MEMMJ^M^ETTLEMEMTS and ARCHAEOLOGICAL REALITY in the LESSER Anmijes^J^CA^OF Qlairoe-TERRE, GUADELOUPE André Delpuech, Corinne Hofman and Menno Hoogland

MEMMJ^M^ETTLEMEMTS AND ARCHAEOLOGICAL REALITY IN THE LESSER ANmiJES^J^CA^OF_QlAiroE-TERRE, GUADELOUPE André Delpuech, Corinne Hofman and Menno Hoogland

Abstract: Geomorphological investigations revealed the significant modifications of the antillean shores during the Holocene, in relation to sealevel rises. In the same way, the analysis of erosion!sedimentation processes is required to estimate the representativeness of archaeological remains along the coasts. The comparison between the Atlantic coast of Grande-Terre, Guadeloupe, and the Grand Cul-de-Sac marin, on the toestem side, illustrates the importance of these parameters for the reconstruction of the successive Amerindian settlements in their own palaeoenvironment.

Résumé: Les études géomorphologiques révèlent des modifications importantes des rivages antillais durant l'Holocène en liaison avec l'élévation du niveau marin. Dans le même temps, l'analyse des processus d'érosion!sédimentation est utilisée pour évaluer la représentativité des vestiges archéologiques le long des côtes. La comparaison entre la côte Atlantique de la Grande-Terre de Guadeloupe et le Grand Gul-de-Sac marin, sur la côte ouest, illustre l'importance de ces paramètres pour la reconstruction des habitats amérindiens successifs dans leur environnement.

Resumen: Los estudios geomorfologicos indican importantes modificaciones de los orillas antillanas durante el Holoceno relacionadas con la subida del nivel marino. Al mismo tiempo, se ha hecho análisis de los procesos de erosion I sedimentación para valuar la quantidad verosímil de vestigios arqueológicos a lo largo de las costas. La comparación entre la costa atlántica de Grande-Terre de Guadalupe y el Grand Cul-de-Sac marino en la costa oeste, demuestra la importancia de estos parámetros para proponer una reconstrucción de los habitats amerindios sucesivos en su ambiente.

Introduction During our recent researches on Guadeloupe, particular attention has been paid to post-depositional processes which have affected the material remains discarded by pre-Columbian peoples. The main question is related to the representativeness of preserved archaeological sites, the only ones observed and studied by archaeologists in comparison with the reality of Amerindian settlements.

In the insular surroundings of the Lesser Antilles, most of the Amerindian settlements are coastal and therefore the post-depositional history mainly deals with marine processes affecting the archaeological record.

99 A number of scholars have treated these questions among whom Nicholson (1976) on Antigua, Ruppé (1980) in Florida, Waiters (1992) on Barbuda, Vega (1990) on Puerto Rico, Keegan (1992) in the Bahamas. We would like to point out the work of David Watters (1981) who introduced the notion of oeeano-archaeoiogy and, next to anthropological questions of maritime adaptations (prehistoric peoples' interactions with the ocean), insisted on the prominent role of post-depositionai history.

1. The case of Grande-Terre To illustrate our purpose, we choose the example of the island of Grande-Terre, Guadeloupe. Situated in the outer or limestone arc of the Lesser Antilles, in the eastern part of the Guadeloupean archipelago, Grande-Terre has an area of 590 km2 and rises up to 135 m above sea level. This flat island is fully covered by limestone of the Plio-Pleistocene age. The role played by tectonics is fundamental, with a general tipping of the island and the subsidence of the western coast together with an elevation of the eastern coast. The configuration of the two islands of Basse-Terre and Grande-Terre forms two large marine bays, le Grand and le Petit Culs-de-Sac marins connected by a small arm of the sea, la Rivière Salée.

At first sight Grande-Terre offers a surprising archaeological picture from a geographical and chronological point of view (fig. 1) First, the map of inventoried archaeological sites (without distinction between types of sites : from a few sherds collected on the surface to structured settlements like Morel or Anse à la Gourde), offers a considerable contrast. Out of a total of about fifty sites, 20 are located on the south coast, about 20 on the Atlantic coast to the east, and only 6 on the northern part of the west coast. There are practically no sites in the area of the Culs de Sac marins (Delpuech 1998).

Second, we have a question of chronological order: - there are no pre-ceramic sites inventoried on the island, with the only possible but not confirmed exception of La Pointe des Pies at Saint-François in the east (excavations G. Richard 1993). - The early Saladoid occupations are scarce with only a few sites in the area of Le Moule, on the north east coast. - The late Saladoid occupations are somewhat more numerous. - The majority of the sites are post-Saladoid.

This may partly reflect a population growth but post-depositional parameters play certainty a major role in this vision as we'll see.

2. The east and south Atlantic coasts Exposed to the Ocean swell and to tropical storms, the east and south coasts of Grande-Terre are characterized by large calcareous cliffs bordered by a littoral shelf. The configuration we see now largely proceeds of the last interglacial when the sea level was higher than the present one. This has led to the erosion of the high cliffs and the formation of a submerged

100 coastal platform. This low littoral terrace is made of coral reefs and beachrocks dated between 160 and 120 000 years (Battistini & Hinschberger 1985).

The Atlantic coast shows two distinctive parts (fig. 2): - To the north of le Moule : the littoral plateau has been completely submerged by the rise of sea level during the Holocene age, and the last interglacial cliffs are once more attacked by the sea. No former Amerindian settlement has been preserved along the waterfront on the beaches. This region has been little accessible by the sea except for some small inlets in the cliff (Porte d'Enfer, Anse des Corps) with some indications of sites. Some material was also collected on the surface of the ridges of the cliffs. It pertains to late sites, poorly preserved due to the lack of sedimentation. - To the east of Le Moule, the sea did not yet reach the level of the latest interglacial and the cliffs are stable with an accumulation of colluviums at their base. The coastal shelf is still partly emerged.

This low terrace constituted a very favourable location for human settlement, but is above all a privileged place for recent sedimentation with the formation of littoral deposits (beaches, dunes, beach rocks) which preserved archaeological remains.

However, the constant rise of sea level during the last millennia favoured the progressive erosion of these Holocene deposits which enclose the principal Guadeloupean archaeological sites. The whole of these remains will eventually disappear as was demonstrated by our investigations at Anse à la Gourde, Anse à l'Eau and Morel.

The morphological evolution at Anse à la Gourde during the last two millennia is a good example of this process as presented at the congress on Grenada (Delpuech, Hofman & Hoogland 2001).

The 1999 survey at Anse à l'Eau, and the 1995 and 1999 salvage excavations at Morel did show that these dynamics of coastal retreat and of destruction of archaeological remains were particularly dramatic.

The configuration of Morel 2000 years ago, during the Huecan and Cedrosan occupations, was completely different (Hofman, Hoogland & Delpuech 1999). With a sea level about 2 m lower than today, the coastline might have been hundreds of meters seawards. As observed on aerial photographs, different ridges of cays and of beachrocks extend over 500 m from the present littoral. This process actively goes on and, between 1947 and 1999, the beach retreated by 30 to 40m. The coastal dunes which were still in place in 1984 have completely disappeared. Moreover, the Morel I level is located only a few centimeters above the actual sea level. According to the descriptions of Edgar Clerc in the 1970, Morel I was then covered by 2 meters of sand while it is now exposed to the surface as observed after hurricane Luis in 1995.

101 What is now to be seen of the remains of the occupations at Morel is limited to a narrow strip at the foot of the cliffs and will soon completely disappear. We have no idea of the original extension of the Huecan and Cedrosan settlements.

3. The Culs-de-Sac marins The western coast of Grande-Terre offers a very different vision (Fig. 3). The lagoon of the Grand-Cul-de~Sac is bordered to the north by a 29 km long barrier reef. This reef is the longest in the Lesser Antilles, and protects the lagoon from ocean waves. This bay of 150 km2, with depths of only a few decimeters to some meters with a maximum of 20 meters in its central part, is a vast subsidence area between the two main islands of Guadeloupe. The bay is intersected by sub- aquatic fossil valleys formed during the last glacial period (Guilcher & Maree 1978). Various small islets, sandy patches at sea level and coral formations rising to the surface are stretching all around the bay. Along the low mud and sheltered coasts and along the Rivière Salée, an important mangrove has developed on an area of 60 km2. On a reduced scale, the Petit Cul-de-Sac offers the same characteristics.

We can observe that the Holocene formations are extremely well developed in the Culs de Sac area. The bottom of the bay is covered by clayish and sandy sediments of essentially marine , but also of terrestrial fluvial origin. These sediments can be more than 6 m deep in some places as the lagoon of Belle-Plaine (Assor & Julius 1983).

In the mangrove zone, formations of peat have been developing considerably. Some auger testing done by a University of the Antilles and Guyana team, in the area of Canal de Perrin, in the south eastern part of the Grand Cul-de-Sac, revealed an accumulation of 7 m of peat, on top of 3 m of clayish sediment (Feller & al 1992).

In addition to interesting paleobotanic information, this stratigraphy permitted the reconstitution of sea level rise in this area during the last 7000 years: - sea level rise was very rapid between 7000 and 4000 BP by approximately 3,4m / 1000 years. - much slower between 4000 and 1000 BP : 0,8 m / 1000 years. These numbers are equivalent to those registered elsewhere in the Caribbean.

- However, a relatively important sea level rise of 1,80 m has been observed for the last millennium. This could be partially due to local neo-tectonic activity, in the context of the general subsidence of the island of Grande-Terre to the west.

We can thus understand that with the shallow topography of the Culs de Sac, these combined eustatic and tectonic movements have been leading to thorough changes of environment during the last millennia. The coastline considerably moved in the course of the Holocene (Fig. 3). A 2 meters lower sea level puts the shore in some places up to 8 km away from the present one. The submersion of very

102 large surfaces, notably in the eastern part of the bay, is very recent and this process goes on during historic times. Several islets of the Petit Cul de Sac marin represented on a map of 1667 are now submerged. They have, in particular, undergone a tectonic subsidence of about 30cm during the earthquake of February 1843 which completely devastated Pointe-à-Pitre (Sainte-Claire Deville 1848).

On the archaeological point of view, the region of the Culs de Sac raises a serious problem of site prospection and identification with usual methods : in addition to the thick layers of sedimentation, the mangrove vegetation obscures the substrata and in the two bays only sub-aquatic archaeology is operational.

Some sites were recently registered: - At the Pointe Saint Vaast, in the south of Grand Cul-de-Sac: a site is located in one of the very few zones without coastal mangrove. - On the Islets of Fajou and Christophe in the core of the bay. In the latter, post-Saladoid remains are to be seen under the level of the sea. Some scarce other remains were identified in the cultivated lands behind the mangroves, on the limestone plateau.

The investigations have not been very intensive until now, but one may put into question the efficiency of the conventional prospection methods.

4. Archaeological reality and Amerindian settlement. In the foregoing part we have seen the importance of combining the study of anthropic and natural parameters in order to correctly approach the historical reality of the human occupation of the Guadeloupean archipelago.

In a diachronic vision, we might consider that the lack of pre-ceramic sites is certainly not due to the absence of Meso-Indian occupations, which are to be found on the neighboring island of Antigua. For a large part it may be explained by significant modifications of the coastline during the past 3 or 4000 years. The challenge is thus to find sedimentary formations older then 500 BC which could have preserved such remains. On the other hand, the scarce and for a large part destroyed early ceramic sites on the Atlantic coast, do not offer better stratigraphie research conditions, as we have seen during our investigations on the site of Morel.

On a synchronic point of view, the complete distortion between the east coast with a large number of sites and the archaeological desert of the west coast, only reflect a simple archaeological vision and a problem of site detection. It cannot correspond to a reality of settlement when one takes into account the ecological wealth of the Culs-de-Sac, well sheltered from the winds and where the European chronicles mention settlements.

103 Without doubt the Culs-de-Sac marins offer a promising potential and may be considered a privileged recorder of Amerindian settlements. Serious paleo-environmental studies will be of utmost importance in the future for a predictive orientation of in depth or sub-aquatic archaeological research.

These questions of the prominent role of post-depositional processes must be extended to the whole of the Lesser Antilles and specifically to the volcanic islands with a young and steep relief, which are subject to strong erosion (gully erosion, landslides), not to forget the impact of volcanic eruptions as we recently could witness on Montserrat.

References : Assor R. & Julius C, 1983. Caractéristiques sédimentologiques et micopaléontologiques de la lagune de Belle-Plaine (Mangrove de Guadeloupe). Bulletin de la Société Géologique de France, XXV-6 : 889-902

Battistini R. & Hinschberger F., 1985. La morphologie des côtes au vent de Grande-Terre et de Marie-Galante. Bulletin de l'Association des Géographes Français, Paris, 1985-2, 85-92

Delpuech A., 1998. Habitats amérindiens dans l'archipel guadeloupéen. In: G. Camps (éd.) L'Homme préhistorique et la mer. Actes du 120ème congrès national des sociétés historiques et scientifiques, Aix-en-Provence, 23-26 octobre 1995, éditions du CTHS, Paris, 1998, pp.307-318 ; ISBN 2- 7355-0370-4

Delpuech A., Hofman CL. & Hoogland M.L.P., 2001. Excavations at the site of Anse à la Gourde, Guadeloupe. Organisation, history and environmental setting. In XVIIIth International Congress for Caribbean Archaeology, Grenada, ll-17th July 1999, Edited by A.I.A.C, tome 2, pp. 156-161 ; ISBN 2-9510685-7-3

Feller C, Fournier M., Imbert D. ... [et al], 1992. Datations 14C et palynologie d'un sédiment tourbeux continu (0-7 m) dans la mangrove de Guadeloupe (F.W.I.). Résultats préliminaires. In Symposium PICG 274 / ORSTOM, Cayenne (Guyane), 9 - 14 nov. 1990 ; Organisé par l'ORSTOM : Evolution des littoraux de Guyane et de la zone caraïbe méridionale pendant le quaternaire. Paris : ORSTOM. pp. 193-202. ISBN 2-7099-1109-4.

Guiicher A. & Maree A., 1978. Le récif-barrière et le lagon du Grand Cul-de-Sac marin (Guadeloupe, Antilles françaises). Géomorphologie et sédiments. Oceanologica Acta, revue européenne d'Océanologie, 1-4 :.435-444

104 Hofman CL., Hoogland M.L.P. & Delpuech A., 1999. The presence of a huecan assemblage on Guadeloupe : the case of Morel I. In CL. Hofman and M.L.P. Hofman (eds), Archaeological investigations on St-Martin (Lesser Antilles) : the sites of Norman Estate, Anse des Pères and Hope Estate with a contribution to the 'la Hueca problem'. Archaeological Studies Leiden University n°4, Faculty of Archaeology, Leiden University, 1999, pp.303-312. ISBN 90-76368-04-X

Keegan W. F., 1992. Lucayan settlement patterns and coastal changes in the Bahamas. In; Johnson, L.L. (éd.), Paleoshorelines and Prehistory : an investigation of method, CRC Press, Boca Raton FL, p. 5-14

Nicholson D., 1976. The importance of sea-levels to Caribbean Archaeology. Journal of the Virgin Islands Archaeological Society, 3-1 :19-23

Ruppe R. J., 1980. Sea-level rise and Caribbean prehistory. In Compte-rendu des communications du huitième Congrès International d'Etudes des Civilisations Précolombiennes des Petites Antilles, St. Kitts, juillet 1979. Arizona State University, 1980. (Anthropological research papers ; 22). pp. 331-337

Sainte-Claire Deville C, 1848. Voyage géologique aux Antilles et aux îles de Ténériffe et de Pago. Paris : Gide et J. Baudry éditeurs. 504 p.

Vega J.E., 1990. The archaeology of coastal change, Puerto Rico. PhD Thesis, University of Florida, 158 p. Watters D.R., 1981. Linking Oceanography to Prehistoric Archaeology. Oceanus, 24-2 :11-19.

Watters D. R., Donahue J. & Stuckenrath R., 1992. Paeoshorelines and the the prehistory of Barbuda, West Indies. In : Johnson, L.L. (éd.), Paleoshorelines and Prehistory : an investigation of method, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, p. 15-52.

105 - •• '•- -- '• " ." - -.--••• '", "-'.'UIUI.UII. < -:';•:'• •/•:.:•.::;,••:••..•:.•..•. •••:••• :•.-•.:•••••:•;: iv-vr-vrv-^: - "• ; o 10 : 'x^Pïïk. L =J KM

Caribbean Sea

Atlantic Ocean

Het â FájOU

.•v/.sy.;...;':. '••:•:•.. '.:..• : '5 ^Cul-de-Sac - Marin .. GRANDE-TERRE 5?

BASSE-TERRE ointe do-i Châteaux

•^ Petit Cu! de Sac '00

Reefs 1 - Anse à la Gourde 2 - Anse à l'Eau 3 - Morel ; L l'Mï>§m».. ' • ^ '4 -'ftírí.iíf'- -yí'-;i..vhí"ff;:"'.' : ^v^at t ^::dœs%sr 6 - liet Fajou

í;5§MK3 J'l: _fë^>^^):. ^-sí'^r^r •^••^" ^^^^^'í?;^>

?06 g ! ' NE Tête à Bœuf Archaeological rite

limestone plateau ,

/ x Shorelines ~ M o - '.', v -am- M t / x ' / -5m U wmmmsm

Atlantic Ocean - \ ^ ' * ' \- -

N v Coastal shelf ~ 1 s \ : v ' - 'il/ ' i */ » / \ ' ' ' " '

Mord « p^^TTT^l - limestone plateau '~\ Archaeological site /- , ,- ' - /"'"•ifc Reefs Present sea level

k ' %- - s .- ' ' A -

s / t ' / '» '1 ) Present o ' ¡ "} , , ; i , 'l .2m , ; | ù '~ , • , - i,./ s ' •* shoreline' v ' -• ^ _ •* i_' - -5m / V -. ^ > ^ N.js~ ' - ^.,x— • s Shorelines , >• t x \ ' , "v ( v s i s x • "- '^ v " ( '- v i "• '- '• x " , '- Coastal shelf . ~ < - v ' "• - '• s ~ » '- ,. ' " '- '' - - X -** "—<•**, . **" V J*" "™ * "'S, ' • " ** S. - ~" *>» ** *~ "** V .. "" S rf — V

m Anse à l'Eau NE

Present sea level

Mla ntic Ocean

~ ' N > V - ' V, \ > V v ' -, Coastalshelf ' -,', N > \- - ' %', ^ > j^Mj

> I / V ' lMt ^ X ' N „I / N " >•

. 20ÏH

. to

Figure 2 : Eastern costs of Grande-Terre (Guadeloupe) Schematic cross sections

107 Port-Louis Látame - AAArchaeological rite

t X ' "v „, „ ». I • X _v TT—T--'- _ / , - ,x-'. / ,' * WL\\ Coastalshelf ^ * , „ «• 1 , - «• x ,\ " < ! i\ -am ' M i 1 , ,\' /-i'- , •/ • •Si» Shorelines - ' ' - x- - \

-.v.: le Sac marta ÍVÍÍÍÍ B:Í

1^/

Present sea level •'^', A ' ve _- ¿ limestone platean

Present snoreline/ r

NW Grand Cul de Sac marin .::••:: .

Det à Fajo» Archaeological ate Passe à Colas TeaÏE Reefs V, limestone platea» ' rove s * * r\' ' ' \

v • ' x" i*\ — ' ' \ ' ' X I A -2in Shorelines ;--iV X / î X ï t , , ' _ ~ ' / Paleo VaMey ' / x , ' . , ' - -- ' • x „ ' - ~ ' / v ,/

: X~- " X *. ^ X*. *" X•*- ¿ X** ' X ** v X«. . <* X ~~ :j .X.-~ _ r.x ** ^ X*. : s s < s \ X ' x „ «, 1 y x ' x _x 1 f x ' x „ «. 1 / x ' X. ^. u > .1 v x X; V ,. s' I ' X ' x _^ ¿, x

Figure 3 : Western coasts of Grande-Terre (Guadeloupe) Schematic cross sections

108