proved himself innocent of the charges of Cluny and in the second he gave his reasons for his counterat- tacks. He protested his profound esteem for the Bene- dictines of Cluny whom he declared he loved equally as well as the other religious orders. Peter the Venerable, abbot of Cluny, answered Bernard and assured him of his great admiration and sincere friendship. In the meantime Cluny established a reform, and Abbot Suger, the minis- ter of Louis VI of France, was converted by the Apol- ogy of Bernard. He hastened to terminate his worldly life and restore discipline in his monastery. The zeal of Christ Embracing St Bernard by Francisco Ribalta Bernard extended to the bishops, the clergy, and lay people. Bernard’s letter to the archbishop of Sens was seen to it by force. In his response Bernard wrote, as a real treatise, “De Officiis Episcoporum.” About the same time he wrote his work on Grace and Free Will.[3] Now illustrious Harmeric if you so wished, who would have been more capable of freeing me from the necessity of assisting at the coun- 3 Doctor of the Church (1128–46) cil than yourself? Forbid those noisy troublesome frogs to come out of their holes, to leave In the year 1128 AD, Bernard participated in the Council their marshes . . . Then your friend will no of Troyes, which had been convoked by Pope Honorius longer be exposed to the accusations of pride II, and was presided over by Cardinal Matthew, Bishop of and presumption.[3] Albano. The purpose of this council was to settle certain disputes of the bishops of Paris, and regulate other mat- This letter made a positive impression on Harmeric, and ters of the Church of France. The bishops made Bernard in the Vatican. secretary of the council, and charged him with drawing up the synodal statutes. After the council, the bishop of Verdun was deposed. It was at this council that Bernard 3.1 Schism traced the outlines of the Rule of the Knights Templar who soon became the ideal of Christian nobility. Around Bernard’s influence was soon felt in provincial affairs. He this time, he praised them in his Liber ad milites templi de defended the rights of the Church against the encroach- laude novae militiae.[6] ments of kings and princes, and recalled to their duty Henri Sanglier, archbishop of Sens and Stephen of Senlis, Again reproaches arose against Bernard and he was de- bishop of Paris. On the death of Pope Honorius II, which nounced, even in Rome. He was accused of being a monk occurred on 14 February 1130, a schism broke out in the who meddled with matters that did not concern him. Church by the election of two popes, Pope Innocent II Cardinal Harmeric, on behalf of the pope, wrote Bernard and Pope Anacletus II. Innocent II, having been banished a sharp letter of remonstrance stating, “It is not fitting from Rome by Anacletus, took refuge in France. King that noisy and troublesome frogs should come out of their [3] Louis VI convened a national council of the French bish- marshes to trouble the Holy See and the cardinals.” ops at Étampes, and Bernard, summoned there by con- Bernard answered the letter by saying that, if he had as- sent of the bishops, was chosen to judge between the rival sisted at the council, it was because he had been dragged popes. He decided in favour of Innocent II. This caused 4 3 DOCTOR OF THE CHURCH (1128–46)

the pope to be recognized by all the great powers. He extquotedblDoctor of the Church extquotedbl. He wrote then went with him into Italy and reconciled Pisa with at this time his sermons on the Song of Songs. In 1137, he Genoa, and Milan with the pope. The same year Bernard was again forced to leave his solitude by order of the pope was again at the Council of Reims at the side of Inno- to put an end to the quarrel between Lothair and Roger of cent II. He then went to Aquitaine where he succeeded Sicily. At the conference held at Palermo, Bernard suc- for the time in detaching William X of Aquitaine, Count ceeded in convincing Roger of the rights of Innocent II. of Poitiers, from the cause of Anacletus.[4] He also silenced the ﬁnal supporters who sustained the schism. Anacletus died of “grief and disappointment” in 1138, and with him the schism ended.[3] In 1139, Bernard assisted at the Second Council of the Lateran, in which the surviving adherents of the schism were deﬁnitively condemned. About the same time, Bernard was visited at Clairvaux by Saint Malachy, Primate of All Ireland, and a very close friendship formed between them. Malachy wanted to become a Cistercian, but the pope would not give his permission. Malachy would die at Clairvaux in 1148.[3]

3.2 Contest with Abelard

Towards the close of the 11th century, a spirit of in- dependence flourished within schools of philosophy and theology. This led for a time to the exaltation of human reason and rationalism. The movement found an ar- dent and powerful advocate in Peter Abelard. Abelard’s treatise on the Trinity had been condemned as hereti- St Bernard in a medieval illuminated manuscript cal in 1121, and he was compelled to throw his own book into the fire. However, Abelard continued to de- In 1132, Bernard accompanied Innocent II into Italy, and velop his teachings, which were controversial in some at Cluny the pope abolished the dues which Clairvaux quarters. Bernard, informed of this by William of St- used to pay to that abbey. This action gave rise to a quar- Thierry, is said to have held a meeting with Abelard in- rel between the White Monks and the Black Monks which tending to persuade him to amend his writings, during lasted 20 years. In May of that year, the pope, supported which Abelard repented and promised to do so. But once by the army of Emperor Lothair III, entered Rome, but out of Bernard’s presence, he reneged.[7] Bernard then de- Lothair, feeling himself too weak to resist the partisans of nounced Abelard to the pope and cardinals of the Curia. Anacletus, retired beyond the Alps, and Innocent sought Abelard sought a debate with Bernard, but Bernard ini- refuge in Pisa in September 1133. Bernard had returned tially declined, saying he did not feel matters of such im- to France in June and was continuing the work of peace- portance should be settled by logical analyses. Bernard’s making which he had commenced in 1130. Towards the letters to William of St-Thierry also express his apprehen- end of 1134, he made a second journey into Aquitaine, sion about confronting the preeminent logician. Abelard where William X had relapsed into schism. Bernard in- continued to press for a public debate, and made his chal- vited William to the Mass which he celebrated in the lenge widely known, making it hard for Bernard to de- Church of La Couldre. At the Eucharist, he “admonished cline. In 1141, at the urgings of Abelard, the archbishop the Duke not to despise God as he did His servants”.[3] of Sens called a council of bishops, where Abelard and William yielded and the schism ended. Bernard went Bernard were to put their respective cases so Abelard again to Italy, where Roger II of Sicily was endeavour- would have a chance to clear his name.[7] Bernard lob- ing to withdraw the Pisans from their allegiance to In- bied the prelates on the evening before the debate, sway- nocent. He recalled the city of Milan to obedience to ing many of them to his view. The next day, after Bernard the pope as they had followed the deposed Anselm V, made his opening statement, Abelard decided to retire Archbishop of Milan. For this, he was offered, and he without attempting to answer.[7] The council found in refused, the archbishopric of Milan. He then returned to favour of Bernard and their judgment was confirmed by Clairvaux. Believing himself at last secure in his cloister, the pope. Abelard submitted without resistance, and he Bernard devoted himself with renewed vigour to the com- retired to Cluny to live under the protection of Peter the position of the works which would win for him the title of Venerable, where he died two years later.[4] 5

3.3 Cistercian Order and Heresy

Bernard had occupied himself in sending bands of monks from his overcrowded monastery into Germany, Sweden, England, Ireland, Portugal, Switzerland, and Italy. Some of these, at the command of Innocent II, took possession of Trois-Fontaines Abbey, from which Pope Euge- nius III would be chosen in 1145. Pope Innocent II died in the year 1143. His two successors, Pope Celestine II and Pope Lucius II, reigned only a short time, and then Bernard saw one of his disciples, Bernard of Pisa, and known thereafter as Eugenius III, raised to the Chair of Saint Peter.[8] Bernard sent him, at the pope’s own re- quest, various instructions which comprise the Book of Considerations, the predominating idea of which is that the reformation of the Church ought to commence with the sanctity of the pope. Temporal matters are merely accessories; the principles according to Bernard’s work were that piety and meditation were to precede action.[9] Having previously helped end the schism within the Church, Bernard was now called upon to combat heresy. Henry of Lausanne, a former Cluniac monk, had adopted the teachings of the Petrobrusians, followers of Peter of Bruys and spread them in a modiﬁed form after Peter’s death.[10] Henry of Lausanne’s followers became known as Henricians. In June 1145, at the invitation of Cardinal Alberic of Ostia, Bernard traveled in southern France.[11] His preaching, aided by his ascetic looks and simple at- tire, helped doom the new sects. Both the Henrician and the Petrobrusian faiths began to die out by the end of that year. Soon afterwards, Henry of Lausanne was arrested, Bernard of Clairvaux, true eﬃgy by Georg Andreas Wasshuber brought before the bishop of Toulouse, and probably im- (1650–1732) prisoned for life. In a letter to the people of Toulouse, un- doubtedly written at the end of 1146, Bernard calls upon Ludlow describes the scene in The Age of the Crusades as them to extirpate the last remnants of the heresy. He also follows: preached against the Cathars.[8]

A large platform was erected on a hill 4 Second Crusade (1146–49) outside the city. King and monk stood to- gether, representing the combined will of earth and heaven. The enthusiasm of the assembly News came at this time from the Holy Land that alarmed of Clermont in 1095, when Peter the Hermit Christendom. Christians had been defeated at the Siege and Urban II launched the first crusade, was of Edessa and most of the county had fallen into the hands [12] matched by the holy fervor inspired by Bernard of the Seljuk Turks. The Kingdom of Jerusalem and as he cried, “O ye who listen to me! Hasten to the other Crusader states were threatened with similar appease the anger of heaven, but no longer im- disaster. Deputations of the bishops of Armenia solicited plore its goodness by vain complaints. Clothe aid from the pope, and the King of France also sent am- yourselves in sackcloth, but also cover your- bassadors. The pope commissioned Bernard to preach selves with your impenetrable bucklers. The a Second Crusade and granted the same indulgences for din of arms, the danger, the labors, the fatigues it which Pope Urban II had accorded to the First Cru- [13] of war, are the penances that God now imposes sade. upon you. Hasten then to expiate your sins There was at first virtually no popular enthusiasm for the by victories over the Infidels, and let the de- crusade as there had been in 1095. Bernard found it ex- liverance of the holy places be the reward of pedient to dwell upon the taking of the cross as a potent your repentance.” As in the olden scene, the means of gaining absolution for sin and attaining grace. cry extquotedblDeus vult! Deus vult! extquot- On 31 March, with King Louis present, he preached to edbl rolled over the fields, and was echoed by an enormous crowd in a field at Vézelay. James Meeker the voice of the orator: “Cursed be he who does 6 6 THEOLOGY

not stain his sword with blood.”[14]

When Bernard was finished the crowd enlisted en masse; they supposedly ran out of cloth to make crosses. Bernard is said to have given his own outer garments to be cut up to make more.[13] Unlike the First Crusade, the new ven- ture attracted royalty, such as Eleanor of Aquitaine, then Queen of France; Thierry of Alsace, Count of Flanders; Henry, the future Count of Champagne; Louis’ brother Robert I of Dreux; Alphonse I of Toulouse; William II of Nevers; William de Warenne, 3rd Earl of Surrey; Hugh VII of Lusignan; and numerous other nobles and bishops. But an even greater show of support came from the common people. Bernard wrote to the pope a few days afterwards, “Cities and castles are now empty. There is not left one man to seven women, and everywhere there are widows to still-living husbands.”[13] Bernard then passed into Germany, and the reported miracles which multiplied almost at his every step undoubt- edly contributed to the success of his mission. Conrad III of Germany and his nephew Frederick Barbarossa, re- ceived the cross from the hand of Bernard.[12] Pope Eu- genius came in person to France to encourage the enter- prise. As in the First Crusade, the preaching inadver- tently led to attacks on Jews; a fanatical French monk named Radulphe was apparently inspiring massacres of Jews in the Rhineland, Cologne, Mainz, Worms, and Speyer, with Radulphe claiming Jews were not contribut- ing financially to the rescue of the Holy Land. The archbishop of Cologne and the archbishop of Mainz were Bernard receiving milk from the breast of the Virgin Mary. The scene is a legend which allegedly took place at Speyer Cathedral vehemently opposed to these attacks and asked Bernard in 1146. to denounce them. This he did, but when the campaign continued, Bernard traveled from Flanders to Germany to deal with the problems in person. He then found approaching. The passing of Pope Eugenius had struck Radulphe in Mainz and was able to silence him, returning the fatal blow by taking from him one whom he consid- him to his monastery.[15] ered his greatest friend and consoler. Bernard died at age sixty-three on 20 August 1153, after forty years spent in The last years of Bernard’s life were saddened by the fail- the cloister.[8] He was buried at the Clairvaux Abbey, but ure of the Second Crusade he had preached, the entire re- after its dissolution in 1792 by the French revolutionary sponsibility for which was thrown upon him.[16] Bernard government, his remains were transferred to the Troyes considered it his duty to send an apology to the Pope and Cathedral. it is inserted in the second part of his “Book of Consider- ations.” There he explains how the sins of the crusaders were the cause of their misfortune and failures. When his attempt to call a new crusade failed, he tried to dis- 6 Theology associate himself from the fiasco of the Second Crusade altogether.[17] Main article: Doctor Mellifluus

St. Bernard of Clairvaux was named a Doctor of the 5 Final years (1149–53) Church in 1830. At the 800th anniversary of his death, Pope Pius XII issued an encyclical on Bernard, Doctor The death of his contemporaries served as a warning to Mellifluus, in which he labeled him “The Last of the Fa- Bernard of his own approaching end. The first to die thers.” Bernard did not reject human philosophy which was Suger in 1152, of whom Bernard wrote to Eugenius is genuine philosophy, which leads to God; he differen- III, “If there is any precious vase adorning the palace of tiates between different kinds of knowledge, the highest the King of Kings it is the soul of the venerable Suger”. being theological. Three central elements of Bernard’s Conrad III and his son Henry died the same year. From Mariology are how he explained the virginity of Mary, the beginning of the year 1153, Bernard felt his death the “Star of the Sea”, how the faithful should pray on the 7

Virgin Mary, and how he relied on the Virgin Mary as Humility and Pride) his ﬁrst treatise, written in the Mediatrix. mid-1120s.[28] Bernard, like Thomas Aquinas, denied the doctrine of the Immaculate Conception of Mary.[18][19][20] Calvin quotes • Apologia ad Guillelmum Sancti Theoderici Abbatem Bernard several times[21] in support of the doctrine of (Apology to William of St. Thierry), written in the Sola Fide,[22][23] which Luther described as the article defence of the Cistercians against the claims of the [29] upon which the church stands or falls.[24] Calvin also monks of Cluny. quotes him in setting forth his doctrine of a forensic alien righteousness, or as it is commonly called imputed righ- • De Conversione Ad Clericos Sermo Seu Liber (On teousness.[25][26] the Conversion of Clerics), a book addressed to the young ecclesiastics of Paris written in 1122.[30]

7 Spirituality • De Gratia et Libero Arbitrio (On Grace and Free Choice), written c1128, in which the Roman Bernard was instrumental in re-emphasizing the impor- Catholic dogma of grace and free will was defended [31] tance of Lectio Divina and contemplation on Scripture according to the principles of St Augustine. within the Cistercian order.[27] Bernard had observed that when Lectio Divina was neglected monasticism suf- • De diligendo Dei,(On Loving God), possibly writ- fered. Bernard considered Lectio Divina and contem- ten c1128,[32] which outlines seven stages of ascent plation guided by the Holy Spirit the keys to nourishing leading to union with God. Christian spirituality.[27] • De Laude Novae Militiae, (In Praise of the New Knighthood) addressed to Hugh de Paynes, ﬁrst 8 Works Grand Master and Prior of Jerusalem (1129). This is a eulogy of the Knights Templar order, which had been instituted in 1118, and an exhortation to the knights to conduct themselves with courage in their several stations.[33]

• De praecepto et dispensatione libri (Book of Precepts and Dispensations), written c1141–44, which contains answers to questions upon certain points of the Rule of St Benedict from which the abbot can, or cannot, dispense.[34] • De Consideratione (On Consideration), written c1148-53, addressed to Pope Eugenius III.[35]

• Liber De Vita Et Rebus Gestis Sancti Malachiae Hiberniae Episcopi (The life and death of Saint Malachy, the Irishman).[36]

• De Moribus Et Oﬃcio Episcoporum, which is a letter addressed to Henry, Archbishop of Sens on the duties of bishops.[37]

His sermons are also numerous:

• Most famous are his Sermones super Cantica Con- An engraving of The Lactation of Saint Bernard. The Virgin ticorum (Sermons on the Song of Songs). Although Mary is shooting milk into the eye of Saint Bernard of Clairvaux it has at times been suggested that the sermon form from her right breast which allegedly miraculously cured an eye is a rhetorical device in a set of works which were aﬄiction. only ever designed to be read, since such ﬁnely pol- ished and lengthy literary pieces could not accurately The works of Bernard include the following: have been recorded by a monk while Bernard was preaching, recent scholarship has tended to tend to- • De gradibus humilitatis et superbiae, (The Steps of ward the theory that, although what exists in these 8 10 SEE ALSO

texts was certainly the product of Bernard’s writing, they likely found their origins in sermons preached to the monks of Clairvaux.[38] Bernard began to produce these in 1135, and died still not having completed his series, with 86 sermons complete. (These sermons contain an autobiographical pas- sage, sermon 26, mourning the death of his brother, Gerard.)[39][40] (Sometime after Bernard of Clair- vaux died, the English Cistercian Gilbert of Hoyland was asked to continue Bernard’s incomplete series of 86 sermons on the biblical Song of Songs. Gilbert wrote 47 sermons before he died in 1172, taking the series up to Chapter 5 of the Song of Songs. An- other English Cistercian abbot, John of Ford, wrote another 120 sermons on the Song of Songs, so com- pleting the Cistercian sermon-commentary on the book.)

• There are 125 surviving Sermones per annum, or Sermons on the Liturgical Year.

• There are also the Sermones de diversis (Sermons on Diﬀerent Topics).

• 547 letters survive.[41]

Many letters, treatises, and other works, falsely attributed to him survive, and are now referred to as works by Stained glass representing Bernard. Upper Rhine, ca. 1450. pseudo-Bernard. These include: Cistercians honour him as only the founders of orders are • Echelle du Cloître honoured, because of the widespread activity which he [8] • Meditations. This was probably written at some gave to the order. point in the thirteenth century. It circulated ex- Saint Bernard’s Prayer to the Shoulder Wound of Jesus is tensively in the Middle Ages under Bernard’s name often published in Catholic prayer books. and was one of the most popular religious works Dante Alighieri's extquotedblDivine Comedy extquot- of the later Middle Ages. Its theme is self- edbl places him as the last guide for Dante, as he knowledge as the beginning of wisdom; it begins travels through the Empyrean (Paradiso, cantos XXXI– with the phrase “Many know much, but do not know XXXIII). Dante’s choice appears to be based on themselves”.[42] Bernard’s contemplative mysticism, his devotion to Mary, • L'edification de la Maison intérieure. and his reputation for eloquence.[45] He is also the attributed author of the poems often translated in English hymnals as extquotedblO Sacred Head, 9 Legacy Now Wounded extquotedbl and “Jesus the Very Thought of Thee”. Bernard’s theology and Mariology continue to be of ma- jor importance, particularly within the Cistercian and Trappist orders.[43] Bernard led to the foundation of 163 10 See also monasteries in different parts of Europe. At his death, they numbered 343. His influence led Pope Alexander • List of Catholic saints III to launch reforms that would lead to the establish- [44] ment of canon law. He was the first Cistercian monk • List of Latin nicknames of the Middle Ages: Doc- placed on the calendar of saints and was canonized by tors in theology Pope Alexander III 18 January 1174. Pope Pius VIII bestowed on him the title of Doctor of the Church. He • Scholasticism is fondly remembered as the “Mellifluous Doctor” (the Honey-Sweet(-voiced) Doctor) for his eloquence. The • Cistercians 9

• St. Bernard de Clairvaux Church [26] Book 3 Ch 25 Sec 2.” Institutes of the Christian Religion. Philadelphia: Westminster, 1960. Print. • Prayer to the shoulder wound of Jesus [27] Christian spirituality: themes from the tradition by Lawrence S. Cunningham, Keith J. Egan 1996 ISBN 978- 11 Notes 0-8091-3660-5 pp. 91–92 [28] The Latin text is in PL182 939-972C.

[1] Smith, William (2010). Catholic Church Milestones: Peo- [29] The Latin text is in PL182 893-918A. ple and Events That Shaped the Institutional Church. Indi- anapolis: Left Coast. p. 32. ISBN 978-1-60844-821-0. [30] The Latin text is in PL 182:833 −856D.

[2] St. Bernard of Clairveaux by Msgr. Leon Cristiani c 1970 [31] The Latin text is in PL182 999-1030A.

[3] extquotedblSt Bernard of Clairvaux extquotedbl in the [32] The Latin text is in PL182 971-1000B. 1913 “Catholic Encyclopedia”. [33] The Latin text is in PL182 917-940B. [4] Bunson (1998) p.129. [34] The Latin text is in PL 182:857-894C.

[5] McManners (1990) p.204. [35] The Latin text is in PL182 727-808A, with the title given [6] Durant (1950) p.593. as De Consideratione Libri Quinque Ad Eugenium Tertium.

[7] Evans (2000) p.115 – 123. [36] The Latin text is in PL182 1073 - 1118A. The English translation is The life and death of Saint Malachy, the [8] Bunson (1998) p.130. Irishman translated and annotated by Robert T. Meyer, (Kalamazoo, Mich: Cistercian Publications, 1978). [9] McManners (1990) p.210. [37] The Latin text is in PL182 807-834A. [10] Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). “Henry of Lausanne”. Encyclopædia Britannica 13 (11th ed.). Cambridge Uni- [38] For a history of the debate over the Sermons, and an at- versity Press. p. 299. tempted solution, see Jean LeClercq, 'Introduction', in Bernard of Clairvaux, On the Song of Songs, vol 2, Cis- [11] McManners (1990) p.211. tercian Fathers series no7 (Spencer, MA: Cistercian Pub- lications, 1976), vii-xxx [12] Riley-Smith (1991) p.48 [39] Wim Verbaal, “Preaching the Dead from Their Graves: [13] Durant (1950) p.594. Bernard of Clairvaux’s Lament on His Brother Gerard,” in: Speculum Sermonis: Interdisciplinary Reﬂections on the [14] Ludlow, James Meeker The Age of the Crusades. Chris- Medieval Sermon, ed. Georgiana Donavin, Cary J. Ned- tian Literature Co. (1896) pp.164-167 erman, and Richard Utz. Turnhout: Brepols, 2004. pp. [15] Durant (1950) p. 391. 113–39

[16] Bunson (1998) p. 130. [40] The Latin text is in PL 183:785 - 1198A.

[17] Runciman (1952) pp. 232–4 and pg. 277. [41] These are edited in Sancti Bernardi Opera, ed Jean Leclercq et al., vols 7-8. [18] Bernard of Clairvaux: The Times, the Man, and His Work [42] The Latin text is printed in PL 184:485-508. See Thomas [19] Bernard of Clairvaux. “The Letters of St. Bernard of H Bestul, Meditatio/Meditation, in Amy Hollywood, ed, Clairvaux” Epistle 174 Tr. by Bruno Scott James. 1998 The Cambridge Companion to Christian Mysticism, (Cam- bridge: CUP, 2012), p164 [20] William G. Most, “Mary’s Immaculate Conception” [43] His texts are prescribed readings in Cistercian congrega- [21] Anthony N.S. Lane, John Calvin Student of Church Fa- tions thers (A&C Black 1999 ISBN 978-0-56708694-5), pp. 100–101 [44] Duﬀy (1997) p. 101.

[22] Calvin, Jean. “Book 3 Ch 2 Sec 25.” Institutes of the [45] Botterill (1994) Christian Religion. Philadelphia: Westminster, 1960. Print.

[23] Book 3 Ch 12 Sec 3.” Institutes of the Christian Religion. 12 Modern editions Philadelphia: Westminster, 1960. Print. 12.1 Critical edition [24] Luther, Martin. Luther Werke, Weimar Ausgabe. Her- man Boehlau: Weimar, Germany, 1930, Vol.40, p.130. • The modern critical edition is Sancti Bernardi opera, [25] Book 3 Ch 11 Sec 22.” Institutes of the Christian Religion. ed J Leclercq, CH Talbot and HM Rochais, 9 vols, Philadelphia: Westminster, 1960. Print. (Rome: Editiones Cistercienses, 1957–77) 10 12 MODERN EDITIONS

12.2 Translations • Sermons on Conversion: on conversion, a sermon to clerics and Lenten sermons on the psalm “He Who • On consideration, trans George Lewis, (Oxford, Dwells”., Cistercian Fathers Series no. 25, (Kala- 1908) mazoo, MI: Cistercian Publications, 1981) • Select treatises of S. Bernard of Clairvaux: De dili- • Bernard of Clairvaux, Song of Solomon, translated gendo Deo & De gradibus humilitatis et superbiae, by Samuel J. Eales, (Minneapolis, MN: Klock & (Cambridge: CUP, 1926) Klock, 1984) • The letters of St. Bernard of Clairvaux, translated • St. Bernard’s sermons on the Blessed Virgin Mary, by Bruno Scott James, (London: Burns and Oates, translated from the original Latin by a priest of 1953) [reissued as (Stroud: Sutton, 1998)] Mount Melleray, (Chumleigh: Augustine, 1984) • On loving God, and selections from sermons, edited • Bernard of Clairvaux, The twelve steps of humility by Hugh Martin, (London: SCM Press, 1959) and pride; and, On loving God, edited by Halcyon C. [reprinted as (Westport, CO: Greenwood Press, Backhouse, (London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1985) 1981)] • • Cistercians and Cluniacs: St. Bernard’s Apologia to St. Bernard’s sermons on the Nativity, translated Abbot William, trans M Casey. Cistercian Fathers from the original Latin by a priest of Mount series no. 1, (Kalamazoo: Cistercian Publications, Melleray, (Devon: Augustine, 1985) 1970) • Bernard of Clairvaux : selected works, translation • The works of Bernard of Clairvaux. Vol.1, Trea- and foreword by G.R. Evans; introduction by Jean tises, 1, edited by M. Basil Pennington. Cistercian Leclercq; preface by Ewert H. Cousins, (New York: Fathers Series, no. 1. (Spencer, Mass.: Cistercian Paulist Press, 1987) [Contains the treatises On con- Publications, 1970) [contains the treatises Apologia version, On the steps of humility and pride, On con- to Abbot William and On Precept and Dispensation, sideration, and On loving God; extracts from Ser- and two shorter liturgical treatises] mons on The song of songs, and a selection of letters] • Bernard of Clairvaux, On the Song of Songs, 4 vols, Cistercian Fathers series nos 4, 7, 31, 40, (Spencer, • Conrad Rudolph, The 'things of greater importance': MA: Cistercian Publications, 1971–80) Bernard of Clairvaux’s Apologia and the medieval attitude toward art, (Philadelphia: University of • Letter of Saint Bernard of Clairvaux on revision of Pennsylvania Press, 1990) [Includes the Apologia in Cistercian chant = Epistola S[ancti] Bernardi de re- both Latin text and English translation] visione cantus Cisterciensis, edited and translated by Francis J. Guentner, (American Institute of Musi- • Love without measure: extracts from the writings of cology, 1974) St Bernard of Clairvaux, introduced and arranged by Paul Diemer, Cistercian studies series no. 127, • Treatises II : The steps of humility and pride on loving (Kalamazoo, Mich. : Cistercian Publications, 1990) God, Cistercian Fathers series no. 13, (Washington: Cistercian Publications, 1984) • Sermons for the summer season: liturgical sermons • Five books on consideration: advice to a Pope, trans- from Rogationtide and Pentecost, translated by Bev- lated by John D. Anderson & Elizabeth T. Kennan. erly Mayne Kienzle; additional translations by James Cistercian Fathers Series no. 37. (Kalamazoo, MI: Jarzembowski, (Kalamazoo, Mich: Cistercian Pub- Cistercian Publications, 1976) lications, 1991) • • The Works of Bernard of Clairvaux. Volume Seven, Bernard of Clairvaux, On loving God, Cistercian Fa- Treatises III: On Grace and free choice. In praise thers series no. 13B, (Kalamazoo, MI: Cistercian of the new knighthood, translated by Conrad Gree- Publications, 1995) nia. Cistercian Fathers Series no. 19, (Kalamazoo, • Bernard of Clairvaux, The parables & the sentences, Michigan: Cistercian Publications Inc, 1977) edited by Maureen M. O'Brien. Cistercian Fathers • The life and death of Saint Malachy, the Irishman Series no. 55, (Kalamazoo, MI: Cistercian Publica- translated and annotated by Robert T. Meyer, (Kala- tions, 2000) mazoo, Mich: Cistercian Publications, 1978) • Bernard of Clairvaux, On baptism and the office of • Bernard of Clairvaux, Homiliae in laudibus Virgi- bishops, on the conduct and office of bishops, on bap- nis Matris, in Magnificat: homilies in praise of the tism and other questions: two letter-treatises, trans- Blessed Virgin Mary translated by Marie-Bernard lated by Pauline Matarasso. Cistercian Fathers Se- Saïd and Grace Perigo, Cistercian Fathers Series no. ries no. 67, (Kalamazoo, MI: Cistercian Publica- 18, (Kalamazoo, MI: Cistercian Publications, 1979) tions, 2004) 11

• Bernard of Clairvaux, Sermons for Advent and 15 External links the Christmas season translated by Irene Edmonds, Wendy Mary Beckett, Conrad Greenia; edited by • The Life and Miracles of St. Bernard of Clairvaux, John Leinenweber; introduction by Wim Verbaal. Doctor of the Church Cistercian Fathers Series no. 51, (Kalamazoo, MI: Cistercian Publications, 2007) • “St. Bernard, Abbot”, Butler’s Lives of the Saints • Bernard of Clairvaux, Sermons for Lent and the • Opera omnia Sancti Bernardi Claraevallensis his Easter Season, edited by John Leinenweber and complete works, in Latin Mark Scott, OCSO. Cistercian Fathers Series no. • 52, (Kalamazoo, MI: Cistercian Publications, 2013) Works by or about Bernard of Clairvaux in libraries (WorldCat catalog) • Audio on the life of St. Bernard of Clairvaux from 13 References waysideaudio.com. • • Botterill, Steven (1994). Dante and the Mystical Bernard of Clairvaux at Project Gutenberg Tradition: Bernard of Clairvaux in the Commedia. • Saint Bernard of Clairvaux at the Christian Iconog- Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. raphy web site. • Bunson, Matthew, Margaret, & Stephen (1998). • “Here Followeth the Life of St. Bernard, the Mel- Our Sunday Visitor’s Encyclopedia of Saints. Hunt- liﬂuous Doctor” from the Caxton translation of the ington: Our Sunday Visitor. ISBN 0-87973-588-0. Golden Legend • Cantor, Norman (1994). The Civilization of the • Middle Ages. New York: HarperPerennial. ISBN “Two Accounts of the Early Career of St. Bernard” 0-06-092553-1. by William of Thierry and Arnold of Bonneval • • Duﬀy, Eamon (1997). Saints and Sinners, a History Saint Bernard of Clairvaux Abbot, Doctor of the of the Popes. Church-1153 at EWTN Global Catholic Network • Evans, Gillian R. (2000). Bernard of Clairvaux (Great Medieval Thinkers). Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-512525-8. • Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). extquotedblBernard, Saint extquotedbl. Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. • M. Gildas (1913). extquotedblSt. Bernard of Clair- vaux extquotedbl. Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company. • Gilson, Etienne (1940). The mystical theology of St Bernard. London: Sheed & Ward. • Mcmanners, John (1990). The Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-822928-3. • Riley-Smith, Jonathan (1991). The Atlas of the Cru- sades. New York: Facts on File. ISBN 0-8160- 2186-4. • Runciman, Steven (1987). The Kingdom of Jerusalem and the Frankish East, 1100–1187.A History of the Crusades 2. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-34771-8.

14 Ebook

• Bernard of Clairvaux, On Loving God, London, 2012. limovia.net ISBN 978-1-78336-008-6 12 16 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

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