UNIT Emergence of State and 4

Learning Objectives

To enable the students to acquire knowledge on „„the emergence of the first two important of „„the significance of the invasions of Persians and Greeks „„the socio-political changes from 6th century to 3rd century BCE. „„the Pre-Mauryan administration and socio-economic conditions „„the Dharmic state of through his edicts

Introduction waterways for trade and travel. , who was a contemporary of , started the From the sixth century to the third process of empire building in . It was century BCE, North India passed through strengthened by his son and then major political and social changes. by the Nandas. The empire reached its glory and emerged as prominent religions and peaked with the advent of the Mauryan having a large number of followers. These Empire founded by . The two religious systems were antithetical to the first three Mauryan emperors, Chandragupta, mainstream Vedic religion. As a consequence and Ashoka, were the best known. of new beliefs and ideas propounded by Jainism After Ashoka, the Mauryan Empire went into and Buddhism, the social order largely centred decline. on Vedic rituals underwent a significant change, Sources as people of many religious faiths were part of the emerging society. On the political front, The names of Chandragupta and his two minor states and federations of clans were successors in the Mauryan period are well merged through conquests to create an empire known now. But reconstructing their lives and during this period, resulting in a large state, careers was a laborious and difficult process ruled by a chakravartin or ekarat (emperor or for the earlier historians. There are hardly one supreme king). The rise of a centralised any comprehensive contemporary accounts empire in the Gangetic plains of present-day or literary works which refer to the Mauryan and eastern changed the emperors though they are mentioned in various social, economic and administrative fabric of Buddhist and Jain texts as well as in some Hindu the region. works like the brahmanas. The Mahavamsa, the comprehensive historical chronicle in The flat plains and the availability of from Sri Lanka, is an important additional plentiful water from the perennial rivers, such source. The scattered information from these as the Ganga and its many tributaries, were sources has been corroborated by accounts of among the favourable ecological conditions Greek historians who left their accounts about which promoted the rise of a large state in this India following Alexander’s campaign in north- particular region. Rivers also acted as major western part of the country.

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XI History - Lesson 4.indd 48 29-02-2020 11:33:16 Archaeology and epigraphy are the Chandragupta. This is of importance for two tools that provide rich information for the reasons: (i) it indicates the extent of the Mauryan historian to understand earlier periods of Empire, which had expanded as far west as history. Archaeology is particularly important and (ii) it shows that more than four centuries because excavations reveal the nature of urban after his death, the name of Chandragupta was morphology, that is, layout of the city and still well known and remembered in many parts construction of buildings. They also provide of the country. A second source is a literary work. concrete information about the material culture The playMudrarakshasa by Visakhadatta was of people in the past, such as the metals that written during the Gupta period, sometime after were known, materials and tools they used, and the 4th century CE. It narrates Chandragupta’s the technology they employed. accession to the throne of the The archaeological finds in the Gangetic and the exploits of his chief advisor regions give us solid proof about the nature of the or Kautilya by listing the strategies he used to urban centres established in the region in course counter an invasion against Chandragupta. This of time. Epigraphical evidence is scanty for the play is often cited as a corroborative source since period. The most widely known are the edicts of it supports the information gathered from other Ashoka, which have been discovered in many contemporary sources about Chandragupta. It parts of the country. In fact, the reconstruction is important to note from both these sources of the Mauryan period to a great extent became that the fame of Chandragupta had survived possible only after the of the long after he was gone and became imbibed in inscriptions at was deciphered by James popular lore and memory. They thus attest to Prinsep in 1837. Information about other the significance of oral traditions, which are now edicts in other parts of the country also became accepted as an additional valid source of history. available at that time. It must be remembered 4.1 Rise of Magadha under that these were the oldest historical artefacts found in India in the nineteenth century, until the archaeological excavations unearthed the Indus Among the 16 valley towns of Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro , Kasi in the twentieth century. All the edicts began was initially powerful. with a reference to a great king, “Thus spoke However, became devanampiya (beloved of the gods) piyadassi (of dominant later. A pleasing looks)”, and the geographical spread of power struggle broke the edicts make it clear that this was a king who out between Magadha, had ruled over a vast empire. But who was this Kosala, Vrijji and . king? Puranic and Buddhist texts referred to a Eventually Magadha chakravartin named Ashoka. As more edicts emerged as the dominant Bimbisara were deciphered, the decisive identification that mahajanapada and devananampiya piyadassi was Ashoka was made established the first Indian empire. The first in 1915. One more edict when deciphered, which known ruler of Magadha was Bimbisara of the referred to him as devanampiya Ashoka, made Haryanka dynasty. He extended the territory reconstruction of Mauryan history possible. of Magadhan Empire by matrimonial alliances Let us now turn to two later sources. The and conquests. By marrying off his sister to first is the rock inscription of Junagadh, near Prasenajit, ruler of Kosala, he received Kasi Girnar in Gujarat. This was carved during the as dowry. He also married the princesses of reign of Rudradaman, the local ruler and dates Lichchhavis and Madra. He maintained friendly back to 130–150 CE. It refers to Pushyagupta, relations with Avanti but annexed by the provincial governor (rashtriya) of Emperor military might. Thus, Magadha became a

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XI History - Lesson 4.indd 49 29-02-2020 11:33:17 powerful and prominent power. During his Nandas. During the process of empire building, reign, Bimbisara patronised various religious Nandas exterminated many clans and sects and their leaders. He had an encounter subjugated kshatriya-ruled kingdoms, which had with Buddha as well. still retained a degree of autonomous authority, thus creating a centralised state. An inscription His son Ajatashatru ascended the known as the Hathigumpha ( cave) throne by killing his father. King Prasenajit from Udayagiri near Bhubaneshwar, , immediately took back Kasi, which he had records the aqueduct built by King Nanda three handed out as dowry to Bimbisara. This led to hundred years earlier. This is also indicative of a military confrontation between Magadha and the geographical extent of the . Kosala. The struggle lasted until Prasenajit was Though the Nandas were able administrators overthrown and died at Rajgriha, the capital of and had strengthened the Magadha Empire, Magadha Empire. Kosala was then annexed to they were not popular among the people. Magadha. Ajatashatru also fought and won the battle against the Lichchhavis. He defeated the 4.3 Persian and Lichchhavis and the Mallas. Ajatashatru is also Macedonian Invasions believed to have met Buddha in his lifetime. By the time Ajatashatru died in 461 BCE Magadha The period from the sixth century witnessed had become undisputedly the strongest power. close cultural contact of the north-west of India The Haryanka dynasty was succeeded by with Persia and Greece. It might be surprising to the Shishunaga dynasty. Shishunaga, a viceroy know that and its adjoining regions of Benaras, deposed the last Haryanka king and on the Indus were part of the Achaemenid ascended the throne. The Shishunagas ruled Empire of Persia. Cyrus, the emperor of Persia, for fifty years before the throne was usurped by invaded India around 530 BCE and destroyed . the city of Kapisha. According to Greek historian Herodotus, Gandhara constituted the twentieth 4.2 Nandas: The First and the richest satrapy of the Builders of India Empire. The region continued to be part of the Persian Empire till the invasion of Alexander About a hundred years after Ajatashatru’s the Great. The inscriptions of Darius I mention demise, the Nandas became the emperors the presence of the Persians in the Indus region of Magadha in 362 BCE. The first Nanda and include “the people of Gadara, Haravati and ruler was Mahapadma. It is believed that he Maka” as subjects of the Achaemenid Empire. usurped the throne by murdering the last of the Shishunaga kings. Under the Nandas, the Taxila empire expanded considerably, and the wealth Takshashila or Taxila is situated in and power of the Nandas became widely present-day Pakistan. Between the fifth century known and feared. Mahapadma Nanda was and fourth century BCE, it was part of the succeeded by his eight sons, and they were Achaemenid Empire of Persia. Because of its together known as the navanandas or the nine strategic location on the trade route between the

A centralised state required a new administrative framework to govern an extensive territory, the creation of a bureaucracy, resources of money and men for managing the administration and the . A system of revenue administration had to be developed to raise the funds needed for the state through taxation. Such a political formation led to the development of cities as administrative centres, distinct from villages and rural areas. A large was required for expanding and retaining the empire.

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XI History - Lesson 4.indd 50 29-02-2020 11:33:17 The Mauryan art and architecture show The word “Hindu” appears for the first traces of Persian influence. Mauryan columns time in an inscription of Darius I at of the Ashokan Pillar are similar to the columns Persepolis, Iran. Darius lists “Hindu” as found in the Achaemenid Empire. The bell- part of his empire. The word “Sindhu”, denoting shaped capital of the columns, especially a river in general and Indus in particular, became the lion capital of Sarnath pillar and the bell “Hindu” in Persian. The Greeks dropped the S capital of Rampurval pillar, show resemblance and called it Indu, which eventually came to be to designs found in the Achaemenid columns. called Hindu and later India. Similarly, the pillared remains of the Palace in display a remarkable similarity East and the West, it emerged as an important to the pillared hall in the Achaemenid capital. centre of learning and culture. Students However, the craftsmen, though inspired by came from far and wide to Taxila in search of the Persian art and architecture, gave a definite knowledge. The city was brought to light by Indian character to their work. the excavation carried out in the 1940s by Sir John Marshall. Taxila is considered “one of the Connection between Persian greatest intellectual achievements of any ancient and civilization”. Panini seems to have compiled his well-known work, Ashtadhyayi, here. There are linguistic similarities between Rig Veda and Zend Avesta. The term Aryas Impact of Persian Contact was also used by the ancient Persians. As the north-western part of India came According to Indologist Thomas Burrow, under the control of the Persian Empire from only phonetic change had occurred about middle of the sixth century, the region overtime. The Bogaz Koi (in North-East became a centre of confluence of Persian Syria) Inscription dating back to 1380 BCE and Indian culture. The Persian contact left records a treaty between a Hittite and a its impact on art, architecture, economy and Mitanni King. It mentions the names of a administration of ancient India. The cultural few Rig Vedic gods such as Indara, Uruvna impact was felt most in the Gandhara region. The (Varuna), Mitira and Nasatiya (Ashvins). most significant impact was the development of the Kharosthi script, used in the north- 4.4 Alexander’s Invasion western part of India. It was used by Ashoka During Dana Nanda’s reign, Alexander in his inscriptions in the Gandhara region. The invaded north-west India (327–325 BCE). Kharosthi script was derived from Aramaic used In many ways, the invasion by Alexander is widely in the Achaemenid Empire of Persia. a watershed in Indian history. It marked the Like Aramaic, Kharosthi was written beginning of the interaction between India and from right to left. Persian sigloi (silver coin) the West, which spanned many centuries to is an imitation from the region. The earliest follow. Greek historians began to write about coins in India are traced to the period of the India, and Greek governors and kings ruled in the north-western region of India, which mahajanapadas. The Indian word for coinkarsa introduced new styles of art and governance. is of Persian origin. The coins might have been After his conquests in the region, inspired by the Persian coins. The existence Alexander expressed his desire to march further of coins in that period suggests trade links east to attack the Magadha Empire. However, his between India and Persia. The Ashokan edicts already tired troops had heard about the great might have been inspired by the edicts of the emperor in the east (Nanda) and his formidable Achaemenid king Darius. The Ashokan edicts army and refused to be engaged in a war against use the term lipi instead of the Iranian term dipi. such a powerful adversary.

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XI History - Lesson 4.indd 51 29-02-2020 11:33:17 routes in use, which facilitated the movement of Greek merchants and craftsmen to India, establishing direct contact between India and Greece. As trade contact increased, many Greek settlements were established in the northwest of India. Alexandria near , Boukephala near Peshawar in Pakistan and Alexandria in Sindh were some of the prominent Greek settlements.

Emperor Alexander The Greek accounts of India provide valuable information but with a bit of In 326 BCE when Alexander entered the exaggeration. Alexander’s death created a void Indian subcontinent after defeating the Persians, in the north-west, facilitating the accession Ambhi, the ruler of Taxila, surrendered and of Chandragupta Maurya to the throne of accepted the suzerainty of Alexander. The Magadha. It also helped him to conquer the most famous of Alexander’s encounters was numerous small chiefdoms in the north-west with , ruler of the region between Jhelum and bring the region under his empire. and Beas. The two met in the battle of Hydaspes in which Porus was imprisoned. 4.5 Mauryan Empire Later, impressed by the Porus’s dignity, Alexander restored his throne on the condition Contemporary accounts by Greek of accepting his suzerainty. His battle-weary historians show that Chandragupta was a youth soldiers refused to march further. Alexander living in Taxila when Alexander invaded India. Greek historians have recorded his name as did not want to proceed against the reluctance “Sandrakottus” or “Sandrakoptus”, which are of his army. During his return, Alexander died evidently modified forms of Chandragupta. of a mysterious fever in Babylon. Inspired by Alexander, Chandragupta led a revolt against the Nandas years later and overthrew them. Chandragupta achieved it either by inciting the people to rise against an unpopular monarch, or by soliciting their support in overthrowing an unpopular king. Chandragupta established the Mauryan Empire and became its first emperor in 321 BCE.

Surrender of Porus to Alexander, 1865 engraving by Alonzo Chappel (modern representation)

The Impact of Alexander’s Ashoka Rock Edict at Junagadh Invasion We know from the Junagadh rock inscription Alexander’s invasion led to the establishment (referred to earlier) that Chandragupta had of Greek satrapies in the north-western region expanded his empire westward as far as Gujarat. of the Indian subcontinent. Trade routes opened One of his great achievements, according to up with the West. There were four different trade local accounts, was that he waged war against

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XI History - Lesson 4.indd 52 29-02-2020 11:33:18 the Greek prefects (military Nandas and helping Chandragupta to become officials) left behind by the emperor of Magadha. He is celebrated Alexander and destroyed as the author of the Arthasastra, a treatise on them, so that the way was political strategy and governance. His intrigues cleared to carry out his and brilliant strategy to subvert the intended ambitious plan of expanding invasion of Magadha is the theme of the play, the territories. Another . major event of his reign was Seleucus Nicator Bindusara the war against Seleucus, who was one of Alexander’s generals. After the Chandragupta’s son Bindusara succeeded death of Alexander, Seleucus had established him as emperor in 297 BCE in a peaceful his kingdom extending up to Punjab. and natural transition. We do not know what Chandragupta defeated him in a battle some happened to Chandragupta. He probably time before 301 BCE and drove him out of the renounced the world. According to the Jain Punjab region. The final agreement between tradition, Chandragupta spent his last years as the two was probably not too acrimonious, an ascetic in Chandragiri, near Sravanabelagola, since Chandragupta gave Seleucus 500 war in . Bindusara was clearly a capable , and Seleucus sent an ambassador ruler and continued his father’s tradition of to Chandragupta’s court. This ambassador close interaction with the Greek states of West was , and we owe much of the Asia. He continued to be advised by Chanakya information that we have about Chandragupta and other capable ministers. His sons were to Indica, the account written by Megasthenes. appointed as viceroys of the different provinces The original of this work is lost, but many Greek of the empire. We do not know much about his historians had reproduced parts of his account military exploits, but the empire passed intact describing the court of Chandragupta and his to his son, Ashoka. administration. Bindusara ruled for 25 years, and he must Chandragupta have died in 272 BCE. Ashoka was not his chosen successor, and the fact that he came Chandragupta was to the throne only four years later in 268 BCE obviously a great ruler who would indicate that there was a struggle between had to reinvent a strong the sons of Bindusara for the succession. administrative apparatus to Ashoka had been the viceroy of Taxila when he govern his extensive kingdom. put down a revolt against the local officials by (The system of governance the people of Taxila, and was later the viceroy and polity is discussed in the of , the capital of Avanti, a major city and next section.) Chandragupta Chandragupta commercial centre. As emperor, he is credited was ably advised and aided (modern representation) with building the monumental structures that by Chanakya, known for have been excavated in the site of Pataliputra. political manoeuvring, in governing his empire. He continued the tradition of close interaction Contemporary Jain and Buddhist texts hardly with the Greek states in West Asia, and there have any mention of Chanakya. But popular oral was mutual exchange of emissaries from both tradition ascribes the greatness of Chandragupta sides. and his reign to the wisdom and genius of Chanakya. Chanakya, also known as Kautilya Ashoka and Vishnugupta, was a and a sworn The defining event of Ashoka’s rule was his adversary of the Nandas. He is credited with campaign against Kalinga (present-day Odisha) having devised the strategy for overthrowing the in the eighth year of his reign. This is the only

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XI History - Lesson 4.indd 53 29-02-2020 11:33:19 recorded military expedition of the Mauryas. The number of those killed in battle, those who died subsequently, and those deported ran into tens of thousands. The campaign had probably been more ferocious and brutal than Edicts of Ashoka (238 BCE), usual because this was a in the Brahmi at British Museum punitive war against Kalinga, which had broken away from Emperor Ashoka the Magadha Empire (the Devanampiya speaks of Kalinga as a part of the Nanda Empire). Ashoka was devastated by the carnage and moved by the suffering that he converted to humanistic values. He became a Buddhist and his new-found values and beliefs were recorded in a series of edicts, which confirm his passion for peace and moral righteousness or dhamma ( in Sanskrit). The Ashoka edicts at Saranath

Edicts of Ashoka The edicts of Ashoka thus constitute the most concrete source of information about the Mauryan Empire. There are 33 edicts comprising 14 Major Rock Edicts, 2 known as Kalinga edicts, 7 Pillar Edicts, some Minor Rock Edicts and a few Minor Pillar Inscriptions. The Major Rock Edicts extend from Kandahar in Afghanistan, Shahbazgarhi and in north-west Pakistan to district in the north, Gujarat and Maharashtra in the west, Rock Edict - Kandahar in Afghanistan Odisha in the east and as far south as Karnataka and Kurnool district in . Minor Pillar Inscriptions have been found as far north as (near Lumbini). The edicts were written mostly in the Brahmi script and in Magadhi and Prakrit. The Kandahar inscriptions are in Greek and Aramaic, while the two inscriptions in north-west Pakistan are in Kharosthi script. The geographical spread of the edicts essentially defines the extent of the vast empire over which Ashoka ruled. The second inscription mentions lands beyond his borders: “the Chodas Rock Edict of Ashoka, Dhauli, Odisha

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XI History - Lesson 4.indd 54 29-02-2020 11:33:21 (Cholas), the Pandyas, the Satiyaputa, the in consonance with the realities of the times. Keralaputa (Chera), even Tamraparni, the After his death, the Mauryan Empire slowly king Antiyoka (Antiochus), and the kings who disintegrated and died out within fifty years. are the neighbours of this Antioka”. The edicts But the two centuries prior to Ashoka’s death reveal Ashoka’s belief in peace, righteousness and the disintegration of the Mauryan Empire and justice and his concern for the welfare were truly momentous in Indian history. This of his people. By rejecting violence and war, was a period of great change. The consolidation advocating peace and the pursuit of dhamma, of a state extending over nearly two-thirds of the Ashoka negated the prevailing philosophy of sub-continent had taken place with formalised statecraft that stressed that an emperor had administration, development of bureaucratic to strive to extend and consolidate his empire institutions and economic expansion, in through warfare and military conquests. addition to the rise of new heterodox religions Third Buddhist Council and philosophies that questioned the established orthodoxy. One of the major events of Ashoka’s reign was the convening of the Third Buddhist 4.6 The Mauryan State (council) in 250 BCE in the capital Pataliputra. and Polity Ashoka’s deepening commitment to Buddhism meant that royal patronage was extended to the The major areas of concern for the Mauryan Buddhist establishment. An important outcome state were the collection of taxes as revenue to of this sangha was the decision to expand the the state and the administration of justice, in reach of Buddhism to other parts of the region addition to the maintenance of internal security and to send missions to convert people to the and defence against external aggression. This religion. Buddhism thus became a proselytizing required a large and complex administrative religion and missionaries were sent to regions machinery and institutions. Greek historians, outlying the empire such as Kashmir and South taking their lead from Megasthenes, described India. According to popular belief, Ashoka sent the Mauryan state as a centralised state. What his two children, Mahinda and Sanghamitta, to we should infer from this description as a Sri Lanka to propagate Buddhism. It is believed centralised state is that a uniform pattern of that they took a branch of the original bodhi administration was established throughout the tree to Sri Lanka. very large area of the empire. But, given the existing state of technology in communications Ashoka seems to have ruled until 232 B.C and transport, a decentralised administrative (B.C.E). Sadly, though his revolutionary view of system had to be in place. governance and non-violence find a resonance in our contemporary sensibilities, they were not This bureaucratic set-up covered a hierarchy of settlements from the village, to the towns, provincial capitals and major cities. The bureaucracy enabled and required an efficient system of revenue collection, since it needed to be paid out of taxes collected. Equally, the very large army of the Mauryan Empire could be maintained only with the revenue raised through taxation. The large bureaucracy also commanded huge salaries. According to the Arthasastra, the salary of chief minister, the Ashoka’s visit to the Ramagrama purohita and the army commander was 48,000 Sanchi Southern Gate panas, and the soldiers received 500 panas.

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XI History - Lesson 4.indd 55 29-02-2020 11:33:21 If we multiply this by the number of infantry Provincial Administration and cavalry, we get an idea of the enormous At the head of the resources needed to maintain the army and the administration was the administrative staff. king. He was assisted by a Arthasastra council of ministers and a purohita or priest, who was a Perhaps the most detailed account of person of great importance, the administration is to be found in the and secretaries known as Arthasastra (though the work itself is now mahamatriyas. The capital region of Pataliputra dated to a few centuries later). However, it was directly administered. The rest of the must be remembered that the Arthasastra was a empire was divided into four provinces based at prescriptive text, which laid down the guidelines Suvarnagiri (near Kurnool in Andhra Pradesh), for good administration. If we add to this the Ujjain (Avanti, ), Taxila in the north- information from Ashoka’s edicts and the work west, and Tosali in Odisha in the south-east. of Megasthenes, we get a more comprehensive The provinces were administered by governors picture of the Mauryan state as it was. who were usually royal princes. In each region,

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XI History - Lesson 4.indd 56 29-02-2020 11:33:21 the revenue and judicial administration and the by the government. Lands owned by the king, bureaucracy of the Mauryan state was replicated forests, mines and manufacture of salt, on which to achieve a uniform system of governance. the state held a monopoly, were also important Revenue collection was the responsibility sources of revenue. of a collector-general (samaharta) who was Judicial Administration also in charge of exchequer that he was, in effect, like a minister of finance. He had to Justice was administered through courts, supervise all the provinces, fortified towns, which were established in all the major towns. mines, forests, trade routes and others, which Two types of courts are mentioned. The were the sources of revenue. The treasurer dharmasthiya courts mostly dealt with civil was responsible for keeping a record of the tax law relating to marriage, inheritance and other revenues. The accounts of each department aspects of civil life. The courts were presided had to be presented jointly by the ministers to over by three judges well-versed in sacred laws the king. Each department had a large staff of and three amatyas (secretaries). Another type superintendents and subordinate officers linked of court was called kantakasodhana (removal of to the central and local governments. thorns), also presided over by three judges and three amatyas. The main purpose of these courts District and Village Administration was to clear the society of anti-social elements and At the next level of administration came various types of crimes, and it functioned more the districts, villages and towns. The district like the modern police, and relied on a network was under the command of a sthanika, while of spies for information about such anti-social officials known asgopas were in charge of five to activities. Punishments for crimes were usually ten villages. Urban administration was handled quite severe. The overall objective of the judicial by a nagarika. Villages were semi-autonomous system as it evolved was to extend government and were under the authority of a gramani, control over most aspects of ordinary life. appointed by the central government, and a Ashoka’s Dharmic State council of village elders. Agriculture was then, as it remained down the centuries, the most Ashoka’s rule gives us important contributor to the economy, and an alternative model of a the tax on agricultural produce constituted the righteous king and a just state. most important source of revenue. Usually, the He instructed his officials, the king was entitled to one-sixth of the produce. In yuktas (subordinate officials), reality, it was often much higher, usually about rajjukas (rural administrators) one-fourth of the produce. and pradesikas (heads of the districts) to go on tours every five years to instruct people in dhamma Source of Revenue (Major Rock Edict 3). Ashoka’s injunctions to The Arthasastra, recommended the officers and city magistrates stressed that all comprehensive state control over agricultural the people were his children and he wished for production and marketing, with warehouses his people what he wished for his own children, to store agricultural products and regulated that they should obtain welfare and happiness markets, in order to maximise the revenues in this world and the next. These officials should from this most important sector of the economy. recognise their own responsibilities and strive Other taxes included taxes on land, on irrigation to be impartial and see to it that men were not if the sources of irrigation had been provided by imprisoned or tortured without good reason. He the state, taxes on urban houses, customs and added that he would send an officer every five tolls on goods transported for trade and profits years to verify if his instructions were carried out from coinage and trade operations carried on (Kalinga Rock Edict 1).

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XI History - Lesson 4.indd 57 29-02-2020 11:33:22 EDICTSEDICTS OF OF ASHOKA ASHOKA N WE Manserah S

Edicts of Ashoka Shabazgarhi Major rock edicts Pillar edicts Kandahar Minor rock edicts Kalsi Territorial limits Delhi Lumbini Meerut Lauriya- Nandangarh Rampurva

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Map not to scale INDIAN OCEAN

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XI History - Lesson 4.indd 58 29-02-2020 11:33:22 Ashoka realised that an effective ruler of cotton throughout India, were the needed to be fully informed about what was most widespread occupations outside of happening in his kingdom and insisted that agriculture. A great variety of cloth was he should be advised and informed promptly produced in the country, ranging from the wherever he might be (Major Rock Edict 6). coarse fabrics used by the ordinary people for He insisted that all religions should co-exist everyday use, to the very fine textures worn and the ascetics of all religions were honoured by the upper classes and the royalty. The (Major Rock Edicts 7 and 12). Providing Arthasastra refers to the regions producing medical care should be one of the functions specialised textiles – Kasi (Benares), Vanga of the state, the emperor ordered hospitals to (Bengal), (Assam), Madurai and be set up to treat human beings and animals many others. Each region produced many (Major Rock Edict 2). Preventing unnecessary distinctive and specialised varieties of slaughter of animals and showing respect for fabrics. Cloth embroidered with gold and all living beings was another recurrent theme silver was worn by the King and members in his edicts. In Ashoka’s edicts, we find an of the royal court. Silk was known and was alternative humane and empathetic model of generally referred to as Chinese silk, which governance. The edicts stress that everybody, also indicates that extensive trade was officials as well as subjects, act righteously carried on in the Mauryan Empire. following dhamma. Metal and metal works were of great 4.7 Economy and Society importance, and the local metal workers worked with iron, copper and other metals Agriculture to produce tools, implements, vessels and Agriculture formed the backbone of the other utility items. Iron smelting had been economy. It was the largest sector in terms known for many centuries, but there was a of its share in total revenue to the state and great improvement in technology after about employment. The Greeks noted with wonder 500 BCE, which made it possible to smelt that two crops could be raised annually in iron in furnaces at very high temperatures. India because of the fertility of the soil. Archaeological finds show a great qualitative Besides food grains, India also grew cash and quantitative improvement in iron crops such as sugarcane and cotton, described production after this date. Improvement in by Megasthenes as a reed that produced iron technology had widespread implications honey and trees on which wool grew. These for the rest of the economy. Better tools like were important commercial crops. The axes made more extensive clearing of forests fact that the agrarian sector could produce possible for agriculture; better ploughs a substantial surplus was a major factor in could improve agricultural processes; better the diversification of the economy beyond nails and tools improved woodwork and subsistence to commercial production. carpentry as well as other crafts. Woodwork was another important craft for ship- Crafts and Goods building, making carts and , house Many crafts producing a variety of construction and so on. Stone work–stone manufactures flourished in the economy. We carving and polishing–had evolved as a can categorise the products as utilitarian or highly skilled craft. This expertise is seen in functional, and luxurious and ornamental. the stone sculptures in the stupa at Sanchi Spinning and weaving, especially of cotton and the highly polished Chunar stone used fabrics, relying on the universal availability for Ashoka’s pillars.

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XI History - Lesson 4.indd 59 29-02-2020 11:33:22 and growth. Production of a surplus beyond subsistence is futile unless the surplus has exchange value, since the surplus has no use value when subsistence needs have been met. Thus, as the economy diversified and expanded, exchange becomes an important part of realising the benefits of such expansion. Trade takes place in a hierarchy of markets, ranging from the exchange of goods in a village market, between villages and towns within a district, across cities in long- distance overland trade and across borders to Sanchi Stupa other countries. Trade also needs a conducive A whole range of luxury goods was political climate as was provided by the Mauryan produced, including gold and silver articles, Empire, which ensured peace and stability over jewellery, perfumes and carved ivory. There is a very large area. The rivers in the Gangetic evidence that many other products like drugs plains were major means for transporting and medicines, pottery, dyes and gums were goods throughout northern India. Goods were produced in the Mauryan Empire. The economy transported further west overland by road. Roads had thus developed far beyond subsistence connected the north of the country to cities and production to a very sophisticated level of markets in the south-east, and in the south-west, commercial craft production. passing through towns like Vidisha and Ujjain. Crafts were predominantly urban-based The north-west route linked the empire to hereditary occupations and sons usually followed central and western Asia. Overseas trade by ships their fathers in the practice of various crafts. was also known, and Buddhist Jataka tales refer Craftsmen worked primarily as individuals, to the long voyages undertaken by merchants. though royal workshops for producing cloth Sea-borne trade was carried on with Burma and and other products also existed. Each craft had a the Malay Archipelago, and with Sri Lanka. The head called pamukha (pramukha or leader) and ships, however, were probably quite small and a jettha (jyeshtha or elder) and was organised in might have hugged the coastline. a seni (srenior a guild), so that the institutional We do not have much information about identity superseded the individual in craft the merchant communities. In general, long- production. Disputes between srenis were resolved distance overland trade was undertaken by by a mahasetthi, and this ensured the smooth merchant groups travelling together as a caravan functioning of craft production in the cities. for security, led by a caravan leader known as Trade the maha-sarthavaha. Roads through forests and unfavourable environments like deserts Trade or exchange becomes a natural were always dangerous. The Arthasastra, concomitant of economic diversification however, stresses the importance of trade and

Mauryan coin with arched hill symbol on reverse -Bindusara

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XI History - Lesson 4.indd 60 29-02-2020 11:33:22 ensuring its smooth functioning. Trade has to agricultural workers and craftsmen, who seek be facilitated through the construction of roads employment, thereby forming the workforce and maintaining them in good condition. Since for the production of manufactured goods tolls and octroi were collected on goods when and services of various kinds. These goods, in they were transported, toll booths must have addition to the agricultural products brought been set up and manned on all the trade routes. in from the rural countryside, are traded in Urban markets and craftsmen were generally markets. Cities also tend to house a variety closely monitored and controlled to prevent of persons in service-related activities. The fraud. The Arthasastra has a long list of the sangam poetry in Tamil and the Tamil epics goods – agricultural and manufactured – which provide vivid pictures of cities like Madurai, were traded in internal and foreign trade. These Kanchipuram and Poompuhar as teeming with include textiles, woollens, silks, aromatic woods, people, with vibrant markets and merchants animal skins and gems from various parts of selling a variety of goods, as well as vendors India, China and Sri Lanka. Greek sources selling various goods including food door to confirm the trade links with the west through the door. Though these literary works relate to Greek states to Egypt. Indigo, ivory, tortoiseshell, a slightly later period, it is not different in pearls and perfumes and rare woods were all terms of the prevailing levels of technology, exported to Egypt. and these descriptions may be taken as an accurate depiction of urban living. The only Coins and Currency contemporary pictorial representation of Though coinage was known, barter was the cities is found in the sculptures in Sanchi, medium of exchange in pre-modern economies. which portray royal processions, and cities are In the Mauryan Empire, the silver coins known seen to have roads, a multitude of people and as pana were the most commonly used currency. multi-storeyed buildings crowded together. Hordes of punch-marked coins have been found Urbanisation in Sixth Century BCE in many parts of north India, though some of these coins may have been from earlier periods. Thus One of the first pre-requisites for urbanisation while coins were in use, it is difficult to estimate is the development of an agricultural base. This the extent to which the economy was monetised. had evolved in the Indo-Gangetic plain and from very early on there are references to cities Process of Urbanisation like Hastinapura and . By about sixth Urbanisation is the process of the century BCE, urbanization had spread to the establishment of towns and cities in an and many new city centres like Kaushambi, agrarian landscape. Towns can come up Bhita, and Rajagriha, among others, are for various reasons – as the headquarters mentioned in the region. Buddhist texts about of administration, as pilgrim centres, as Buddha’s preaching were always located in urban commercial market centres and because of centres. Cities developed primarily because of their locational advantages on major trade the spread of agriculture and wet rice cultivation, routes. In what way do urban settlements in particular in the doab region, after the marshy differ from villages or rural settlements? To land was drained and reclaimed for cultivation. begin with, towns and cities do not produce The fertile soil and plentiful availability of water their own food and depend on the efficient from the perennial rivers made it possible to transfer of agricultural surplus for their raise even two crops of rice, and the production basic consumption needs. A larger number of a large agricultural surplus to feed the cities. of people reside in towns and cities and The improvements in iron technology also had the density of population is much higher an impact on economic life both in rural and in cities. Cities attract a variety of non- urban areas. As Magadha grew, many regional

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XI History - Lesson 4.indd 61 29-02-2020 11:33:23 centres like Ujjain were also incorporated into were enriched by the work of the grammarian the empire. Panini (c. 500 BCE), and , who was a contemporary of the Nandas and had written a Housing and Town Planning commentary on Panini’s work. Buddhist and Jain Towns were often located along the rivers, texts were primarily written in Pali. Evidently presumably for ease of access to transportation. many literary works in Sanskrit were produced They were surrounded by moats and a rampart during this period and find mention in later to provide defensive protection. They were always works, but they are not available to us. open to attacks since treasuries holding government The Arthasastra notes the performing arts of revenue were housed in them, in addition to the the period, including music, instrumental music, fact that as trading centres, the local people and bards, dance and theatre. The extensive produc- merchants were also wealthy. As the towns became tion of crafted luxury products like jewellery, ivo- more prosperous, the quality of the houses, which ry carving and wood work, and especially stone were built of mud brick and even of fired brick, carving should all be included as products of improved. Towns also had other facilities like Mauryan art. drains, ring wells and mud pits, testifying to the Many religions, castes and communities lived development of civic amenities and sanitation. together in harmony in the Mauryan society. There Excavations from the Mauryan period show that is little mention of any overt dissension or disputes the standard of living had improved as compared among them. As in many regions of that era to the earlier period. The houses were built of brick, (including ancient Tamil Nadu), courtesans were and the cities had ring wells and soak pits. There accorded a special place in the social hierarchy was a quantitative increase in the use of iron and and their contributions were highly valued. the variety of iron artefacts. Decline of the Mauryan Empire City of Pataliputra „„The highly centralized administration Pataliputra was the great capital city in the became unmanageable when Ashoka’s Mauryan Empire. It was described as a large and successors were weak and inefficient. A wealthy city, situated at the confluence of the weakened central administration with a Ganga and Son rivers, stretching in the form of large distance to communicate led to the a parallelogram. It was more than 14 kilometres rise of independent kingdoms. in length and about 2 kilometres wide. It „„After Ashoka’s death, the kingdom split into was protected by an outer wall made of wood, two. There were invasions from the north- with loopholes for shooting arrows at enemies. west. The notable groups that undertook There were 64 gates to the city and 570 watch military expeditions and established towers. There was a wide and deep moat outside kingdoms on Indian soil were the Indo- the wall, which was fed by water from the river, Greeks, the Sakas and the Kushanas. which served both as a defence and an outlet for „„The last ruler Brihadratha was killed in sewage. There were many grand palaces in the (c.185 B C (BCE)) by his commander-in- city, which had a large population. The city was chief Pushyamitra Sunga who founded the administered by a corporation of 30 members. Sunga dynasty that ruled India for over Ashoka added to the magnificence of the city hundred years. with the monumental architecture that he SUMMARY added to the capital, like the many-pillared hall. „„Gana- in course of time became Art and Culture the larger mahajanapadas and of the 16 Most of the literature and art of the period kingdoms, Magadha eventually emerged as have not survived. Sanskrit language and literature the most powerful.

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XI History - Lesson 4.indd 62 29-02-2020 11:33:23 „„The first known ruler of Magadha was 3. A comprehensive historical chronicle in Bimbisara, followed by his son Ajatashatru. Pali from Sri Lanka serving as an important Mahapadma Nanda started the Nanda source for the Mauryan Period is ______. dynasty. (a) Mahavamsa (b) Deepavamsa „„The invasion of north-west India by Alexander (c) Brahmanas (d) Mudrarakshasa in 326 BCE opened up trade with the West. After the death of Alexander, Chandragupta 4. The play ______by Visakadatha describes founded the Mauryan Empire. Chandragupta and his accession to the throne „„The three notable Mauryan rulers, of the Magadha Empire. Chandragupta, Bindusara and Ashoka, (a) Mudrarakshasa (b) Rajatharangini established a centralised state. The system (c) Arthasastra (d) Indica of Mauryan administration came to light through the accounts of Arthasastra and 5. Megasthenes’work ______describes the court Indica. of Chandragupta and his administration. „„Mauryan Empire set in a new phase in Indian (a) Indica (b) Mudrarakshasa history as trade and commerce grew manifold (c) Ashtadhyayi (d) Arthasastra during this period. 6. The ______was a prescriptive text for good „„Mauryan Empire continued the earlier administration. tradition of consolidation of the empire. The truly revolutionary change that was attempted (a) Arthasastra (b) Indica was Ashoka’s exhortations to his officials and (c) Rajatharangini (d) Mudrarakshasa people to follow dhamma, abjure violence and lead a moral life. II. Write Brief Answers „„ Mauryan Empire marked a distinct phase 1. How did Bimbisara extend the territory of in Indian history with significant advances Magadhan Empire? in technology and economic and social 2. Write a note on Mahapadma Nanda. development, and created the framework for a large, centrally administered, state. 3. What made to restore the throne of Porus ? 4. What are the features of a centralised state? EXERCISE 5. Give a brief note on the literary sources for the study of Mauryan state. Q.R.Code I. Choose the 6. In what ways did the invasion of Alexander Correct Answer make a watershed in Indian history? 1. Brahmi script in Ashoka’s III. Write Short Answers pillar inscription was deciphered by _____. 1. Mention the urban features revealed by (a) Thomas Saunders archaeological findings. (b) James Prinsep 2. Explain the features of the monarchies or kingdoms on the Gangetic plains. (c) Sir John Marshal 3. Highlight the impact of the invasion of (d) William Jones Alexander the Great on India. 2. The first known ruler of Magadha was ______4. What do you know of Ashoka’s campaign of the Haryanka dynasty. against Kalinga? (a) Bimbisara (b) Ajatashatru 5. Discuss the extensive trade on textiles carried (c) Ashoka (d) Mahapadma Nanda on during the Mauryan period.

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XI History - Lesson 4.indd 63 29-02-2020 11:33:23 6. Write a note on the commodities traded 2. Abraham Eraly, Gem in the Lotus: The Seeding between India and West and Central Asia. of Indian Civilization, Penguin, 2000. 3. B.M. Barua, The Ajivikas, University of IV. Answer the following in detail Calcutta, 1920. 1. Explain the sources for the study of the 4. D.N. Jha, Ancient India in Historical Mauryan Empire. Outline, Manohar, New Delhi, 2010. 2. Describe the salient features of Mauryan 5. Dhammika, Ven. S. The Edicts of King polity. Ashoka – an English Rendering. 1993/94. 3. Highlight the impact of Persians on India. 6. John Keay, India: A History. 2000. 7. K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, (ed.) The Age of the 4. Give an account of the edicts of Ashoka. Nandas and Mauryas (reprint), 1996. Activity 8. Romila Thapar, Ashoka and the Decline of the Mauryas (rev. ed.), 1997. 1. Preparing a chart with information on the 9. Romila Thapar,The Penguin History of edicts of Ashoka. Early India: From the Origins to AD 1300, 2. Discussion on the outcome of the conquest Penguin Books, 2002. of Kalinga. 10. S. Radhakrishnan, , vol. 3. Comparing the present-day system 1, George, Allen & Unwin, London of administration with the Mauryan 11. Upinder Singh, A History of Ancient and administration. Early : From the Stone Age 4. Making an album with pictures of Sanchi- to the 12th Century, Pearson, Delhi, 2008. Saranath pillars and Magadha and Mauryan 12. Wm. Theodore D. Bary, ed., Sources of kings. Indian Tradition, vol. 1, Columbia University Press, New York, 1958. REFERENCE BOOKS INTERNET RESOURCES 1. A.L. Basham, The Wonder That Was India: A Survey of the History and 1. http://www.philtar.ac.uk/encyclopedia/ Culture of the Indian Sub-continent hindu/ascetic/ajiv.html before the Coming of the Muslims, 2. http://www.columbia.edu/itc/religion/ Picador, 2004. f2001/edit/docs/samannaphala.pdf

GLOSSARY

antithetical contrasting 믁ரண㞪ட㞟 inciting inducing 鏂ண翁믍 acrimonious bitter கசப்ꮾன manoeuvring planned action 毂폍母殿 adversary enemy ힿர�ோ鎿 negate nullify செயல㞪டாததா埍埁 proselytizing attempt to convert one’s religion மதமாற㞱 믁யற殿 empathetic showing concern for others மற㞱வ쏍 உண쏍ힿனை ம鎿த்த

64 Emergence of State and Empire

XI History - Lesson 4.indd 64 29-02-2020 11:33:23