Creek Diplomacy in an Imperial Atlantic World
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University of New Hampshire University of New Hampshire Scholars' Repository Doctoral Dissertations Student Scholarship Fall 2010 Creek diplomacy in an imperial Atlantic world Deena L. Parmelee University of New Hampshire, Durham Follow this and additional works at: https://scholars.unh.edu/dissertation Recommended Citation Parmelee, Deena L., "Creek diplomacy in an imperial Atlantic world" (2010). Doctoral Dissertations. 527. https://scholars.unh.edu/dissertation/527 This Dissertation is brought to you for free and open access by the Student Scholarship at University of New Hampshire Scholars' Repository. It has been accepted for inclusion in Doctoral Dissertations by an authorized administrator of University of New Hampshire Scholars' Repository. For more information, please contact [email protected]. CREEK DIPLOMACY IN AN IMPERIAL ATLANTIC WORLD DEENA L PARMELEE Baccalaureate Degree, Notre Dame College, 1994 Master's Degree, University of New Hampshire, 2001 DISSERTATION Submitted to the University of New Hampshire in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in History September, 2010 UMI Number: 3430781 All rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. UMI UMI 3430781 Copyright 2010 by ProQuest LLC. All rights reserved. This edition of the work is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code. ProQuest® ProQuest LLC 789 East Eisenhower Parkway P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 48106-1346 ALL RIGHTS RESERVED ©2010 Deena L. Parmelee This dissertation has been examined and approved. Bissmation Etìrector, CyntBîa Van Zandt, Associate Professor ofHistory Elige Gould, Associate Professor ofHistory W. JefrreVTBqBter, Associate Professor ofHistory Kurfc Dorsey, AssociateSProfessorcJjitè^Pro ofHistory William E. Ross, Protessö^and Head^ Milne Special Collections & Archives <¿/ /¿L//Ò date' IV Acknowledgements I was fortunate enough to receive two summer grants from the University of New Hampshire's Graduate School that allowed me to make invaluable research trips to London and Chicago. The University's History Department provided several years of teaching funding that enabled me to focus on my academic work and improve my teaching skills. Among the excellent faculty in the department, a few were particularly helpful to me: Professor Ellen Fitzpatrick, Professor Greg McMahon, and Professor Jeff Diefendorf. A research assistantship with Professor Pedro de Alba of the Civil Engineering Department of the University of New Hampshire's College of Engineering and Physical Sciences provided me with another summer's worth of income and an academic challenge that had nothing to do with the Creeks. I am grateful for the wisdom and support of my Dissertation Committee: Professor Eliga Gould; Professor Jeff Bolster, Professor Kurk Dorsey, all of the History Department, and Professor Bill Ross, Director of the Milne Special Collection department at the Dimond Library. And not least, my deep gratitude to Professor Cynthia Van Zandt, advisor extraordinaire, who has been my mentor for more years than I will admit, and from whom I have learned more than I can tell. Af libraries & archives I thank the following: the Reference, Inter-Library loan, and circulation departments at the Dimond Library, University of New Hampshire: if I am fortunate to have staff of half the quality available at every library throughout my career, my life will be immeasurably easier, the Special Collections & University Archives department at the Dimond Library for economic assistance and generous understanding of my priorities the entire staff of the National Archive at Kew, including the reference librarian who reminded me that "that's why it's called Research." the Manuscript Reading Room staff at the British Library the staff at the American Antiquarian Society the Special Collections staff at the Newberry Library: their patience, efficiency, and ingenuity allowed me to make the most of my time there John Aubrey, also of the Newberry Library, whose helpful suggestions were both useful and reassuring Direct and concrete assistance from: Cecilia for translations Jo & Jim for timely hospitality without regard to duration Jamie & Laurie for generous hospitality and helpful logistical planning Evelyn for patient discussions of First Nations issues Fred & Suzanne for that twenty quid and so much more, all my life There's an old adage about the fact that the two things you never want to see being made are laws and sausage. To that I add a third: a dissertation. It takes the whole team to throw a perfect game, even though it is the pitcher who gets the credit. I would be remiss if I did not thank my team: V The invaluable friendship and support of: Angela; Bill; Briana; Cari; Carol; Cecilia; Claire; Elham; Eric & Maria; Evelyn; Janet; Jenna; Jo; Kathy; Keri; Katie; Kitsune; Laurali; Linda; Margaret; Mary N.; Mary S.; Mike; Mona; Shelley; Valerie; Vickie; and Zoe - your encouragement has sustained me, and your friendship means more than I can ever delineate. The family who could not stay to see me get this far, my Great Aunt Rose, and my mother-in-law Ethel, two women whose different forms of strength provided models for me and a path to follow: thank you for all you taught me. To Jeff, Tina, Adam, Ethan, Nathan, Miho, and Bruce, the family who have endured my periodic student status for three degrees over more than fifteen years, and have generously never objected when I sometimes failed to juggle academic work with the role of sister, sister-in-law, aunt, and step-mother- you are my foundation. My parents, for support and assistance of many kinds... It is true in more ways than one that without you, this would not have happened. I cannot offer sufficient thanks. And to Roger, first, last, and best... the catcher of this perfect game: to list what you have given me, done for me, been to me, over the years would take a volume of equal length, so I'm not even going to try - but that doesn't mean I ever forget any of it. Vl TABLE OF CONTENTS Acknowledgments ¡? List of Figures vii Abstract v¡¡¡ Introduction 1 Chapter 1 : First Impressions 40 Chapter 2: New Identities, New Neighbors 71 Chapter 3: Parallel Expansions: The Confederacy and its Neighbors 99 Chapter 4: Towards Neutrality 1 27 Chapter 5: Three White Feathers: Towards Peace 1 60 Chapter 6: Renewals and Tensions 200 Conclusion 229 Appendix A: List of Creek Towns 235 Bibliography 236 Vil List of Figures Figure 1 : Map of the Southeast circa 1 600 39 Figure 2: Map of the Southeast circa 1 732 1 99 Vili ABSTRACT CREEK DIPLOMACY IN AN IMPERIAL ATLANTIC WORLD by Deena L. Parmelee University of New Hampshire, September, 2010 "Creek Diplomacy in an Imperial Atlantic World," argues that Creek leaders saw opportunities for Creek peoples to play an important political and economic role in the Atlantic world even while the Confederacy itself was still forming. This study explores Creek participation in the Atlantic world in two ways. First, it traces Creek diplomatic travel to European centers. Second, it examines Creek reception of European traders and diplomats in Creek towns. In this way, it traces Creek diplomacy in its external and internal forms, as Creeks moved outward to establish diplomatic relations with others, and dealt with outsiders who came to them for the same purpose. Creek diplomats traveled extensively to promote their aims for almost three centuries. They visited important seats of European power in the American southeast, and they sent delegations to England, Mexico, and Canada. The Creeks were often successful in these missions, and their hosts recognized the Creeks' economic and political goals. The way Creeks dealt with outsiders within Creek territories is equally revealing of Creek understanding of their Atlantic world. Reception of European and Native American diplomats provided a crucial source of information for Creek people. Creeks preserved knowledge they gleaned from these visitors and passed that knowledge down over the generations. "Creek Diplomacy" argues that the peoples who comprised the Creek Confederacy began learning about Europeans well before they coalesced into the Confederacy. Linguistics, cultural elements, and archaeological evidence demonstrate that the Creek Confederacy was formed partly from the refugees of previous cultures from across the southeastern region. These peoples brought to the Creek Confederacy not only their languages and cultures, but social memories of experiences with Europeans. By the time of the Creek Confederacy, these experiences included more than a hundred years of contact with Europeans. This study reveals the ways in which these experiences informed the development of Creek diplomatic policies. 1 Introduction In 1 790, self-proclaimed Creek leader Alexander McGillivray signed a treaty with the United States in New York City, declaring peace between the Creek Nation and the United States. Another treaty, signed privately with George Washington at the same time, gave McGillivray a substantial salary and the title of brigadier-general. In 1 791 he signed a treaty with the Spanish of Florida, accepting a salary and the title of superintendent-general. McGillivray claimed Creek heritage through his mother, a half-Creek member of the Wind Clan, and the European heritage of his Scottish father, who had been one of the largest land-holders in South Carolina prior to the American Revolution.1 Scholars are familiar with McGillivray's career; they know the late eighteenth and early nineteenth century history of the Creek Confederacy well. As one of the Five Civilized Tribes removed from the American southeast to Indian Territory under the Jackson administration, the Creek Nation has not lacked a place in the early history of the United States.