17 IN-MIGRATION TRENDS, CAUSE AND CONSEQUENCES: A CASE STUDY OF DHAPASI, KATHMANDU SARASWATI DAHAL 20 DAHAL SARASWATI –
APASI, KATHMANDU APASI, A Thesis Submitted to the Central Department of Geography Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences of Tribhuvan University In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for MASTER’S DEGREE In GEOGRAPHY : A CASE STUDY OF DH STUDY : A CASE USE AND CONSEQUENCES AND USE
By SARASWATI DAHAL Symbol No: 280161 Central Department of Geography Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu
MIGRATION TRENDS, CA TRENDS, MIGRATION April, 2017 - IN
i RECOMMENDATION LETTER
This is to certify that the thesis entitled "In-Migration Trends, Cause and Consequences: A Case Study of Dhapasi, Kathmandu" Submitted by Saraswati Dahal is prepared under my supervision in partial fulfillment of requirements for the degree of Master of Social Sciences in Geography. I recommend this thesis to the evaluation committee for viva voc.
Date: ……………………….
…………………………… Prof. Dr. Bhim Prasad Subedi Thesis supervisor Central department of geography Tribhuvan University
ii Tribhuvan University
Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences
CENTRAL DEPARTMENT OF GEOGRAPHY
APPROVAL LETTER
The present thesis submitted by Saraswati Dahal entitled as "In-Migration Trends, Cause and Consequences: A Case Study of Dhapasi, Kathmandu"has been accepted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for Master’s Degree of the Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences in Geography.
Thesis Committee
______
Prof. Dr. Bhim Prasad Subedi Supervisor
______
Dr. Devi Prasad Paudel External Examiner
______
Prof. Narendra Raj Khanal, Ph.D Head of the Department
Date:
iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The learning process has been an intense one while working on this project. I not only improved myself on the academic level but also on the personal level. Writing this dissertation has made an enormous impact onme. I would live to give a sincere gratitude towards the people who have supported me throughout this intense process.
I would firstly like to thank my supervisor Dr. Bhim Prasad Subedi. He has helped me in every step of the work, smallest doubts and problems were solved by him, and he has been the best support for me during all this work. Similarly, I am grateful to Dr. Devi Prasad Poudel for his constructive suggestion and recommendations.
I would also like to thank my family and friends who supported me in all the possible ways they could.
In addition to it, I would like to thank my daughter Rajnita, sons Suvanga and Suvakshya for immense support.
Thank you everyone for the love, immense support and the golden opportunity.
Regards,
Saraswati Dahal
iv ABSTRACT
Migration has been a global issue and various impacts can be seen that has been caused by the migration. In this research ward 7 & 10 of Tokha municipality has been taken for the study where primary data is collected with the help of questionnaire prepared. The study shows that there are various factors affecting the migration like facilities, employment opportunities. Even though there is positive and negative impact of migration it should be kept in control. Especially for the developing country like Nepal overall development of the nation would be the road to success.
v TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page No. RECOMMENDATION LETTER II APPROVAL LETTER III ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS IV ABSTRACT V TABLE OF CONTENTS VI LIST OF TABLES X LIST OF FIGURES XI CHAPTER I : INTRODUCTION 1 INTRODUCTION 1 1.1 Background of the Research 1 1.2 Introduction of the Study Area 2 1.3 Rationale of the Study 3 1.4 Problem Statement 4 1.5 Significance of the Study 5 1.6 Research Aims 5 1.7 Research Questions 5 1.8 Research Objectives 6 1.9 Organization of the Chapters 6 CHAPTER II : LITERATURE REVIEW 8
2.1 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK 8
2.2 MIGRATION 9 2.2.1 Internal Migration 10 2.2.2External Migration 11 2.2.2.1 Legal Immigrants 12 2.2.2.2 Illegal Immigrants 12 2.2.2.3 Refugees 12 2.2.3Linkages between Internal and External Migration 13 2.2.4Definition of Elements of Migration 13 2.2.4.1 Forced Migration 13 2.2.4.2 Life-Time Migration 14 2.2.4.3 Migration Stream 14
vi 2.2.4.4 In-Migrants 14 2.2.4.11 Districts 16 2.2.4.12 Village And Towns 16 2.2.5 Rural to Urban Migration 16
2.3CAUSES OF INTERNAL MIGRATION TRENDS 17 2.3.1 Economic Factors 18 2.3.1.1 Push Factors 19 2.3.1.2 Pull Factor 19 2.3.2 Demographic Factors 20 2.3.3 Socio-Cultural Factors 20 2.3.4 Political Factors 21 2.3.5 Miscellaneous Factors 21 2.4 Impact of Migration---Positive/Negative 21 2.4.1Impact on the Host Country 21 2.4.1.1 Positive Impact: 22 2.4.1.2 Negative Impact 22 2.4.2Impacts on Home Country 23 2.4.2.2 Positive Impact: 23 2.4.2.3 Negative Impact 24 2.4.3Impact of Migration on Rural and Urban 24 2.4.3.1 Development 24 2.4.3.2 Resources Utilization 24 2.4.3.3 Economy 25 2.5Consequence of Internal Migration 25 2.6 In-Migration Trend in Nepal 26 2.7In-Migration Trend in Kathmandu Valley 28 2.8Migration and Environment 29 2.9Conceptual Framework 30 2.9.1 Development Exclusion 30 2.9.2 Cultural Exclusion 30 2.9.3 Demographic Exclusion 31 2.9.4 Social Exclusion 31 2.9.5 Economic Exclusion 31 2.9.6 Political Exclusion 31
vii CHAPTER – III : METHODOLOGY 33 3.1 Research Philosophy 33 3.2 Research Approach 34 3.3 Research Design 35 3.4 Research Method 36 3.4.1Quantitative Research Method 37 3.4.2Qualitative Research Method 37 3.5Data Collection 37 3.5.1Primary Data 38 3.5.2Secondary Data 38 3.5.3Data Sampling and Population 39 3.6Ethical Consideration 39 3.7Validity and Reliability 40 3.8Research Limitation 40 CHAPTER IV : ANALYSIS 42 4.1 Do you think that migration helps in sharing the culture and tradition among individuals from individuals from different backgrounds? 42 4.2 Does migration positively impact the country’s labor and employment trends? 43 4.3 Has increasing trend of in migration led to sustainable use and exploitation of the available resources in the place of migration? 44 4.4 Is in migration trend higher in the urbanized areas? 45 4.5 Does access to infrastructures entice the people to migrate to urban areas? 46 4.6 Will development of labor market in rural areas lower the increasing in migration trend in an urban area? 47 4.8 Does migration result in the deterioration of the environment in the migrated areas? 51 4.9 In migration has its direct impact on the economic development of the areas. What do you think of it? 52 4.10 What do you think of migration being influenced by multiple pushes and pull factors? 53 4.10 Revisit of Objectives 54
viii CHAPTER – V : SUUMMARY, CONCLUUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS 57 5.1 Suummary 57 5.2 Conclusion 60 5.3 Recommendation 62 REFERENCES 65 APPENDICES
ix LIST OF TABLES
Page No. Table 2.1: Urbanization and Rural-Urban Growth Rates 27 Table 4.1: Relationship between In-migration and Sharing of Culture and Tradition 42 Table 4.2 : Migration and Its Impact on Employment 43 Table 4.3: Relationship between Migration and Utilization of Resources 44 Table 4.4: Proportion of Migration in Urbanized Areas 45 Table 4.5 : Relationship between Facilities and Employment Opportunities 46 Table 4.6: Influence of Labour Market Development on Rate of Migration 47 Table 4.7: Relationship between Employment Opportunities and Inter-regional Migration 48 Table 4.8: impact of Migration on the Environment of Migrated Areas 51 Table 4.9: impact of Migration on the Economic Development of Migrated Areas 52 Table 4.10: Influence of Push Pull Factors on Migration 53
x LIST OF FIGURES
Page No. Figure 1.1: Organization of the Chapters 7 Figure 2.1: Types of Migration 10 Figure 2.2: Factors Causing Migration 18 Figure 3.1 Inductive research approach 34 Figure 3.2 : Deductive Approach 35 Figure 4.1: Relationship Between In-migration and Sharing of Culture and Tradition 43 Figure 4.2: Migration and Employment Trends 44 Figure 4.3: Relation between in Migration and Use of Resources 45 Figure 4.4: Level of Migration in Urbanized Areas 46 Figure 4.5: Relationship between Migration and Access to Infrastructures 47 Figure 4.6: Influence of Labor Market Development on Rate of Migration 48 Figure 4.7: Relation between Employment Opportunities and Inter-regional Migration 49 Figure 4.8: Impact of Migration on the Environment of Migrated Areas 51 Figure 4.9: impact of Economic Development of Migrated Areas 52 Figure 4.10: influence of push pulls factors on migration 53
xi CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of the Research
In the past few years, the mobility of people from one place to another precisely in search of work has been in increasing trend in thecontext of Nepal .Development and availability of goods is one such factor that has been influencing thegrowth of migration in thecontext of Nepal. This dissertation is conducted to outline the trend of migration in 7 & 10 Wards of Tokha Municipality, Kathmandu. The increasing prospect of development in 7 & 10 wards of Tokha municipality has attracted many people to flee from their respective zones and settle here. The underlying causes and consequences, its effect on the country’s development and theoverall economy are represented by this research. Migration represents the association between the various dimensions of a country’s affairs such as society, business, employment, security, economy(Collier, 2015).
Nepal having unequal infrastructural development on various parts shows the distinction between the livelihood of the urban and rural people. The pull factors of migration such as infrastructures, employment, etc. and the continuous urge of developing one’s lifestyles with the increasing advancement in other areas of the country create the desire to shift(Fox, 2016) .People are always in the need to transform their lives whether it be by migrating to other places matching their requirements. This dissertation is conducted to reflect the cause of people’s migration, their associated effects and consequences in the chosen area and their outlying outcomes in the future. 7 & 10 wards of Tokha municipalityhave been the center of in migration from various development regions reasonably due to the increasing potential of development and rapid urbanization.
Urbanization in the 7 & 10 wards of Tokha municipality area has increased due to the availability of the opportunities of better living standard, provision of food, water, transport, etc. according to the project on Grande Towers 7 & 10 wards of Tokha municipality, the ring road construction and the rapid development of apartments in the 7 & 10 wards of Tokha municipality area has increased the settlement availability
1 for a number of people. This is also a prospect for the increasing migration to the area. Previously falling on the remote area of Kathmandu, 7 & 10 wards of Tokha municipality is now at the edge of development due to the division of land and construction of big projects such as ahospital, housing, etc. It is now turning into a municipality from a VDC with a population of 12000.
From the future perspective, the in migration trend in 7 & 10 wards of Tokha municipality area may result in population chaos, environmental consequences, and imbalanced regional development which will be reflected in the further chapters of this study.
1.2 Introduction of the Study Area
Nepal, having a population of 27 million, is divided into 14 zones, 75 districts, and 5 development regions. It has the migration rate of 2.58 people /1000 population according to the demography of Nepal, 2012(Ministry of Health and Population, 2011). If look onto the Nepal’s past, people preferred to live in the places favorable for agriculture and were eventually lured towards the well-developed regions or with the conducive work environment. Nepal’s division on the basis of thegeographical structure reflects the atmosphere, working conditions and opportunities for employments according to that(Demirkaya & Artvinli, 2011). Further, it is divided into development regions with districts and on the village development committees, and every area shows thediverse distribution of thepopulation. People’s urge to go hand in hand with the technological advancements has resulted in the development of necessities that ultimately lead to migration(Feldman, 2011).
Kathmandu, thecapital city of Nepal, lies in the central development region and has the highest population than rest of the development regions. The facilities availability in the sector of health, education, transportation, etc. and the development trend has lured several people to reside here. Every year, a huge number of people migrate to Kathmandu from outside the valleys in search of the required prerequisites and developing their standard of living.
7 & 10 wards of Tokha municipality is a village development committee lying in the northern periphery of Kathmandu and are outside of the ring road. 7 & 10 wards of Tokha municipalityare seen with the scope of rapid development and have been a
2 keen area of migration. Due to the low pricing of the land than other areas and well equipped facilities, a huge number of people from outside are residing herein. 7 & 10 wards of Tokha municipalityhave established itself as one of the promising area in the valley for settlement with the combined effort of people living in there. The people of the place have self-contributed in the road construction and have enhanced the path of development of the area. 7 & 10 wards of Tokha, now are being converted into a municipality due to all the criteria’s fulfilled for being registered as a municipality.
1.3 Rationale of the Study
In migration is a global issue as people are always changing their residence. There are various such places in Nepal like Biratnagar, Kathmandu, and Pokhara, etc. that are seen to be having the higher prospects to development (Ministry of Health and Population, 2011). Kathmandu, being the capital city has the higher migration trend than the rest of others. The need for better study, living standard, accommodations, etc. is well maintained here. There is no such specific research study regarding migration in Nepal that focuses on the underlying causes of migration on a specific area. 7 & 10 wards of Tokha municipality, which is turning from remote to the urban area on a gradual basis, has seen the increase in population growth as per the data collected by the people in the area. This study is conducted to fill the gap of not having anappropriate study on the growing migration and its impact in different areas like 7 & 10 wards of Tokha municipality. Various primary sources of data such as questionnaires and surveys have been used to collect appropriate data regarding the context. The linkage of the people, their activities and economy are what that should be focused on conducting any study regarding the demography(Verrotti et al., 2010). Our study has included the impact of migration on the economy of the region. The revenue generated from 7 & 10 wards of Tokha municipality has been increasing due to the increasing number of people and aid to the national economy in the 7 & 10 wards of Tokha municipality area. According to economist Lee, the hurdles such as distance, laws and policies and the individual factors affect the people’s decision to migrate.
This study covers the push-pull framework under its theoretical framework of thestudy. Push-pull factors are the carriers of migration which includes the availability of infrastructures, better residential facilities, higher prospects of development, etc.
3 Likewise, the migration generated through the interdependence between the micro and macro processes also brought changes in the economy of Nepal. for 7 & 10 wards of Tokha municipality, a sample of 40 population were taken for conducting research and appropriate data were extracted whose main motive was to extract relevant data regarding migration that may be the probable causes for other places too and which is not constituted in research conducted by other researchers. There seems gradual increment among the various regions, zones and areas of Nepal as per the Census 2001(Ministry of Health and Population, 2011). With regard to this, this study deals with the reasons for population variation in the areas of Nepal; 7 & 10 wards of Tokha municipality in this case.
1.4 Problem Statement
The inter-regional movement of people from outside to the 7 & 10 wards of Tokha municipality area has created the in migration problem here in this case. In migration encompasses all the aspects of development such as economic, social, political. It is bound to affect the living standard of people living in the area and has its consequences on the environment(Chen et al., 2014). This study on the in migration trend in 7 & 10 wards of Tokha municipality is conducted to outline the effects that the rise in thepopulation may bring to the place in the few years. It is very important for the people to understand the effects that migration will generate on the nation development and the individual’s wellbeing. A study on the demography shows that the net migration rate of Nepal in 2012 was 2.58 people per 1000 population(Ministry of Health and Population, 2011). This is in an increasing state over the years. Over movement of people will create chaos, imbalanced development of the country imposing acentral effect on the environment. It has directly created pressure on the land capacity of 7 & 10 wards of Tokha municipality and has resulted in decreased production in the area. This research is designed to develop alternative ways for the control of such factors in regards to the rising population. Nepal should on the first hand, should give equal emphasis to all the areas under its territory, make the use of available resources to develop infrastructures, employment opportunities to control the rate of migration. Imposing of such policies will regulate the people’s desire to shift as the desire does not arise if people are automatically happy with what they have or what their residential area has provided them with(Saraiva et al., 2016).
4 1.5 Significance of the Study
The significance of the study covers the major findings of the study. The findings of this study include all the aspects related to in migration. The prime causes of the people’s movement to other areas for fulfilling their interests or may be due to the drawbacks of the place they are currently living in and its study is covered by this study. The research questions prepared integrates all the findings that are to be drawn at the end. The patterns of population distribution relative to 7 & 10 wards of Tokha municipality, its effects on the environment and society, health and demography, was studied in prior and the major reason found was the association between the societies that are urbanizing and people’s interest in living in such areas for overall development. The significance part can be summarized under scholar’s significance and personal significance. The scholar’s significance from this study will include a guideline or reference for conducting the research in same matters, specific time period and budget to complete the study along with its associated limitations. Moreover, in thecase of personal significance, it can help individuals to analyze the factors related to migration, its impact on individual and society’s development, etc. Thus, the main significance of this study is to provide all the people referring this article to have a clear cut vision of the relationship between the factors driving to migration and its ultimate outcomes.
1.6 Research Aims
The aim of this research is to identify the in migration trends, cause, and consequences in 7 & 10 wards of Tokha municipality area.
1.7 Research Questions
The structured research questions prepared to support the study were:
What are the reasons and variation behind people’s movement from one region to another? What are the effects of in migration in the surrounding areas of 7 & 10 wards of Tokha municipality? How are urbanizing societies associated with migration?
5 What are the employment seeker’s views regarding in migration to a well facilitated area? What changes are observed in people’s lifestyle post migration?
1.8 Research Objectives
The sole reasons for conducting the study, in this case, includes the following points;
To point out the effects of in migration on the surrounding areas To perceive the association between the societies that are urbanizing and the immigration rate in those areas. To analyze employment seeker’s perception on inter-regional migration to a well-facilitated area.
1.9 Organization of the Chapters
The summarization of all the chapters is included in the organization of chapters. Dissertation mainly consists of three chapters; introduction, literature review, and methodology. In the introduction phase of this dissertation, the background information regarding the in migration and its arousal in 7 & 10 wards of Tokha municipality was included. The rationale and significance of the study included the findings of the study, the research aims and objectives include the prior reasons of conducting the study and desired outcomes from it. The research questions are guided the overall activities of the study associated with the data collection from the primary sources.
The literature review included the theoretical and conceptual framework of migration that is given by various scholars in regards to that of the 7 & 10 wards of Tokha municipality case study. This research used the push-pull framework to analyze the root causes of migration and people’s perception of the availability of those factors other than in their residence. The data was collected from various published sources, journals given by various scholars and were integrated as per the current study’s framework onto the literature review section. In the research methodology section, various quantitative and qualitative tools were used. 40 people were chosen as samples from the existing population in 7 & 10 wards of Tokha municipality and the research questions prepared were asked to them to generate the required data. From
6 that analysis, the information that the in migration rate in the 7 & 10 wards of Tokha municipality area was growing every year was drawn out. The findings section found the causes of increase in population inflation in 7 & 10 wards of Tokha municipality concluded from the statistical data collected and various limitations that were faced by the researcher in the course of study. Being a low budget and short period research, it was very difficult for the researchers to allocate appropriate time interval for various sections of the study. In the end, the recommendations were suggested to the researchers who might be conducting the research on same contexts in the future.
literature introduction methodology findings recommendations review
Figure 1.1: Organization of the Chapters
7 CHAPTER II
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Theoretical Framework
For many years, avariety of disciplinary approaches has been trying to evaluate and analyze in order to provide the indispensable consideration for the migration phenomenon(Martin et al., 2013).The study of in-migration trends, their causes, and consequences intent to discover the different aspects related to the mobility of people from places to places along its applicability in the development of the country. The aim of this study is to cater efficient and comprehensive analysis of the prevailing issues related to migration and the various migration trends prevalent in the context of Nepal. Migration is considered as the changing concept which involves the mobility of people from one residence to another residence for any reasons(Bhattarai, 2005). Migration plays an essential economic phenomenon which impacts on the development of both developing and developed countries(Collier, 2015). However, it is considered as the main component causing the population change of the certain area. Thus, change in growth, size and other different features of the population can be seen due to the change in migration trends.
Similarly, the trend analysis of Nepal labor migrants by the fiscal year and the attraction of people towards different countries at the particular time period are noticed. Bhattarai in his research explained that labor migration of Nepal is greatly influenced by a number of socio-economic and demographic aspects. Moreover, migrant people who have been moved in search of better opportunities have certainly faced enough problems and issues in a foreign land as compared to their homeland(Bhattarai, 2005). Due to the inability of Nepalese government policies, Nepal has not been able to manage the labor migration properly. Several factors explain and associate the people’s decision to migrate from one place to another(Mergo, 2016). In a similar way, Miheretu in his research study has demonstrated about the causes and consequences of the people’s movement from rural to urban areas seeking better employment and education opportunities and in order to use urban services and facilities. Despite that, the economic flow of active people from the rural agricultural sector has impacted in a negative way(Baram,
8 2009). The production of important agricultural products has been decreased in the origin area and the other area receiving migrants has been facing a shortage of housing problem, unemployment, increasing living costs, and low access to the social facilities. So due to this, to solve the problem of rural and urban migration, some mixed rural development policy has been launched(McLeman, 2015). Furthermore, several scholars, demographers, and geographers have collected different statistical data about the migration conducted a surveyof different aspects of migration. The migration forms, nature and direction toward which the migration moves forward are categories of migration(Peou, 2016). Thus, the migration categorization supports in analyzing the patterns, trends and flow of migration in a specific location.
2.2 Migration
Migration of people is the process of moving from one place to another in search of better opportunities and living life in a standard way. Usually, migration is considered as the natural phenomenon marked from the beginning of human civilization(International Organization for Migration, 2012). Migration can be both temporary and permanent which indicates that people migrate from one place to another for grasping better employment opportunities, facilities and improving the standard of living(Zander et al., 2013). Since, Nepal is a developing country with narrow industrial development; many people usually young people are popularized for migrating from one place to another for better education and employment opportunities. The migration trend has increased in Nepal from recent years which seemed to have caused due to many factors such as economic, social, psychological and political factors. These four factors are considered to be the most important factors for increasing the migration patterns worldwide. Similarly, these factors are often referred as the pull factors and the push factors which can be either forced or voluntary. Despite economic and social factors many times people are bound to migrate to different places due to diverse factors such as natural calamities, the unstable political situation of the country (Piel et al., 2014). Sufficient clue can be found in the case of migration in Nepal. In addition to that, migration is greatly influenced due to the poverty and inefficiency to earn or produce adequate for supporting themselves and their family members(Batiuk, 2013). There are many examples of migration in Nepal. For example, the people living in Himalayan regions
9 often migrate to the Hilly or Terai region to seek better opportunities for job and for improving their living standards. Similarly, the people living in rural areas migrate to urban areas due to natural calamities occurring such as landslides, flood, etc. Generally, migration can be divided into two types: Internal Migration and External Migration.
Internal External Migration Migration Migration
Figure2.1: Types of Migration
2.2.1 Internal Migration
Internal migration is defined as the process which indicates the movement of people or group of people from one place to another place within the specified country territory(Sira & Dubravska, 2015). Internal migration has been considered as an essential element of population growth in the urban areas of Nepal. People tend to be migrating from rural to rural and rural to urban areas particularly those seeking for better employment and educational opportunities. Similarly, people are moving from one place to another in order to improve their living standard. Furthermore, infrequent natural calamities are considered to be the major contributor to the internal migration such as landslides, flood, etc(Peou, 2016). due to this people are compelled to shift from their living place to another location. Additionally, poverty, unbalanced income distribution, unemployment and tough livelihood are the main causes of internal migration in Nepal. Due to these aspects, people are forced to migrate from different areas to another. But internal migration does not affect the growth rate and size of the population rather it is responsible for increasing the regional growth rate in the
10 country. Endemic malaria in the Terai region was controlled in the 1950s after which Nepal has been experiencing a large volume of internal migration. Additionally, speedy internal migration has been considered as a process by which excess rural manpower are restrained from the old agricultural methods in order to modernize the industrial growth. There tend to be many reasons why people are bound to migrate from one place to another within a certain territory. Some reasons include the getting higher education opportunities and for uplifting the economic reasons. Internal migration overlooks the reason associated with the political aspects(Park et al., 2016). However, rapid urbanization in different countries has been seen due to the trend of migrating especially form the rural to urban areas.
2.2.2 External Migration
External migration is another type of migration, also known as international migration is referred as the movement of people across the border from one country to another country in search of better life style, opportunities, and facilities(Greenwood, 2015). Moreover, international migration points out the residential change over national borders. A person who moves from one specific country to another country is specifically known as external migrants. The time criterion and space criterion are always considered in the external migration. Similarly, international migration is not only the activity of dwelling in a place but the duration of stay in a particular nation is also considered(Fox, 2016) In Nepal, most of the migration took place across the near borders. Mainly, people externally migrate to neighboring countries India and Tibet seeking for improved employment opportunities. Furthermore, international migration can be seen in a young generation as they are fascinated by going abroad for higher studies and improving life standards. Globalization and association of regional economics have also largely affected the external migration(Poynting & Mason, 2008). Nevertheless, the external migration directly affects the population size of the country with respect to another country. In addition to that, International or external migration can be divided into three types. They are illegal immigrants, legal immigrants, and refugees. A brief explanation of types of external migrants is presented below:
11 2.2.2.1 Legal Immigrants
A legal immigrant is a type of external migration where the migration of people occurs between the two countries or boundaries with the legal permission of the destination country(Collier, 2015). Usually, the legal immigration policy is positioned upon the basic principle of unifying families and relatives, as well as meeting the requirements of the labor market. The example of legal immigrants can be the EDV (Electronic Diversity Visa) lottery of the USA, which provides the free visa to the people as a lottery system to attract them to their country. Similarly, legal immigration policy seeks the social, economic and cultural objectives of the immigrant people.
2.2.2.2 Illegal Immigrants
Illegal immigration is also a type of international migration where the migration of people occurs between two countries or borders in a way that breaches the laws and rules of immigration of the destination country(Feldman, 2011). The trend of illegal migration has been increased in the few past decades particularly from a developing country to the most developed country. Some country like the USAhas millions of illegal immigrants whointend to shift the people upward from a poorer country to a richer country where the migrant people can enjoy better facilities and services as well have the chance to uplift their living standards(Korobkov, 2007). Moreover, it is recognized that illegal immigrants are not prone to be the poorest of the population size from where they emigrate. When the potential immigrants know that the benefits or advantages of moving from one country to another are higher than the risks and cost associated, illegal immigration becomes a choice(Morgan, 2010). The benefit of migration to another destination not only interpolates the anticipated enhancement in the income and the living standard but also includes the expectation with regard to potential future permit where the illegal immigrants are given a way to get citizenship. However, the restrictions of living as illegal immigrants in the destination country leaving family may be included in the cost aspect.
2.2.2.3 Refugees
Refugees are also the types of external migrationwhich have migrated from their home country to international country in order to escape persecution because of their
12 race, religion, nationality, membership of a particular political group(Kaur, 2010). Researchers have pointed out that most of the refugees are influenced to move to countries which are near their home country within the ethnic tribe population and acquire other co-ethnic refugees.
2.2.3 Linkages between Internal and External Migration
Both internal and external migration has indicative consequences for poverty and development. Since the scholars from several backgrounds and with different concerns studies the two areas of migration they are hardly linked with each other(Pedersen, 2015). However, whenever the two aspects are linked with each other at a certain point, it is often pretended that usually, internal movements shows a precursor to the external movement. Similarly, both the internal and external migration is repeatedly provoked by the similar economic, social and political factors, as well as attempting to provide similar possibilities for development these two aspects are rarely linked. In addition to that, these two aspects of migration can help to construct policies which best facilitates the contribution of internal and external migration to the development(Fernández de Córdova et al., 2016). For many decades, varieties of disciplinary and multi-disciplinary approaches have been trying to evaluate and cater a basic interpretation for the phenomenon of migration. Multiple theoretical and empirical studies research can be found regarding the determinants of both the internal and external migration. Nonetheless, the linkages between the internal and external or international migration are more complicated. Since the external migrants flow triggers the internal movements of migrant people they are intended to share crucial features in terms of their origins, the process or system involved, as well as their impacts on the economic, socio-cultural and political aspects(Datta, 2012). Despite, the differences in the returns to labor; different sources of data show that the level and the nature of vulnerabilities faced by the external migrant people is to tend to be higher than that of internal migrant people.
2.2.4 Definition of Elements of Migration
2.2.4.1 Forced Migration
Forced migration is defined as the term which refers to the coerced mobility of refugees and the people who are displaced internally due to the external factors such
13 as conflict or natural disasters, civil wars, development policies and projects, etc. the forced migration can be classified into three types such as conflict induced displacement, development induced displacement and disaster induced displacement(Ko et al., 2015).
2.2.4.2 Life-Time Migration
Life time migration is defined as the migration if people move from his place of origin to another destination where the migrated people are included at the time of the census of the particular place or country regardless of the number of times he or she migrates. The number of times people migrate from their birth place to another new place is excluded in the census in thecase of life time migration.
2.2.4.3 Migration Stream
Migration stream is also known as the migratory patterns followed by the different groups of people. Usually, migration stream is defined as the total number of movement made by the people throughout the specified migration period which shows the familiar space of the origin and a common area of destination(Alvaredo & Gasparini, 2015). So the number of migrants determined according to their quantity within a specified time form one geographical location to another geographical location such as Mountain to Hill, Hill to Terai, Terai to mountain and Mountain to Terai. Similarly, another migration stream is basically measured on the basis of rural to rural migration, rural to urban migration, urban to rural and urban to urban migration.
2.2.4.4 In-Migrants
In-migrants refer to those internal migrant people who have been migrated from their birth place to another destination in search of better facilities and opportunities such as higher education, health services, employment, and etc(Cai et al., 2015). thus, the migrant people who have shifted and settled in another location from different areas are often known as in-migrants in the destination.
14 2.2.4.5 Out-Migrants
Out-migration refers to those internal migrant people who leave their original birth place and move to adifferent destination location in search of better life standard and employment opportunities.
2.2.4.6 Net-Migration
Net migration rate is defined as the difference between the in migration and the out migration in a specific geographical location within a defined time frame(Batiuk, 2013). For example, there may be either positive or negative net migration in the case of districts. If the district faces positive net migration, then it gains anincrease in the population and sends out the negative net migration which tends to decrease the total population. Thus, the difference in the size of the population in a precise district is influenced by the net migration, but the balance between in and out migration is generally zero.
2.2.4.7 Gross Migration
Gross migration is generally defined as the sum total of migrant people and out migrant people usually internal migration. Gross migration demonstrates the magnitude of the total movement of the people in a specified geographical location or area.
2.2.4.8 Period Migration
According to 2001 census of Nepal, period migration has been defined as those migrant people who are 5 years and above mentioned in the census and whose place of residence was different from the place of registered during the period of thecensus(Ministry of Health and Population, 2011).
2.2.4.9 Ecological Zones
According to the Census Bureau of Statistics, the ecological zones of Nepal are limited on the basis of the boundary of the administrative districts that are composed considering the local topography which consists of 16 districts form Mountain region, 39 districts from Hill region and 20 districts from Terai region(Ministry of Health and
15 Population, 2011). Similarly, inter zonal migration is defined as the migration which occurs between the three zones.
2.2.4.10 Regions
Regions in Nepal can be categorized into five development regions each development region can be further divided into sub-regions matching the respective ecological zone. The five development regions include eastern, western, mid-western, far- western and central. The total inter-regional migration quantity was increased by 15 regions which were considered greater than the ecological zones(Ministry of Health and Population, 2011).
2.2.4.11 Districts
Nepal can be divided into 75 districts. This study presents some portion of inter district migration trends. Thus, the increase in the inter district migration primarily indicates the intra regional migration since one region consists of many districts within(Ministry of Health and Population, 2011).
2.2.4.12 Village And Towns
According to the data provided by the census 2001, Nepal has 58 urban areas. Many people from rural areas are attracted towards the urban areas due to the availability of different facilities and opportunities. Thus, the migration trend is intended to be seen in the urban areas.
2.2.5 Rural to Urban Migration
From the past few decades, rural to urban migration in Nepal has been increased. Rural to urban migration has played an important role in the increment of the population in the city areas. According to the information provided by the survey shows that urban areas have very low natural growth rate as compared with the rural area. But more people are influenced to live in an urban area than in the rural area due to the popularization of internal migration trends in Nepal. Migration is an ongoing process especially in the city areas like Kathmandu, Pokhara, Butwal, Nepalgunj, Lalitpur, etc. since these areas provide more opportunities, services, and security for the people to develop their career in any field(Bhattarai, 2005). Furthermore, some
16 positive impact of rural to urban migration is the provision of better education, employment and health facilities in the urban areas. Although the opportunities provide by the rural to urban migration, this has been affecting the urban resources, infrastructures, and services by the excessive use of resources. Due to which people are suffering from low job opportunities. Similarly, the migrants from the insignificant group and indigenous nationalities such as Adibashi-Janajati and Dalit people are eliminated from the political, societal and economic affairs in the urban areas. In addition to that, some problems relating to unemployment, underemployment, and social crime rate has been expanded in the city area. Due to the discriminatory national policy has excluded the people belonging to Adibashi- Janajati and Dalit group from the governmental affairs . The urban population has been increased as the result of rural to urban migration. However, this has impacted on the competition between the migrant people and the native inhabitant in the urban area. Since the urban residents are well positioned at the governmental level offices, they have good higher education and better living standard than that of migrant people from different parts of the country; they have been ruling the migrants(Piguet, 2011). Thus, the migrant people are at the risk of social exclusion.
2.3 Causes of Internal Migration Trends
The decision of migration is usually made by the individual or household rather than by children’s and wives. This is shown in most of the studies regarding the migration(Anastario et al., 2015). There are several factors of internal migration trends. The causes of internal migration are tentative which indicates that some people migrate to another place due to the poor economic condition. Similarly, some people migrate in search of better education and employment opportunities(Park et al., 2016). The continual flow of migrant people has been increased in more densely populated urban areas. Furthermore, other factors such as environmental, political, situational and psychological factors also greatly affect the migration. Natural calamities such as landslides, flood, and soil erosion as well as the political factors are also considered as the important factors compelling the people of Nepal to migrate to other places. However, it is believed that people largely migrate from place to place in order to seek better living standards. More importantly, the major factor leading to international migration is interregional marriages. There are five factors which
17 influence the people to migrate to different places. The factors can be classified as economic factors, demographic factors, socio-cultural factors, political factors and miscellaneous factors.
Economic Factors
Demographic Factors
Socio-cultural Factors
Political Factors Causes of CausesMigration Miscellaneous Factors
Figure 2.2: Factors Causing Migration
2.3.1 Economic Factors
Migration is often affected by the complex economic factors(Carey-Thomas, 2012). All most all studies point out that economic factors largely motivate the people to migrate. In the context of developing countries like Nepal, several economic factors such as low agricultural income, agricultural unemployment, and underemployment are the major factors responsible for pushing the people to migrate to developed countries offering greater facilities and opportunities. Thus, most of the studies indicate that almost every people who migrate from one place to another are due to in search of better economic opportunities. Economic factors generally correlate with the labor standards of a place, its employment situation and the overall well being of the economy(Herlitz, 2010). People are attracted to shift from one place to another due to the possibility of enjoying the higher wages, and salaries, better employment opportunities, and rescue from the social and political situation of the specific place. The economic factors can be classified as push factors and pull factors(International Organization for Migration, 2012). The pull factors and push factors can be either
18 economic or non-economic which forcefully push people into migration or attract them respectively.
2.3.1.1 Push Factors
Push factors are primarily considered as the negative developments and circumstances of migration which motivates of forces a person to leave that place and go to some other place due to different reasons(Libman et al., 2013). Additionally, unemployment, low productivity, poor economic conditions, insufficient opportunities and facilities, natural calamities such as landslides, flood, soil erosion, famine, and disease, etc. force the people to migrate from one place to another to seek better economic opportunities(Felbermayr et al., 2015). Moreover, globalization and discrimination also push people to migrate from one place to another place. Similarly, high levels of violence and political instability also causes the mobility of people. The major factor that increases the internal migration in the Kathmandu valley is due to lack of employment opportunities, higher studies opportunities, lack of proper health care services, etc. According to the research conducted in 2007, the prime cause of migration in Kathmandu valley was due to unemployment incorporating 35.55% of total migrants, followed by a lower rate of higher education constituting exactly 20%. Similarly, 15.55% people were migrated to Kathmandu due to the failure in business and 13.33% migrated due to the sociological factors. Furthermore, 8.88% migrated due to inadequate land in their home town and 4.44% migrated due to the conflicts between people along with 2.22% due to natural calamities(Ministry of Health and Population, 2011).
2.3.1.2 Pull Factor
Pullfactors, on the other hand,are primarily considered as the positivedevelopments of migration which attracts people to a specific place such as better employment opportunities, higher wages, facilities and better working conditions, political stability, better climate condition. These factors are often referred as place utility which tends to influence the people to migrate from one place to another. Pull factors largely motivate those people who seek more opportunities and facilities. According to the research conducted in 2007, the study shows the migrant's percentages which were attracted by the pull factors such as 33.33% of the total migrants were fascinated
19 by better employment opportunities, followed by higher education opportunities constituting exactly 20%. Likewise, 8% migrated due to marriage, 6% due to the availability of boarding schools for their children and 4.44% were migrated due to the desire to live an urban life(Ministry of Health and Population, 2011).
Thus, the pull and push factors not only affect the rural and urban migration but also largely affects the international migration.
2.3.2 Demographic Factors
Demographic factors are another important factor which influences the people to move from one place to another(Marchiori, 2011). There are several factors which affect the internal migration of the place. Some of them increase the rates of the population between different regions of the nation. Age and sex are the major determinants of demographic factors because the young people who are economically active usually migrate from one place to another. Generally, in the case of gender, mostly men move from one place to another more than a woman which is often called as social mobility. Women also migrate to their husbands after marriages and off times due to some security reasons. Despite that, fertility and another natural rise in the population rate are also considered as the demographic factors.
2.3.3 Socio-Cultural Factors
Social and cultural factors are also considered as an essential factor motivating the people to migrate from one place to another(Naufal, 2015). Socio-cultural factors include the ethnic, religious, racial and cultural discrimination which greatly affects the people to migrate from one place to another place. Similarly, the socio-cultural factor such as conflicts between family members usually for independence also causes the migration. This is especially seen in the younger population. Other factors like improved communication facilities such as better transportation facilities, television impact, and better communication network as well as the popularity of urban education directly contribute to the socio-cultural factors
20 2.3.4 Political Factors
Another cause of internal migration is due to the political factors. Sometimes political factors either encourage or discourage people from migrating to other places. Migration is considered as an ongoing problem in the context of Nepal. The process of rural to urban migration has been increased largely after the Maoists insurgency. Moreover, the internal armed conflicts between the country and the Maoist have bounded several families to migrate from places to places as a result of political instability which has caused the people to face a number of problems such as going through economic hardships, shortage of food, obstacles of movement and lack of education(Smith et al., 2015). Political background, attitudes, and individual perception largely motivate the people to migrate. Due to the uneven political reasons, people often migrate in search of politically stable regions.
2.3.5 Miscellaneous Factors
Despite the economic factors, socio-cultural factors, demographic factors and political factors, miscellaneous factors such as the existence of friends and relatives in the urban areas who particularly cater help, desire to receive an education which is available only in the urban region affect the migration(Rappaport, 2005). Likewise, factors such as closeness of cultural contracts and cultural diversity greatly influence the migration. In addition to that, individual attitudes are also responsible for causing migration. Similarly, the climatic condition also affects the people’s decision to migrate from one place to another in order to enjoy the climate of another area.
2.4 Impact of Migration---Positive/Negative
Migration has both positive and negative impact on the home country and the host country(Hernandez et al., 2015). It is believed that people migrate for several factors such as economic factors, political factors, natural disasters, and eagerness to shift the surrounding. The major impacts of migration are presented hereby:
2.4.1 Impact on the Host Country
As the consequences of migration, a host country can experience both the pros and cons. The history shows that due to the migration a sudden rush is seen in the
21 population growth. Great pressure is found in the infrastructure and services due to the increase in the total population in the host country. Several unknown issues and problems are faced when people migrate from one place to another. Some problems may include finding employment and housing which tends to be very tiresome. Similarly, habituating with the new laws and regulation, cultural norms, and even adopting new language can cause a problem due to the tremendous flow of migrant people(De Arcangelis et al., 2015). Furthermore, it may be a challenge for the host country to understand the migrant people into the community and accommodate the required support. The impact of migration o the host country can be either positive or negative which are listed herein:
2.4.1.1 Positive Impact:
The gap seen in the employment opportunities such as job vacancies and skills can be filled with potential migrants. Economic growth can be achieved. By the contribution of new young migrants, the pension difference can be occupied since the young workers tend to pay taxes. Different services for the growing population can be managed effectively when there is aninadequate young individual. Migration helps in delivering strength, innovation and modernization. Since many people from different cultural background migrate from one place to another, they tend to enrich the cultural diversity. The decline of schools and universities due to the decreased number of students can be enhanced with the help of migration.
2.4.1.2 Negative Impact
The recession of wages and salaries are likely to occur when there is anincrease in the migrant population.But this issue is considered to be temporary as in the near future it can be adjusted. The productivity, training and innovation can be affected if the workers are intended to work for comparatively little pay. There is a high chance that the migrant people may be exploited.
22 Due to the increased population, there can be stress on the utilization of public services and facilities. The problem of unemployment may arise due to the unlimited flow of migrants. Local people can be affected due to the associated obstacles of migration. Security problem may be faced if the large movement of people is monitored. Crime and trafficking of people may be influenced by the free movement of people between the boundaries.
2.4.2 Impacts on Home Country
Despite the consequences of migration on the host country, there are certain pros and cons of migration in the home country(Demirkaya & Artvinli, 2011). The home country also faces some challenges and issues in relation to the migration. There are many cases where migrant people shift from one place to another in order to foster positive changes regarding their future. Several reasons such as low standard of living, low wages, and salaries, slow development of job market, lack of higher educational opportunities lead the people to migrate(Carey-Thomas, 2012). Thus, the home country must investigate migration statistics in order to address the causes of migration and why people are leaving their home land. Furthermore, the home country can face problem regarding the decrease of population size, production level as well as the economic spending in the long run. The impact of migration of the home country can be either positive or negative which are listed herein:
2.4.2.2 Positive Impact:
Developing countries like Nepal can benefit from the remittances or payments send by the migrants to their home country overtaking the advantages of foreign aid. Similarly, due to the movement of people unemployment problem is subtracted and migrant young people get the chance of upgrading the life standard. The migrant people from the host country can bring back savings, skills, ideas and international contacts which can help in developing the home country.
23 2.4.2.3 Negative Impact
The home country can face economic disadvantage due to the deficiency of young people or workers. Inadequacy of highly trained people such as health workers The social problem for children left out or upbringing in the absence of large family.
2.4.3 Impact of Migration on Rural and Urban
There are different impacts of migration on the rural and urban economy. The inequality in rural and urban biases in the development has impacted both the economy of rural and urban areas. They are discussed below:
2.4.3.1 Development
Due to the increasing migration trends of people from rural to urban areas has impacted on the development prospect. The movement of people from rural to urban has increased the rate of unemployment problem which has led to the lower the living standard of urban people(Peou, 2016). Despite that, it has also affected the women in the rural areas since they are bound to household chores and works related to farms. Similarly, the rural to urban has prioritized the concentration of different facilities and services in the urban areas which have resulted in the development of urban areas rather than the rural areas. The developments in the rural areas are seemed to be very low as compared to the urban area(Carey-Thomas, 2012). Flexibility in the labor market will be developed in the urban areas due to the increase adequacy of skilled manpower.
2.4.3.2 Resources Utilization
Migration of rural to urban has created aproblem in maintaining the equality of the resources available in the rural areas and the urban areas(Verrotti et al., 2010). There is a high inequality in the utilization of resources in both the areas. Due to the reasons for migrating from rural to urban cities, there is a high chance of exploiting the resources available in the cities rather than the rural area. More people are shifting to urban cities which tend to over utilization of the resources inefficiently and affect the
24 biodiversity of the cities. Similarly, the due to the low population in the rural area there is under utilization of resources. Thus, the imbalance between the resources utilization pattern in the rural and urban areas has been the main causes of natural disasters.
2.4.3.3 Economy
Migration significantly affects the economy of rural and urban areas. Due to the increased population vacancies will be filled and more manpower will be utilized. This will tend to improve the industrial sectors(Tarricone et al., 2016). The workers will see a rise in their salaries and wages which will directly improve the living standard of the people living in the urban areas. Thus, the economy of urban areas is bound to rise. In the case of rural areas, there will be no prospects of development due to the limited number of people and rural areas will face the depression in the economic sector. This will tend to lower the living standard of people living in the rural areas. Similarly, increase in the labor force in the urban areas will result in increasing the potential output capacity of the economy.
2.5 Consequence of Internal Migration
Migration generally, changes the exact shape and size of the population growth rate both in the original place and the destination(Boswell & Geddes, 2010). It is stated in many studies that any change in the flow of migration influences the change in the growth rate, size and different other aspects of the population. The consequences of migration can be viewed in two dimensions. First one is migration causes boundless urbanization, unemployment, unequal distribution of income. Stress in ecological stress and population misdistribution(Cai et al., 2015). On the other hand, migration can be viewed positively as a part of economic growth, equilibrating tendencies, effective industrialization, proper income distribution, advancement of technology especially in the agricultural area has been providing economic benefit to the people. Usually, internal migration affects the place of origin of the migrants and the place where they are destined. Migration has both positive and negative effect on the country’s economy, population, climate change, employment, education, labor market, etc. Migration of people from rural areas largely tends to maximize the labor forces in the urban areas(Carey-Thomas, 2012). Similarly, the rural migrants tend to
25 import new methodologies and technologies to rural areas which certainly help to reinforce the economic condition of the rural areas. In the context of Kathmandu valley, in migration have resulted in varieties of positive impact in the economy of the entire region. The positive impact in the in-migration in 7 & 10 wards of Tokha municipality area can be good house rental income, platform for exploring the business activities. Similarly, sharing of cultural and tradition among different people can be enhanced in the given area. Furthermore, in-migrants can also be considered as the major source of revenue for different business companies. They act as the sources of main infrastructural development in the urban areas. Despite several positive impacts, there is some negative impact which affects the internal migration. Analyzing the negative impacts of the migration in urban areas is crucial because it helps in determining the several factors contributing to migration(Chen et al., 2014). The enormous increase of in migrants in 7 & 10 wards of Tokha municipality area of Kathmandu valley has affected the living standard of many people. The available resources are exploited badly and used inefficiently. Similarly, several residential and commercial buildings built in 7 & 10 wards of Tokha municipality area has resulted in creating pressure on the land due to which it is prone to several natural calamities. In addition to that, due to the overcrowded population crime and other immoral activities has been increased. The massive increase of both temporary and permanent in- migrants have resulted in an uneven distribution of resources and consequently increased the populated area(Poynting & Mason, 2008).
2.6 In-Migration Trend in Nepal
Nepal has a quiet long history of rural to urban migration trend which has resulted in the development of culture and economy. From the very beginning, people are migrating from rural to urban areas in search of better living. It has been found as a clue that due to the flow of migrants from rural areas, the population of urban areas has grown in a rapid way. Considering the example of Kathmandu’s population, the past population intended to be barely one million as compared to the present is estimated to be around three million according to 2001 census. Similarly, the rural to urban migration is contemplated as a natural phenomenon which cannot be blocked and restrained since migrated is regarded as a right based approach presently(Ministry of Health and Population, 2011). To understand the growth rates of urbanization and
26 rural, urban area, the table 1 shown below can be considered. Table 1 below demonstrates the growth rate trend of urban areas in Nepal. From the analysis, it can be found that from a common 2.9% level of urban population in 1960, the population in the urban area has grown up to 16% approximately. Similarly, at the same time, it was conformed that there were only 10 major urban areas with a joint population of 23875 in 1952 for two years(Ministry of Health and Population, 2011). However, due to the migration an increase in the total population of the urban area was seen with an increase of 336,222 or 3.6% in 1961 along with the development of six new cities. Moreover, in 1971 the total urban population was recorded to an increase of 461,938 and exactly 4% of the total population. Five new urban areas were reclassified, and the five areas classified in 1961 were excluded. Additionally, in 1981 census seven more urban areas were added further with the total population of 956,721 or 6.4% in total. Furthermore, by the year 1991, Nepal constituted 33 urban areas in total including 10 urban areas after 1981, six areas in 1983 and four areas in 1987. Soon after 1991, three more urban areas were included in the increase in total population by 1,659,719 or 9.1%. Thus, the total population increased to 1,759,964 or 9.5% with the addition of three more urban cities(Ministry of Health and Population, 2011). According to the census, it is found that migration has played a vital role in the growing the number of people in the urban areas.
Table 2.1: Urbanization and Rural-Urban Growth Rates
Year Percent Growth rate Urban Urban Rural Total 1952/54 2.9 (10) - - - 1961 3.6 (10) 4.53 1.56 1.65 1971 4.0 (16) 3.23 2.03 2.07 1981 6.4 (23) 7.55 2.40 2.66 1991 9.2 (33) 5.89 1.79 2.08 2001 14.2 (58) 6.05 1.72 2.25 2006 16.0 (58) - - - Source: CBS, 2003; NDHS, 2006
27 2.7 In-Migration Trend in Kathmandu Valley
Nepal has been known for its long history of migration trend and has basically three regions which are spread from east to west. The survey data and research census have grabbed the information regarding the three regions. The survey usually unfolds much fascinating in- migration trends. The survey reveals the information that most of the people migrate to Kathmandu valley in search of better employment opportunities and facilities(Arnold, 2011). similarly, due to the availability of several facilities and opportunities such as better education system, employment, health services, etc, often many people migrate from rural areas to urban areas especially Kathmandu valley. Generally, Nepal is divided into five development region and the central region gets the highest number of migrant people among rest of the development region because Kathmandu valley is the capital of the country which has most of the facilities and services. The survey shows that there has been a compelling rise in the total population of Kathmandu valley with 61% growth rate within the country. According to the NLSS 2010/201, the population of Nepal has increased by almost one fifth of the population and this is due to the internal migration which has increased the population of urban areas rather than rural area.
Despite many reasons, since the past few years, Kathmandu valley is diminishing in the rate of permanent migration from another part of the country. Due to the decentralization of power, the internal migration is gradually slowing down. Thus, growing urbanization and modernized access to primary facilities such as employment opportunities, education, health facilities, drinking water facilities, etc. in many parts of the country have discouraged the people from migrating to Kathmandu valley. Distribution of power in different parts has resulted in maintaining equality in the population distribution. Due to this reason, other valleys are significantly increasing migration rather than Kathmandu valley. Furthermore, the data provided by Kathmandu Metropolitan City office has shown that there is a significant deterioration in the permanent immigration trends in the Kathmandu valley. In the year 2011, total 4,323 people officially migrated to Kathmandu valley(Ministry of Health and Population, 2011). Similarly, exact 7000 people officially migrated in the year 2010 as a permanent resident. Additionally, total 9,000 and 8,327 people permanently migrated in Kathmandu valley in the year 2009 and 2008 respectively(Ministry of
28 Health and Population, 2011). All the mentioned figures show the data of permanent migrants excluding the temporary migrants. Since past few decades, there has been seen a forceful increase in the total number of temporary migrants.
2.8 Migration and Environment
A major concern is emphasized when migration is often looked in relation to the environment. The influence of environment and the environmental change is not presented in many theories of migration. Environment and the climate change are perceived as the major problem and issues of the migration(Piguet, 2011). Considering the increasing evidence has based the knowledge of influencing the environment on the migration. This research study demonstrates unfamiliar framework structure in understanding the different effect of environment change on the migration. Moreover, environment factors related to migration decision making largely affect the people’s decision to migrate from one place to another. The environment influence migration particularly through adifferent approach which is represented as the availability and reliability of eco system facilities and unveiling risk related to the environmental hazards. Primarily, different operating drivers affect the migration decision of every individual. Thus, the effect of the environment is greatly associated with the economic, political, social and demographic factors. Hazardousness of places is directly affected by the environmental changes(Piguet, 2011). Similarly, environmental changes also affect the migration indirectly through the economic factors such as changing the live standard of the people. The resources are often scares for the utilization so there is general appearance of conflict for using the resources among the migrant people. People always want to exploit maximum resources to gain economic benefit so there may be seen a tremendous effect on the environment due to the increase in the migration trend(Piguet, 2011). Despite that, due to the political drivers such as conflict arising in using resources is also a great cause of environmental degradation. Additionally, migration of people has directly affected both the host country and the home country due to many problems. The environmental problems include the settlement, over exploitation of natural resources, different types of pollution causing environmental degradation. Similarly, the resources available in the forests are exploited and ruined for several causes such as forestlands are destroyed for settlement and cultivation of crops(Piguet, 2011). Thus,
29 the landslides, flood, soil erosion, drought, and other problems like climatic changes are the consequences of migration.
2.9 Conceptual Framework
There are many factors which influence the migration of people from one place to another especially rural to urban areas. Among several factors push factor and pull factors are the major component contributing to the migration. Push factors are primarily considered as the negative aspect of migration which forces a person to leave that place and go to some other place due to different reasons such as in search of better employment opportunities to uplift their life standard(Kuhn, 2015). Similarly, Pull factors are considered as the positive aspect of migration which attracts people to a specific place such as better employment opportunities, higher wages, facilities and better working conditions, political stability, better climate condition. There are several consequences of rural and urban migration which has both positive and negative impact on the population growth(Datta, 2012). Thus, the migrant people are at the high risk of social exclusion, political exclusion, and economic exclusion. Some of the consequences of rural and urban migration which is responsible for actualizing the social inclusion and exclusion to the migrated people in theurban area are presented below:
2.9.1 Development Exclusion
Due to the expansion of speedy development in the migrated area usually, urban location, technologies, infrastructure and communication system has been advanced. New infrastructure development such as road construction, electricity, drinking water distribution system, colleges, schools, universities, etc.is upgraded. Despite this, the migrant people are at the danger of misusing the development resources since they are illiterate and have few knowledge and information(Fang & Tang, 2017).
2.9.2Cultural Exclusion
Another consequence of migration is a cultural change which creates a problem with regard to culture. Since many migrant people leave their traditional norms and values at the origin and settle in new ways in a different culture. There can be seen many
30 cultural issues such as diffusion of culture and diffusion of religion. Thus, due to this reason cultural exclusion is created.
2.9.3 Demographic Exclusion
Demographic change is also a consequence of migration. some demographic consequences include increasing man land ratio, changing sex ratio, changing marriage trends, changing dependency ratio, the supply of cheap labor, etc. are influenced by the migration(Feldman, 2011). Similarly, the exclusion such as in employment, excessive buying of houses and lands, uses of public goods, etc. are the effect of changing migration trend.
2.9.4 Social Exclusion
The social impact of rural, urban migration includes the interaction programs between different communities, construction of heterogeneous society, social disharmony, robbery, and looting. Community interaction process may be positively included in the social change, but the inclusion of education, employment, resources, information, coping with the new society may be negatively considered(Van Fossen et al., 2004). Moreover, there are several social aspects of exclusion which have been represented by caste discrimination, linguistic discrimination, unemployment problem, citizenship problem, etc.
2.9.5 Economic Exclusion
There is a high tendency of people to get good salaries and wages in the urban areas if we compare with that of rural area. This concept is highlighted in the Todaro’s model of Migration, Unemployment, and Development. Despite that, there is a high chance to have very low access to the resources, for example, the carpet making industries and even forced to work for low wages which cannot even fulfill their basic needs. Thus, they are excluded from participating in the economic activities.
2.9.6 Political Exclusion
Since migrant people are prohibited politically, they cannot have sure their rights for better education, employment, health facilities and political issues. There is high biasness for the migrated people in the participation of political affairs since native
31 people dominate them(AO et al., 2016). Similarly, they have to be engaged in the survival strategies in the urban areas so that they can get less fortunate to participate in political matters. The migrant people are becoming more backward and discriminated. Similarly, the indigenous nationalities Adibashi-Janjati do not have an equal approach to the governmental sectors. Thus political issues are also the consequences of migration.
32 CHAPTER - III
METHODOLOGY
3.1 Research Philosophy
Research philosophy guides the researcher to conduct the study by providing a range of dimensions that makes easy to interpret the data and findings extracted from various primary and secondary source(Becker, 2014). Research philosophy aims to reflect the important assumptions of the researcher which forms the base for research. Research philosophy follows a certain procedure that enables the researcher to gain additional knowledge and information in relation to the study. There are three major contrasting research philosophies that researchers mostly use to support their study. They are positivism, phenomenology and interpretivist philosophies. Among all these philosophies, positivism philosophy is used in this research(Creswell & Clark, 2011). Positivism philosophy depends on upon the quantifiable observation that leads the researcher to statistical analysis. This philosophy uses quantitative tools and techniques in the research study. This philosophy enables the researcher to understand the different elements of the research. This philosophy supports the researcher to find and analyze the deep meaning of the research work and the several methods and approach of conducting research aids to find an appropriate conclusion to the aim and objectives of the research(Matthews & Ross, 2010). Since the several research philosophies have a high degree of accuracy and reliability, it helps to extract information and findings from the real life modeling.
Research is guided by positivism research philosophy in this research. Researcher aims to generate and analyze the in-depth meaning of the trend of migration, its causes, and effects in 7 & 10 wards of Tokha municipality of the Kathmandu valley. Since the study is based on demographic and geographic variables, positivism research philosophy will be the best method as this method integrates scientific procedures. Positivism philosophy ensures the validity and accuracy of the data(Bryman, 2015). The use of similar nature of literature and several experiments of the subject matter enables the researcher to generate meanings and findings. This research will be flourished by the positivism philosophy to analyze the cause and effect of migration.
33 3.2 Research Approach
Research approach defines the manner in which facts and data are analyzed to meet the aim and objective of the research(White & McBurney, 2012). There are mainly two different types of research approach that assist the researcherin conducting research. They are the inductive and deductive approach.
The inductive approach enables the researcher to develop new theories of the research based on the analysis and evaluation of data collected thorough several resources(Thomas, 2013). The inductive method generally starts with observation and is used to generate new and innovative theories from the outcome that are examined through the study. The inductive method at makes a deep observation and evaluation of the subject matter and analyzes the data. A collection of data is based on the observation and test.
Figure 3.1 Inductive research approach
Deductive method on the other note is the method that enables researchers to test different theories and draw appropriate conclusions and findings of the research work(Trochim et al., 2015). This method moves from general to specific terms. In this approach, the researcher analyzes and examines the exiting theories to enhance and support to test research hypothesis. This approach concerns in testing hypothesis from the theories that are formed previously and after that testing the theories to either confirm or reject.
34 Figure 2.2 : Deductive Approach
Deductive method is used to analyze and evaluate the issues related to migration in this research(Walliman, 2015). The deductive research approach is incorporated in this research where several previous theories are observed and analyzed to draw several hypotheses, and these hypotheses are investigated using both qualitative and quantitative tools to find out appropriate conclusion. This research started with the migration trend of 7 & 10 wards of Tokha municipality of Kathmandu valley and made user of different observation methods and hypothesis in order to draw theappropriate conclusion. Both qualitative and quantitative tools are used to investigate the factors of migration. Deep observation of the similar helped to generate appropriate conclusion of the subject matter.
3.3 Research Design
The research design is the overall strategy applied by the researcher to integrate the research in systematic and meaningful manner. Research design enables the researcher to interpret the components of the research in ways that eases the researcher to derive the meaning of those components(Graziano & Raulin, 2012). There are several research design that helps the researcher to carry out the research as per the nature of the research. Historical research design, review design, experimental design, descriptive research design, casual relationship design, case and field research
35 design and co relational research design are the major research design that is generally used by the researcher to conduct research. Descriptive research design concerns with describing and explaining the phenomenon and variables of research. Review design, the research design focuses on organizing component ad data of the research based on systematic or another literature review(Creswell & Clark, 2011). This research design mainly concerns in collecting data and abstract from various literature and make critically review these data to meet the objective of the research. Experimental research design, on the other hand, allows researchers to test and examine the developed hypotheses. The hypotheses can be tested by analyzing the relationship between both dependent and independent research variables.
Among the several research designs, descriptive research design is used in this research to describe the attributes and nature of variables and analyze them to the aim and objectives of the research. The issues related to migration are clearly explained by adopting descriptive research design. This research design helps to make a detailed study of the in migration trend of 7 & 10 wards of Tokha municipality, a VDC of Kathmandu valley. This design makes use of different hypothesis and models to analyze and interpret the data. The descriptive research design used in this research describes the phenomena and data of the research in different forms f charts, tables, etc. since the findings and data of the research is used by survey method descriptive research design aids the researcher to explain the variables of the research(Creswell, 2014).
3.4 Research Method
Research method of research represents the way and manner how the data are collected and analyzed to meet the aim and objective of the research(Dawson, 2013). Research method helps to arrive at a conclusion whether to confirm or reject the hypothesis. There are two different research method based on the way the data are analyzed. It is quantitative research method and qualitative research method. The application of either qualitative or qualitative research method depends on the type of research work. Researcher sometimes uses both qualitative and quantitative method to analyze and interpret the data collected form primary and secondary source. The research methods are described below:
36 3.4.1 Quantitative Research Method
In quantitative research method, the collected data are evaluated and analyzed by using several quantitative tools and techniques. This method is used to collect primary data by conducting the survey. The collected data are analyzed using several mathematical, computational and statistical techniques. The data and information are collected for limited size of the sample.
3.4.2 Qualitative Research Method
Qualitative research method helps the researcher to collect the primary data and information by conducting the interview(Trochim et al., 2015). This research is the exploratory type of research method that analyzes the collected data using several logics and reasons. This research method enables the researcher to develop appropriate reasoning of the problem in relation to the manner hypothesis are developed and tested.
Application of both qualitative and quantitative research method is appropriate for this research. Both quantitative and qualitative research method is used in this research to analyze and interpret the data collected from various sources. Data and information are collected in this research using both primary and secondary source of data(Cohen et al., 2011). Since this research is based on survey and questionnaire quantitative tool and techniques are used to analyze and evaluate the collected data in more reliable and accurate manner. Moreover, different kinds of the literature of the previous similar research and the journals and publications of Kathmandu valley related to in migration trend are the major secondary source used in this research to collect the data. All these data and information obtained through secondary source are quantitatively analyzed by applying several reasonable logic to meet the aim and objective of the research.
3.5 Data Collection
A collection of data and information is very crucial for every research(Kumar, 2014). Appropriate and suitable data are the basis to address the research questions and meet aim and objective of the research. What data appropriate for a research study is generated from two different sources: primary source and secondary source.
37 Researcher uses both the sources of data collection to address the research questions, aim, and objective of the research. Data collection simply means the collection of appropriate and suitable data and information used in conducting the research.
3.5.1 Primary Data
Primary data are the first hand data that are collected from several primary sources by several researchers to conduct the research(Trochim et al., 2015). Primary data are generally collected by conducting the survey, observation, personal interview, and questionnaire. In relation to this research, the primary data are collected based on survey strategy. The different survey questionnaire is used to collect the data related to related to migration from the sample population of Dapashi of Kathmandu valley. Moreover the data and information. Since the primary data are collected by researcherhimself, the data collected from the primary source are more reliable and accurate.
3.5.2 Secondary Data
Secondary data are the second hand data collected by the researcher from various secondary sources. The secondary data are collected by the researcher from the data previously collected by other personnel that are reliable and addresses the aim an objective of the research(Trochim et al., 2015). Websites, publications, organizational and personal records, governmental records, publications, journals and other research are the major source of collecting secondary data for different researches depending upon the nature and objective of the research. Furthermore, census data of the population of 7 & 10 wards of Tokha municipality was also used as a secondary source of data to analyze the number of migrants both in and out in Kathmandu valley.
The research on in-migration trend, cause, and consequence of 7 & 10 wards of Tokha municipality, a VDC of Kathmandu valley approaches the context of demographic variables. Therefore, both primary and secondary source of data collection is used in this research to collect reliable and appropriate data. Several governmental records of 7 & 10 wards of Tokha municipality acted as the major secondary source to collect the data related to a number of permanent and temporary in-migrants. The record too helped to analyze the pull and push factor of migration and the impact of in-migration
38 in 7 & 10 wards of Tokha municipality, a VDC of Kathmandu valley. The literature of the similar kind of research has also helped the research to enumerate appropriate findings by critically reviewing the findings of the previous research. In this research reliable and appropriate secondary source of data are used to collect the related data addresses several research question.
3.5.3 Data Sampling and Population
Definite group population that represented the diversity of the population of 7 & 10 wards of Tokha municipality, a VDC of Kathmandu valley was taken to conduct sampling. The sample size of the process was adequate to generate data and information to address the research question. A total of 50 people from various backgrounds was taken as a sample, and the structured question was asked to the selected sample population and information were collected depending on their replies. Simple random sampling research to collect the data. First, the populations were analyzed and then the specific sample was selected from the population. The selected population was listed by giving appropriate weight to the units and then a particular sample is chosen at random.
3.6 Ethical Consideration
Ethical consideration is to be addressedby every researcher while conducting research. It is the major issue for the researchers to conduct research(Trochim et al., 2015). Ethics is core to research. Addressing several ethical issues helps the researcher to avoid conflict and conduct research without any obstruction. Therefor this research conducted by following every ethical consideration required to conduct any of research. The researcher in this research has adhered the ethical consideration related to the collection, evaluation, analysis and interpretation of the data collected from both primary and secondary source. This research is based on the both the quantitative and qualitative tool to analyze and investigate the collected data. As data are collected through survey and questionnaire in this research the researcher, have ethically behaved with the sample population and addressed their sentiments too(Creswell & Clark, 2011). Moreover, this research has also used the secondary source of data to collect the information related to the in-migration trends, is causes and consequence. The researcher has used authorized and appropriate sources and has
39 reduced the chances of distortion of the data. Furthermore, the privacy of the parties related to research is not revoked by researcher while conducting the research. The data and information collected form governmental record is not manipulated by the researcher that has enabled the researcher to reduce the chance of misleading and inappropriate conclusions. The questionnaires prepared to collect the data had addressed the sentiments of the population. Thus this research maintained a high level of ethical obligation while collecting, observing, analyzing and interpreting the data and information.
3.7 Validity and Reliability
Validity and reliability of research and its sources help the researcher to assure the facts and findings of the research. Since this research have used both qualitative and quantitative research method, the researcher here has used a reliable source of information to collect the data and information(White & McBurney, 2012). The researcher has used authentic and reliable secondary source of data collection to collect the secondary data. The reliable and authentic source have supported the validity of the collected data. Similarly, the result obtained from sample population is more accurate and valid since the researcher has personally collected the data through the diverse population. The pull and push factor of migration of 7 & 10 wards of Tokha municipality are critically analyzed by the researcher. A valid and authentic questionnaire was prepared by the researcher that helped to enact the validity of the data and information collected. The governmental records regarding a number of temporary and permanent in-migrants are generally valid hence the facts obtained from the secondary source have addressed the validity of facts and findings of the entire research. Hence the findings of the research are valid, and the research pass the validity and reliability test and the valid and reliable aspects of data collection are discussed in this research.
3.8 Research Limitation
The researcher has faced several problems while conducting the research. Researcher faced problem while selecting the population that is to be collected as a sample. The population of 7 & 10 wards of Tokha municipality seemed to have equal chances of the outcome. Moreover, since this research followed survey strategy to conduct
40 research, surveying population required high cost and consideration. Moreover due to limited access to the internet and another secondary source the researcher faced several difficulties while generating facts from there source(Cohen et al., 2011). Moreover, the secondary source of data collection in thus research always questioned Validity and reliability. Further, since this research had to be conducted in the limited time frame, due to the availability of limited time to conduct the research, the facts and findings of the research could not address the research questions properly. Had the researcher been provided with adequate time and money, the outcome and findings of the research would be more valid, accurate and precise. Moreover, since this research was a low budgeted project, it was difficult to apply modern and sophisticated tools and techniques to collect, observe, analyze and interpret the data(Saunders et al., 2015). The access to a primary source of data was bit monotonous for the researcher.
41 CHAPTER IV
ANALYSIS
This dissertation used primary and secondary sources of data collection. Primary sources included questionnaire surveymethod, and data was collected from that. Various multiple choice questions were prepared in order to collect the data in precise. Under thesecondary method, research articles, and journals of various scholars were viewed, theoretical and conceptual framework were generated to be integrated into the research analysis section. The analysis section shows the statistical representation of the questions asked to the sample of 50 population chosen for the survey. The following represents the choices given, the data collected in percentages represented by the table and bar diagram presenting it statistically.
4.1 Do you think that migration helps in sharing the culture and tradition among individuals from individuals from different backgrounds?
Table 4.1: Relationship between In-migration and Sharing of Culture and Tradition
Respondent’s replies Percentage Strongly disagree 10% Disagree 20% Neither agree nor disagree 15% Agree 35% Strongly agree 20%
40% 35% 30% 25% 20% 15% 10% 5% 0% strongly disagree Disagree neither agree nor agree strongly agree disagree
% of respondents
42 Figure 3.1: Relationship Between In-migration and Sharing of Culture and Tradition
As per the above analysis, 55% (35% agree and 20% strongly agree) of people in average agreed with the fact of migration helping in sharing of culture and tradition while 10% strongly disagreed. Similarly, when people migrate, they come along with their traditions, cultures and religious beliefs which resultin cultural diversity at the migrated area(Srivastava, 2003). The migration of people influences their mental health resulting from the fall of their native customs and values and adapting to a new one. Migration has contributed to the richness of diversity of cultures, ethnicities, and races in developed countries. Individuals who migrate experience multiple stresses that can impact their mental well-being, including the loss of cultural norms, religious customs, and social support systems, adjustment to a new culture and changes in identity and concept of self(International Organization for Migration, 2012). This is due to the fusion of the cultures among the people of the communities who migrate and those who are living therein. Thus, Migration encounters people from different regions with different cultural values and on living together which ultimately helps in sharing of each other’s culture.
4.2 Does migration positively impact the country’s labor and employment trends? Table 4.2 : Migration and Its Impact on Employment
Respondent’s replies Data in Percentage Never 5% Rarely 10% Sometimes 15% Often 25% Always 45%
43 50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0% never rarely sometimes often always
% of respondents Figure 4.2: Migration and Employment Trends
In migration is seen to have apositive impact on the country’s labor and employment trends as 45% of the sample population agreed with the fact while 5% of people believed that it never affects the employment trends in the region and nation in overall. People move to another place in search of or with employment opportunities. There is an income gap between the earnings of individuals from developed and developing countries. Likewise, the disparity in the getting of jobs and the academic qualification of people in the under developing countries develops the desire in people to migrate to other places(Kovach et al., 2015). Due to thefree border between Nepal and India, it is seen that wide range of population migrate to nearby Indian regions in search of employment opportunities. Being a developing country, there is unbalanced development in different regions of Nepal which lacks proper employment opportunities. People migrate to the areas in search of jobs to better their life. It helps to fill vacancies in the places with employee gaps and has apositive impact on the employment opportunities of the places and in thenation in overall.
4.3 Has increasing trend of in migration led to sustainable use and exploitation of the available resources in the place of migration?
Table 4.3: Relationship between Migration and Utilization of Resources
Respondent’s replies Percentage Strongly disagree 5% Disagree 15% Neither agree nor disagree 10% Agree 23% Strongly agree 37%
44 40% 35% 30% 25% 20% 15% 10% 5% 0% strongly disagree disagree neither agree or disagree agree strongly agree
% of respondents
Figure 4.3: Relation between in Migration and Use of Resources
37% of total sampled population strongly agreed on the fact of in migration leading to the sustainable use and exploitation of the available resources and 5% of the population disagreed on the same. Migration of individuals has a significant role in the utilization of the scare resources of the region. Through the perspective of the classical economists, the disparity in the supply of the labor and difference in the wage levels, migration occurs. As the population increases in the place of migration, more resources need to be utilized for fulfilling their demands. It leads to the mobilization of resources under used. People may use the land, water or other resources of the migrated area. The sustainable use of resources in order to extend way of living and add facilities to the life of the people, resources are the prior factors that undergo utilization and fulfills the needs of the individuals. So, in migration leads to the exploitation of the resources to some extent.
4.4 Is in migration trend higher in the urbanized areas?
Table 4.4: Proportion of Migration in Urbanized Areas
Respondent’s replies Percentage Strongly disagree 5% Disagree 10% Neither agree nor disagree 10% Agree 20% Strongly agree 55%
45 60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0% strongly disagree disagree neither agree or agree strongly agree disagree
% of respondents
Figure 4.4: Level of Migration in Urbanized Areas From the figure above, it is clearly observed that 55% of the population agrees on the level of migration being highest in the urbanized areas and a very few i.e. only 5% of the population disagrees on that. There exists a significant relationship between migration and urbanization. People migrate to the areas with the prospect of development, and urbanizing societies play a key factor in that. All level of workers which constitutes low, middle, high living in the rural areas is migrating to urban areas more precisely in thecontext of developing countries like Nepal. People are always looking for better opportunities and find it in urbanized areas. This is why there is unbalanced growth in the urban and rural areas. If we look onto the international scenario, the industrial revolution in the 19th and 20th centuries led to urbanization and aided that too(One America, 2015). There were a plenty of opportunities in the job sector that lead to a large number of people to move onto such places. Moreover, the immigrants served as low wage workers at that time and hence, the rate of migration increased from rural to urban areas. Maintenance of higher standard of living is not possible in rural areas with the deprivation of basic facilities to even sustain life. Thus, the rate of migration tends to be higher in urban areas.
4.5 Does access to infrastructures entice the people to migrate to urban areas?
Table 4.5 : Relationship between Facilities and Employment Opportunities
Respondent’s replies Data in Percentage never 15%
46 rarely 2% sometimes 10% often 13% always 60%
70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0% never rarely sometimes often always
% of respondents Figure 4.5: Relationship between Migration and Access to Infrastructures
It is a true fact that infrastructures and opportunities entice the people to migrate to urban areas as it is one of the pull factors and the availability of the mentioned factor helps in the development of people’s standard of living which is a major reason for people to migrate. Here in case of 7 & 10 wards of Tokha municipality also, 60% agreed with the fact and only 2% thought it to be a rare case. According to research on economic growth, employment and poverty reduction by Katy Hull, the infrastructures that pull people for migration can be institutional, educational, informational, educational, etc. In many cases, movement of people is for transforming from one job to another, for higher studies which may not be available in the regions they are in, informational access regarding the job as well as informational opportunities available in the market and the availability of transportation facilities that rightly induce people to migrate. Such infrastructures help people to sustain their life much easily and lure them to such places. Thus, access to infrastructure does entice people to migrate.
4.6 Will development of labor market in rural areas lower the increasing in migration trend in anurban area?
Table 4.6: Influence of Labour Market Development on Rate of Migration
Respondent’s replies Percentage Strongly disagree 10% Disagree 13% Neither agree nor disagree 17%
47 Agree 23% Strongly agree 37%
40% 35% 30% 25% 20% 15% 10% 5% 0% strongly disagree disagree neither agree or agree strongly agree disagree
% of respondents
Figure 4.6: Influence of Labor Market Development on Rate of Migration
In Nepal’s context, people initially migrate to urban and abroad due to lack of employment opportunities. The labor market development will create enough opportunities for the people in their own region which will reduce their desire for migration to some extent. 37% of the people in 7 & 10 wards of Tokha municipality agreed on employment being the prior reason to shift and labor development helping to sag the rate of migration. Thus, only 10% of the population strongly disagreed. The ideology of migrating to urban places would develop a person’s standard of living is what people believe in. Better lifestyle and growth opportunities for them and their families is related to the availability of labor market(Grether, 2009). The development of labor market improves the economic condition of a certain region as there will be anincrease in the opportunities for the people and requirements of labor as per that. It will lead to increased investment yielding higher pay for the labors. thus, when people have the opportunity of earning fairly fine within their region, it will decrease their desire to migrate to other places for getting better wages and maintenance of better lifestyles. Thus, the development of labor market will surely reduce the rate of migration trend to urban areas.
4.7 DOES EMPLOYMENT OPPORTUNITY PLAY A VITAL ROLE IN DEFINING THE INTER-REGIONAL MIGRATION?
Table 4.7: Relationship between Employment Opportunities and Inter-regional Migration
48 Respondent’s replies Data in Percentage Never 5% Rarely 5% Sometimes 10% Often 32% Always 48%
60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0% never rarely sometimes often always
% of respondents
Figure 4.74: Relation between Employment Opportunities and Inter-regional Migration
Through the data collected from the people in 7 & 10 wards of Tokha municipality, employment is seen to play a vital role in inter- regional migration as 48% of the people believed so. However, 2% of total samples disagreed. People can’t sustain their life without enough money earned for their survival. Employment is the major source of an individual’s income. Urban areas relatively have more job opportunities than the rural ones. Migration is linked to the development level in different regions. It includes changes in the economy analyzed through the calculation of GDP, per capita income, thelevel of unemployment, etc(Libman et al., 2013).With the advent of economic revolution in the urban areas, there was an overall increase in the wage payment of all the workers in the urban areas. People always seek to generate more to achieve more. Lack of employment opportunities brings economic deficiency in the life of the people which develops adesire in people to migrate to an area with full of employment opportunities. The maintenance of a better living is restricted by low income earned by an individual. Therefore, he seeks to move to places where there is
49 plenty of employment opportunities and higher wage level. Hence, inter- regional migration occurs.
50 4.8 Does migration result in the deterioration of the environment in the migrated areas?
Table 4.8: Impact of Migration on the Environment of Migrated Areas
Respondent’s replies Percentage Strongly disagree 10% Disagree 10% Neither agree nor disagree 17% Agree 28% Strongly agree 35%
40% 35% 30% 25% 20% 15% 10% 5% 0% strongly disagree disagree neither agree or agree strongly agree disagree
% of respondents
Figure 4.85: Impact of Migration on the Environment of Migrated Areas
35% of the respondents in 7 & 10 wards of Tokha municipality strongly agreed on the fact of migration deteriorating the environment of the area, and 10% disagreed. Migration increases the population and their needs. For this, environmental resources are prone to extreme utilization for the fulfillment of people’s needs. Migration has resulted in the over use of existing resources leading to loss of various species of flora and fauna, imbalance of the ecosystem, deforestation, soil deification, acid rainfall, etc(Collier, 2015). This may result into natural calamities if the situation reaches the point of ultimate devastation. Also, waste increases per houses which require effective disposal places. The random disposal of the wastes in environment eventually leads to pollution. As migration is influenced by multiple push pull factors, there is no such structured approach to slacken the effects of migration on the environment of the migrated area. Thus, migration resulting in the deterioration of theenvironment in the migrated areas is true.
51 4.9 In migration has its direct impact onthe economic development of the areas. What do you think of it?
Table 4.9: Impact of Migration on the Economic Development of Migrated Areas
Respondent’s replies Percentage Strongly disagree 13% Disagree 12% Neither agree nor disagree 35% Agree 20% Strongly agree 20%
40% 35% 30% 25% 20% 15% 10% 5% 0% strongly disagree disagree neither agree or agree strongly agree disagree
% of respondents
Figure 4.96: Impact of Economic Development of Migrated Areas
People from several lifestyles moving into the places with opportunities helps to boost up the pace of economic development in the area whereas the economy of the places migrated from is rightly affected(Baudassé & Bazillier, 2014). Under indirect impact, the utilization of available resources in the areas will not be sustainable which will affect the economy of a particular place in the long run. The 20% of the people in 7 & 10 wards of Tokha municipality agreed on this fact while 35% of the population seemed to be in adilemma. As per the new migration economics theory, migration is viewed as an investment. Thus, it is directly associated with the development of the economy. Many people migrate to other areas or to abroad not to permanently reside there but to be the source of income for their family. Remittances generated through
52 abroad, and money sent by the individuals from different regions to their families helps in the development of the area they are actually from. In contrast, the migration of individuals from various rural to urban areas brings a pool of eligible candidates for the job available which can be used for better productivity. This also helps in the economic development of the host region or country. Thus, migration has both positive and negative as well as direct and indirect impact on the economic development of the areas.
4.10 What do you think of migration being influenced by multiple pushes and pull factors?
Table 4.10: Influence of Push Pull Factors on Migration
Respondent’s replies Percentage Strongly disagree 9% Disagree 11% Neither agree nor disagree 15% Agree 20% Strongly agree 45%
50% 45% 40% 35% 30% 25% 20% 15% 10% 5% 0% strongly disagree disagree neither agree or agree strongly agree disagree
% of respondents
Figure 4.10: Influence of Push PullsFactors on Migration
People have various reasons to migrate which are defined as push pull factors. Push pull factor is the factors that develop the desire to motivate people. People may have different ideologies which may not be sensibly correct but act as drivers for people to migrate. When people start growing old, they prefer places with warm temperature
53 and peaceful environment to spend their life well. These factors may also be considered as the pull factors. People like to shift to areas with better political, economical, cultural conditions. The most basic push factors may be alack of infrastructures, employment opportunities, poverty, lack of proper security, lack of health facilities, etc. There exits difference in the job opportunities available in various regions mostly in case of developing countries. Moreover, people who are in theagricultural industry, need afavorable environment to increase their productivity and the political instability of the nation or specific place also develops the willingness in people to shift to other places. Thus, the pull factors associated with migration that rightly lures people may be thefavorable environment, availability of employment opportunities, political stability, etc. 45% of the respondents in our survey agreed on multiple pushes pull factors influencing migration and only 9% of the people disagreed.
Thus, the analysis portion presents a statistical representation of the replies of the respondents and provides various information regarding the in migration trends, causes, and consequences at the end.
4.10 Revisit of Objectives
The study on the evaluation of in migration trends, causes, and consequences in 7 & 10 wards of Tokha municipality area has been both quantitively and qualitatively measured using the primary and secondary sources of data. Questionnaire survey included the primary source, and theoretical framework included the secondary source to analyze the objectives set. This port of research determines the meeting of the objectives set in prior to the study. The outcomes generated or findings will be now be used to revisit the objectives of the study;
To point out the effects of in migration in the surrounding areas of 7 & 10 wards of Tokha municipality.
The effects of in migration in the surrounding areas of 7 & 10 wards of Tokha municipalityhave been described in the literature review chapter of the study. It has been linked to the global crisis rising through unmanaged migration on the environment. A study on the migration, population change, and the rural environment, migration has been associated with resulting onto environmental consequences such
54 as deforestation, desertification, and extinction of biodiversity, etc(De Arcangelis et al., 2015). The researchers have looked upon the migration trend in various countries and have concluded onto this fact. The same perspective is embedded in our research as the rate of migration is increasing in the 7 & 10 wards of Tokha municipality area over the few years. The gradual increase in the density of population in the urban areas will lead to sagging of the open spaces for the animals and lead to the extinction of various valuable biodiversities as the ecosystem of nature will be disturbed. Migration is seen to contribute to two main global problems in today’s world; greenhouse effect and climate change(Baudassé & Bazillier, 2014). The rise in the population at a particular area will give rise to the gases such as carbon dioxide, nitrogen, etc. and several others due to the increasing human activities in the area which will result in greenhouse effect in the days to come. Likewise, the unmanaged and heinous activities of humans will cause deforestation, soil erosion and climate change which is a rising problem in today’s world. 7 & 10 wards of Tokha municipality will be prone to such extremities if the population rate goes on increasing every year. Our research response also showed that the respondents believed on migration having adirect impact on the environment. Thus, the aim of the research has been integrated into the research through the quantitative and qualitative analysis of the affected area.
To perceive the association between the societies that are urbanizing and the immigration rate in those areas.
Urbanizing societies are those societies that are well equipped all the prospects of development and constitute higher population growth than other areas. According to a research paper submitted by Machel McCatty to the Carleton University in the process of migration in developing countries, the use of Todaro model in his study points that the distinction in the revenue generated by the individuals from urban and rural societies, the desire of migration develops in people leading them to gain higher income through the employment opportunities available in the urbanized areas. He conducted a survey on Bolivia and found that 243,301 people moved to the urban areas from 1994-1999. The native people of a particular area lack proper facilities in the sectors of social, economic which impacts their rights as ahuman. They do not have access to proper education and health facilities, securities which result in lower
55 income gains among the people of the region. They are influenced by the push factors to flee to areas with proper facilities to maintain their living standard(Anastario et al., 2015). Most people on 7 & 10 wards of Tokha municipality also agreed to the fact that the urbanized societies tend to face ahigher rate of migration. Thus, being the zone of prospects, 7 & 10 wards of Tokha municipalityalso has higher migrants. Thus, our study has satisfied this research question through the survey and qualiatative analysis as well.
To analyze employment seeker’s perception on inter-regional migration to a well-facilitated area.
Employment opportunities are basically the most crucial factor for migration in thecontext of Nepal. Kathmandu being the capital city possesses higher job opportunities, and 7 & 10 wards of Tokha municipalityfall under such prospect area within Kathmandu. According to research conducted on migration within Britain for job reasons, inter- regional migration is termed as residential mobility. The research has stated that the most influential factor in people’s reason to migrate is employment. As per the census and LFS survey of the country, the working age group of Britain is seen to moving from one area to another in search of job opportunities. An article on urban and rural dwellers shows employment in the top most reason for the movement within & between rural and urban areas(McLeman, 2015). In thecase of India, the agriculture based industry does not support all lives as there are limited opportunities(Debnath & Roy, 2013). Even the small and medium scale industries cannot create job opportunities for all the people of the rural areas. Urban areas tend to have awide range of employment opportunities in the fields of health, education, transport and others. Hence, employment factor seems as being one of the essential component in inter- regional migration. People also agree that developing of thelabor market will decrease the rate of migration from rural to urban areas. Thus, our research has fulfilled the objective of conducting the study on finding the causes of migration and its increasing trend in 7 & 10 wards of Tokha municipality region; which includes employment as the most promising one.
56 CHAPTER - V
SUUMMARY, CONCLUUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1 Suummary
This research on the causes, consequences, and trends of in migration in the 7 & 10 wards of Tokha municipality area has been evaluated through the questionnaire survey. This portion of the study showed efficient outcomes that met the major objectives integrated into the study. The availability of employment opportunities and the urbanizing societies represented the causes and trends of migration respectively, and the deteriorating environment reflected the consequences of the migration in the 7 & 10 wards of Tokha municipality region. To evaluate these factors, our research questions integrated all the aspects of the objective portion and were rightly reflect through the respondent’s replies concerning the topic. Through the replies from various respondents in the research conducted regarding migration theories, it was found that majority of the people found changes in their lifestyles after migrating.
Today’s people need afacility in every sector, and the unavailability of the factors causes them to migrate. People have indefinite needs, and the ones living in the rural areas don’t have the access to the most basic ones(Bijker et al., 2015). In thecontext of Nepal, themajority of the population living the rural areas are involved in theagriculture industry. Due to the lack of proper technologies, it is very difficult for the people living here to sustain their life a. this is why more than half of the population in Nepal lies under the line of poverty. People with basic education qualifications here analyze the areas of prospect and make their choices as per that. Basically, the reasons may be in search of employment opportunities or attainting higher education. This has led to becoming much easier for the people to flee from one region to another for the sake of enhancing their own and family’s standard of living. Following the researches by various writers, it is found that people migrate to better their lifestyle. Our research also found that the pull factors such as access to infrastructures and the push factors are the major factors for migration and ahuge section of people agreed with that. Apart from the 3 major research questions, our study found that in migration leads to the sustainable exploitation of the available resources and helps in the economic development of the affected area.
57 The revisit of research question includes the analysis of the questions formed to support the course of study. Various research works have been followed to analyze these questions.
Reasons and variation behind people’s movement from one region to another
People migrate for various reasons. as per the research done by Kyaing Kyaing Thet, the various reasons behind people’s movement from one place to another constitute push-pull factors where pull factors are demographic factor, economic factors, socio- cultural factors, political factors and miscellaneous factors such as relationships, better education, etc. whereas the push factors consist of lack of proper infrastructural facilities such as health, education, transport; environmental conditions, political instability, low wage level and limited job opportunities. Urban areas have more employment opportunities in several fields, more prices for the products generated though agriculture, more security and income levels, etc. that urge people to migrate from one place to another. Our research also assumes on migration being influenced by multiple pushes and pull factors. Thus, this research question has been addressed through the explanation of the causes of people to migrate in the literature review portion.
Effects of in migration in the surrounding areas of 7 & 10 wards of Tokha municipality
Migration exploits the resources of the migrated area(Cobbinah et al., 2015). Research on migration, population change, and environment suggests that migration leads to deforestation, soil defecation, extinction of rare species, etc. Thus, it eventually leads to the occurrence of natural calamities. Emission of harmful gases through improper human activities leads to global warming problem. Moreover, this will lead to crowdedness in the area and difficulties in several sectors, etc. Our research has analyzed this question by collecting the respondent’s reply to the research question prepared regarding this context.
Urbanizing societies associated with migration
Harris and Todaro in their research indicated that the disparity in the income generated i.e. the actual wage level by people from urban and rural areas develops
58 people’s reason to migrate. Urbanizing societies are much developed in overall terms than the rural areas People always are in seek of opportunities to satisfy their needs and generate more income(Bauer & Österle, 2016). Thus, they lure awide range of people to move to such areas annually. This research question has been fulfilled by the questionnaire survey which resulted in the acceptance of the fact that urbanizing societies are a common determinant of migration. Urbanized societies have all the prerequisites of development to maintain a high standard of living and lure people. People see theupgrading of their lifestyles in urbanizing societies and thereby prefer such areas to migrate to.
Eemployment seeker’s views regarding in migration to a well facilitated area
Research conducted by aPhD student on employment opportunities as a driving force for internal and external migration showed that most Romanians moved from rural area to the urban area, and the replies collected from the respondents included employment opportunities as one of the important determinants(Park et al., 2016). As Kathmandu has higher employment opportunities and the well-equipped facilities in several aspects such as hospitals, business, transportation, accommodation, etc. in Kathmandu comprising 7 & 10 wards of Tokha municipality gathers the employment seeker’s concern of getting jobs and maintaining his lifestyle. Rural areas do not have enough job opportunities. This is why every people in the rural areas do not get jobs to improve their economic condition, and most of them are under –poverty line. In thecase of Nepal, more than half of its citizens are under poverty line. A well facilitated area will ensure enough opportunities for such people and they can improve their living as well as support their family(Hernandez et al., 2015). Hence, an employment seeker has apositive view regarding migration to a well facilitated area. Thus, this research question has been justified by our study.
Changes are observed in people’s lifestyle post migration
Through a project of SUNY LEVIN Institute on globalization and migration, it can be pointed that post migration people observed higher wages which contributed to maintaining their standard of living at a higher level. Moreover, people also observed higher satisfaction, safety, health facilities and security after migrating to urban areas. People tend to migrate to change their living styles and selection of urban areas as
59 migration zone has helped them achieve that. Thus, seeing the factors of upliftment of lifestyles, many people shift to urban areas within Kathmandu from outside every year. But migration may not always have positive outcomes; it may have negative outcomes too. Many people who shift to urban areas have various plans and priorities of life, but they may not get jobs as per their expectations as there is high competition in the urban areas(Bauer & Österle, 2016). Moreover, it is costly to maintain living standard in such places, and they may not be able to adapt to the atmosphere of such areas too. People may be prone to various problems like depression, lack of self- confidence, etc. Thus, post migration people may have both positive and negative changes in lifestyle. Our research question has analyzed this fact and pointed out effective findings to support that.
5.2 Conclusion
In thecontext of Nepal, migration is an existing issue. The rate of rural to urban migration has been occurring at an increasing rate. Due to the political instability, many people were forced to flee from their homeland to a new area. The availability of essential supplies of life made them happy to sustain their life from then. Thus, people understood the facilities of living in an urban area. People have discovered such prospects in case of 7 & 10 wards of Tokha municipality too. This is why a large number of people have been entering 7 & 10 wards of Tokha municipality area every year. Having all the facilities, 7 & 10 wards of Tokha municipality is now going to be registered as a municipality from a village development committee. Each individual of this region have contributed to the development of the area and have seen early development results. The economic benefit of living in such area is having access to facilities and earning more. There are several factors that pull people to migration such as political, social, demographic, etc. the prevalence of such factors has been luring people to move to urban areas. Big hospitals and industries are being made within the periphery of 7 & 10 wards of Tokha municipality with increased employment opportunities. Due to this the economic value of the area has been rising.
Effective data and results were collected using the primary and secondary sources of data which comprised quantitative and qualitative analysis of every aspect confined in the research questions. Thus, the methodology section of the study has rightly
60 pointed out the respondent’s replies regarding the in migration trends, causes and consequences in 7 & 10 wards of Tokha municipality and found that each component in an economy is interlinked with the mobility of people from none area to another.
The main causes of people’s mobilityare basically found to be the lack of appropriate infrastructures to sustain their life, and urban areas are well equipped with those. Nepal is divided into Himalayan, Hills and Terai on the basis of geographical structure. If we look onto the past, people previously living in the Himalayan and hilly regions are now moving towards the Terai marking the fertile lands and facilities available here which would make their life much easier to live. In thecase of 7 & 10 wards of Tokha municipality, the analysis section showed the area is concentrated with these factors. There are both negative and positive impacts of migration on the migrated and the abandoned area. If the area is facing a lack of people to utilize its abundant resources, the area will face sustainable exploitation of the available resources and increased population will serve rise in the labor force required for the economic enhancement of the region. On the contrary, migration has several impacts on the ecology and environment of the region. The increment in the number of people will slower down the prospect of development in the rural areas as most of the competent manpower be transferred to the urban areas whereas urban areas will see a rise in the economy as manpower required for the capacities available will be fulfilled. Similarly, the emission of gases from several human activities in the urban areas, the ecology of the environment will be disturbed leading to the greenhouse effect. Likewise, the limited resources will be over utilized, and the resources in the rural areas will remain underutilized. In an overall basis, the nation will mark imbalanced development in different regions under its territory.
Effective measures should be adopted to regulate the rate of migration. The nation should formulate effective policies for protecting the rights of the people. Every part of the nation should see infrastructural developments and rise in the job opportunities sufficient for the people living in the region. Similarly, policies should be formulated and enforced regarding the exploitation of the environment by humans. Thus, migration should be monitored in specific time intervals through various surveys in order to regulate the movement of people from one place to another and balance the developmental activities in a nation.
61 5.3 Recommendation
The analysis section of our study finds that there is a significant linkage between the migration and overall components in an economy such as employment, labor market, environment, etc. In-migration has been globally affecting the nation’s regional development. In the context of Nepal, higher population density marks higher development whereas fewer population marks low development. On the basis of above evaluation regarding the migration from rural to urban areas like 7 & 10 wards of Tokha municipality, following things can be recommended;
There exists a feeling of insecurity among the migrants as they will be shifting to a new area different from their previous lifestyle with the expectation of having the adequate liberty to be able to access advancements in all the sector of a country that is available in the urban area. Most migrants do not have access to their rights resulting from the poor system regarding registration. Thus, the nation should develop effective policies to guarantee their rights. The environment is rightly affected by the activities of humans. The rise in migrants at an area requires home, water, and several other resources to lead their life and environment is the only source that they will have access to. This can directly hamper the environmental well-being of the place. So, effective measures should be adopted, and strict rules should be implemented in order to protect the environment from the unusual activities of humans which rise along with the increase in population density of a particular zone. Migration brings people from various backgrounds and cultural diversities. Sharing of culture, as well as conflicts in perceptions, may rise among the individuals living in the same areas. It is the government’s responsibility to prevent its citizens from any such issues. Hence, a nation should ensure policies regarding any violence resulting from political and cultural issues so that the migrants can live their life in proper security. Due to the low earning from small and middle scale industries in the rural areas as well as being based mostly on agriculture as occupation which creates scarcity in the jobs for the overall population of a place, people move from rural areas to urban areas with the expectations of getting jobs and with better income. But there is high competition in the urban regions and the rural people
62 may not be as competent as them to get the jobs in first place. So, there should be opportunities fortraining for the migrants so that it becomes easier for them to adapt to the atmosphere of the migrated region and be able to utilize facilities they will be equipped with. There is a scarcity of jobs in the undeveloped regions which will create imbalanced development in the areas of the nation. Improving a nation’s status is based on the prospects of developments that is available in every nooks and corner under its territory. If all the opportunities are available within their own region, people will never have the desire to migrate. It is that what are most important to human beings and is lacking in the places they are residing in that causes people to shift from one area to another or perhaps from one country to another. Thus, employment opportunities should be created in the rural areas by establishing schools, hospitals, transportation services, etc. to decrease the trend of in migration. Equality in all the sectors of a country ensures happy citizens and rise in the overall economy of a nation. No one will give a thought to shifting from their place to dwell in other places. Push and pull factors are an integration of the basic necessities of life that the nation should provide to its citizens. There will be no partiality among the people of rural and urban areas if both areas have access to same prerequisites and maintain the same standard of living. Thus, the nation should give equal importance to all the regions of its territory, and the philosophy of balance development should be fostered. Labor markets create opportunities for workers. Labor market should be developed in the marginally developed or rural areas so that more people will be able to get jobs and earn as much as it is needed to sustain their life in a better way. The nation has different laws and policies regarding the movement of people from one place to another. Such policies restrict the openness to migrate to any area. So, flexible policies must be formulated in order to facilitate the movement of people from one place to another. People may not move to reside any place permanently. It may be temporary according to the type of the work they have are indulged in the respective area. The philosophy of circular migration should be integrated into the system to
63 make it easier for people to have many options for migration such as temporary, seasonal, etc. It will only be worthwhile to use this approach if the criteria of returning back to the native place of the individual are integrated. Migration has a negative impact on the migrated area too. The increasing population density will affect the balance of the place. The nation should thus, come up with an effective incentive system to monitor the in growing rate of the populationin the region. In the context of Nepal, effective studies have not been conducted regarding the demography of population at particular places, and effective data have not been gathered. The researchers should come up with significant approaches to cover all the sectors with increasing population migration and use various statistical tools to collect appropriate data to support their study and drawing important conclusions out of it. Migration encompasses several areas that are associated with it. There’s no such research done in Nepal that has included these components altogether. It is very important to reflect the association of such components and rising migration’s effects on these sectors. So, a more precise evaluation on the in migration trends, causes and consequences should be carried out by the upcoming researchers.
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73 APPENDIX – I
1. Do you think that migration helps in sharing the culture and tradition among individuals from individuals from different backgrounds? a. Strongly Disagree b. Disagree
c. Neither agree nor disagree d. Agree
e. Strongly agree 2. Does migration positively impact the country’s labor and employment trends? a. Never b. Rarely
c. Some times d. Often
e. Always 3. Has increasing trend of in migration led to sustainable use and exploitation of the available resources in the place of migration? a. Strongly Disagree b. Disagree
c. Neither agree nor disagree d. Agree
e. Strongly agree 4. Is in migration trend higher in the urbanized areas? a. Strongly Disagree b. Disagree
c. Neither agree nor disagree d. Agree
e. Strongly agree 5. Does access to infrastructures entice the people to migrate to urban areas? a. Never b. Rarely
c. Some times d. Often
e. Always
74 6. Will development of labor market in rural areas lower the increasing in migration trend in an urban area? a. Strongly Disagree b. Disagree
c. Neither agree nor disagree d. Agree
e. Strongly agree 7. Does employment opportunity play a vital role in defining the inter-regional migration a. Never b. Rarely
c. Some times d. Often
e. Always 8. Does migration result in the deterioration of the environment in the migrated areas?
a. Strongly Disagree b. Disagree
c. Neither agree nor disagree d. Agree
e. Strongly agree 9. In migration has its direct impact on the economic development of the areas. What do you think of it? a. Strongly Disagree b. Disagree
c. Neither agree nor disagree d. Agree
e. Strongly agree 10. What do you think of migration being influenced by multiple pushes and pull factors? a. Strongly Disagree b. Disagree
c. Neither agree nor disagree d. Agree
e. Strongly agree
75