MASARYK UNIVERSITY

FACULTY OF EDUCATION

DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE

UNRULY WOMEN: GENDER REFLECTION IN SHAKESPEAREAN FILM

Bachelor Thesis

BRNO 2012

Supervisor: Author:

Ing. Mgr. Věra Eliášová, Ph.D. Kateřina Platzerová

Prohlášení:

“Prohlašuji, že jsem závěrečnou bakalářskou práci vypracovala samostatně, s využitím pouze citovaných literárních pramenů, dalších informací a zdrojů v souladu s Disciplinárním řádem pro student Pedagogické fakulty Masarykovy university a se zákonem č. 121/2000 Sb., o právu autorském, o právech souvisejících s právem autorským a o změně některých zákonů (autorský zákon), ve znění pozdějších předpisů.”

Declaration:

I declare that I have worked on this thesis independently, using only the sources listed in the bibliography.

……………………….

Brno 18.4. 2012 Kateřina Platzerová

1

Acknowledgment

First of all I would like to express my gratitude to my supervisor

Ing. Mgr. Věra Eliášová Ph.D. for her support and time. I am grateful for her helpful suggestions and valuable comments. I would also like to thank my family and friends who supported me through the years of my studies.

2

Table of Contents

Introduction ...... 5 1. Gender, Film and Shakespeare ...... 7 1.1. Silent Era ...... 9 1.1.1. Before the First World War ...... 9 1.1.2. The First World War ...... 12 1.1.3. After the First World War ...... 14 1.2. Sound Film ...... 16 2. Shakespeare Adaptations in the Sound Film ...... 18 2.1. Sam Taylor – The Taming of the Shrew (1929) ...... 18 2.2. Production Code (1930 – 1967) ...... 21 2.3. George Cukor – Romeo and Juliet (1936) ...... 21 2.4. After the Second World War ...... 23 2.5. Renato Castellani - Romeo and Juliet (1954) ...... 24 2.6. Franco Zeffirelli – Romeo and Juliet ; The Taming of the Shrew (1967 ; 1968) ...... 25 2.7. Baz Luhrmann - Romeo + Juliet (1996) ...... 27 2.8. Loyd Kaufman - Tromeo and Juliet (1996) ...... 28 3. From Maturing to the Taming and Power ...... 31 3.1. Maturing ...... 31 3.1.1. The Meeting Scene ...... 35 3.1.1.1. Katherine ...... 35 3.1.1.2. Juliet ...... 36 3.1.2. Display of Sexuality in the Maturing Process ...... 38 3.1.3. The Marriage Consummation Scene ...... 39 3.1.3.1.Katherine ...... 39 3.1.3.2. Juliet ...... 40 3..1.4.The Final Scene ...... 41 3.1.4.1. Katherine ...... 41 3.1.4.2. Juliet ...... 43 3.2. Taming and Power ...... 43 3.2.1.The Marriage Consummation Scene ...... 46 3.2.1.1. Katherine ...... 46 3.2.1.2. Juliet ...... 48

3

3.2.2. The Final Scene ...... 49 3.2.2.1.Katherine ...... 49 3.2.2.4.2. Juliet ...... 50 4. Conclusion ...... 53 Works Cited ...... 55

4

Introduction Mass media are used to influence a large number of people. At the same time, its production mirrors both public and personal opinions and views in general; “film acts largely as social mirror” (Humm 13). People use media to influence others. But at the same time, it is impossible for them to stay untouched by power of other media that they are not likely to influence. “A chicken-or-egg argument continues about whether the media merely reflect what is happening in society or actually create the issues and trends that then become reflected in society” (Ivy & Backlund 116). In any case, the changes and the development of our society remain imprinted in mass media production. This thesis concentrates on gender phenomena reflected in the movie production. To specify it more, it deals with a representation of Shakespeare‟s plays in motion pictures throughout the 20th century. As the social view on masculinity and femininity changed, the representations of main characters in Shakespeare‟s plays Romeo and Juliet, and The Taming of the Shrew had to be adapted accordingly in order to reach the audience. The reflection of feminist and gender thinking should be found in reconstitution of the text and conception of the films. Shakespeare films that contain as many features of the play as possible are considered to be conservative, whereas so called off sets sometimes do not even follow the story line. To adapt Shakespeare to the rules of mainstream cinema and at the same time, create movie that is considered to be “good” Shakespeare is a big challenge. As we may learn through the thesis, not many producers are able to deal with it successfully. Specific movies were chosen on the basis of their either European or American origin and a fame of their directors. Another criterion for the choice of the further examined movies is the year of their release. We can observe the changes in the society and in the film industry itself on the “timeline”. Laura Mulvey in her article Visual Pleasure and Narrative Cinema contends, “Cinema has changed over the last few decades. It is no longer the monolithic system based on large capital investment exemplified at its best by Hollywood in the 1930s, 1940s and 1950s” (Mulvey). With economic and political conditions changed, the rise of the alternative cinema provides us with some really interesting Shakespearean interpretations. The directors more or less successfully guess what public might want to see and try to add some positively surprising element to their interpretations. One of the most fascinating examples of the Shakespearian adaptation is, without any doubt, Tromeo and Juliet (1996). The movie shows fascination by gender roles and presents

5

Juliet as a bisexual girl surrounded by images of blood and violence. “By examining condensations, ruptures and excess stereotypes in the filmic text, critics aim to reveal a hidden sub-text which may structure a film‟s „identity‟” (Humm15). Among other things, the thesis aims to show the process leading to this kind of Juliet‟s interpretation. The chapters of the thesis could be divided into two main categories. One category deals with the film theory and gender development of the society. The other category analyses the female characters of Juliet (Romeo and Juliet) and Katherine1 (The Taming of the Shrew) and psychological processes in their characters. The first part of the thesis aspires to explain the potential that can be found in gender translation of Shakespeare and film. It includes a short introduction to the film history and feminist movement. It contains a description of the silent film development in historical context. The chapter also shows a slow improvement of women situation in the context of Romeo and Juliet and The Taming of the Shrew adaptations. Second part pays attention to specific movies further developed in the practical part of the thesis and describes some the main events influencing the Sound Film development. Third, and the practical chapter of the present study, is aimed at learning about maturity process of the main female characters in closer examined Shakespeare adaptations. Through the maturity comes the understanding of the power grasp concept in the relationship. It starts up the taming process as a power contest between the main characters with the goal to either gain or maintain their power. The last chapter contains the conclusion the result of maturing combined with the use of female power in the relationship.

1 Although there are different versions of spelling Katherine‟s name, for the reasons of consistency I am going to use Katherine. This spelling seems to be the most common one.

6

1. Gender, Film and Shakespeare

Analysis of Shakespearean production in film offers us an opportunity to study society from several points of view. This thesis focuses on the three of them. First, we can analyse how Shakespearean production was interpreted by film-makers and their audience throughout history. Second, we can observe how changes it the society influenced the movie making. Third, we can see the approach towards women depending on the social changes in the society. Film directors tried to portray the society closely to Shakespeare‟s intentions and simultaneously, make it appealing to the modern audience. We can find many very different types of Shakespeare adaptations. Some of them follow just the basic ideas of the plot and other use the most from Shakespeare‟s language and settings. Harry Keyshian perceives the combination of Shakespeare and the movies as very powerful, though difficult to sustain all Shakespearean tools for reaching his audience. The movie concentrates on visual pleasure and Shakespeare uses the power of words to intrigue his audiences. When “Shakespeare” meets “The Movies”, two mighty entities converge. And while Shakespeare‟s texts are conceptually and linguistically powerful, and carry with them a tremendous weight of critical commentary and literary/theatrical tradition, their force is matched and perhaps exceeded, by the power of film – its aesthetics, social and commercial power – to create and convey meanings. I think it can be said that when his plays are made into movies, Shakespeare adapts to the authority of film more than film adapts to the authority of Shakespeare and this is not necessarily a bad thing. (Keyishian 73) With the movies arose a challenge to adapt Shakespeare‟s plays for the film audience. Film audience was large and commercial success of the movies became crucial for the investors and film-makers. Yet, movies based on Shakespeare have their roots in the literature or theatre and it was difficult to transform them into film. Literature and film were considered to be art long before movie existed and it seems that until the movies gained the shape of art too, it was impossible to produce successful Shakespearean film. It is important to realize that the scale of Shakespearean production cannot be evaluated by the same criteria. Michéle Willems suggests that, “Shakespeare play into a stage production or into a film or teleplay cannot be studied with the same grammar” (37).

7

It means that every technical processing should be viewed individually as it concentrates on different type of audience aiming to fulfil different expectations. On the top of that, every type of production has financial borderline and environment of their production differs. For example, in the film the viewer is always dependant on director who decides what part of the scene he is going to be shown. That is one of the reasons why stage production on video can rarely look appealing. Humm mentions some of the factors influencing the movie production, “Bluestones argues that novels and films are very different from each other: a difference conditioned by different origins, audiences and modes of production” (Humm 91). Other factors widely influencing the movies are the technical development along with historic events. Together with the development of the film also started to form its criticism. The middle of 1930s were significant years both for Shakespearian film and for the development of critical writing in the field … the critical response to Shakespearian film began to take on a more impressive stature as cinematic technology improved and the adaptive endeavour could become more versatile. (Davies 2). Recognising the true Shakespearean potential on the screen was the first step towards its more complex criticism. According to Davies until the early 1980s there was a tendency to write about adaptations as if they were made for the public that would prefer to see Shakespeare in the theatre, but could not afford to go there “the discussion engaged the minds and pens of academics and directors whose opinions had not been prominent in this field before.” (Davies 10) Shakespeare‟s original text is just one component of his plays. An important part of Shakespeare is also his perception of gender. This provides an interesting material for the producers of all film eras and their critics. According to Mulvey, woman in patriarchal society is supposed to be “bearer of the meaning, not maker of the meaning”. When the movie era began, women were not able to influence their lives in the way they can do it nowadays. The reflection of female social status can be easily found in the movies. As women‟s rights developed, women in the movies and their interpretation had to change accordingly. In the beginning, women could only influence their lives through marriage. The Taming of the Shrew is one of the plays dealing with this topic. Development of the film criticism offers many different perspectives and opinions. Some of the interpretations attempt to find feministic thinking in Shakespeare while others may view it as a purely patriarchal play.

8

Two major series of scholiasts, the first generally modern and psychological, the second specifically feminist, have argued variously that the shrew never really was a shrew but a woman responding understandably to the abuse of a dreadful family, that she is not really tamed, and that her final speech on wifely obedience is a piece of extended irony that dupes perhaps Petruchio and certainly the other characters. Standing nearly alone in recent academic commentary, but supported by many theatrical productions, Robert Heilman has attempted to combat this taming of The Taming of the Shrew. Although he allows that Katherine and Petruchio are persons of wit and imagination rather than mere harridan and whip- wielder, Heilman insists that the play is a farce straightforwardly handling the matter named in its title, and dismisses revisionism as “a critical falconry that endeavors to domesticate [the play] within the confines of recent sensibility.” (Saccio)

1.1. Silent Era

Most people first discover Shakespeare on the screen. Although silent film was not able to provide them with “good” Shakespearean adaptations, it helped to create large audience for a future Shakespeare. In Silent Era more than 400 films in some way inspired by his plays were made. Despite the fact, that most of the Silent Era movie production got lost, there are still some pictures to be watched and reviews to be read. Screen can be brilliant for interpreting Shakespeare, but the process of recognising the way for fulfilling his movie potential was painfully slow.

1.1.1. Before the First World War

At the end of the 19 century the frames of a strip of film began to develop in motion- picture, which at its beginning was not easy to define. It developed by experimentation and the older it was, the more norms and perhaps limitations it had. The whole point of the motion picture could be derived from its name; it was watching the moving images on the screen. Consequently, the importance of the plot was usually overlooked. Some movies were accompanied with music or recitations, but the real future lied in the possibilities of motion camera. If we have a look at the first movies relating to Shakespeare we can see that the main theme including Shakespeare in the picture, was usually just his name. An example of this type of approach can be found in the picture from 1901 made by Mélies Le Diable at la

9

Statue. Although the story itself has nothing to do with Shakespeare‟s work, it includes Romeo and Juliet‟s balcony scene. In 1896, after the first screen kiss was filmed, producers quickly realized that their profits were closely connected with sex and therefore with moral outrage. Men wanted to see erotic scenes and patriarchal society produced movies according by their rules. But both genders shared a common goal. They, especially women with their difficult social status, wanted to escape from reality. Rosen supports this statement, “Technically, women were „adults‟. But they were in urgent need of escape – and brought to early picture shows their empty lives waiting to be filled by any distraction” (Rosen 21). By 1908 cinema became respectable industry and film was used as a useful tool for entertaining masses, providing a form of escapism and commercial reward at the same time. Main production of Shakespeare in film arrived from Italy, France and the United States. In contrast to English production, US Shakespearean productions developed without being really influenced by stage performance. In just four years, the amazing number of nearly fifty new productions was on the screen in America, England and Europe. This number is not comparable to any other span in a Shakespeare film history. Shakespeare provided a successful way to avoid legal difficulties with copyright. Furthermore, the needed level of respectability derived from his name. The screening technology was new and hunger for movies grew. Not many scenarios were ready for it and Shakespeare already contained everything the audience required, such as love, danger and violence. First movies were believed to appeal to the basic passions and therefore, blamed from causing a juvenile delinquency. Based on this assumption, in 1909 the United States formed the National Board of Censorship of Motion Pictures, that later transformed into the National Board of Review. Among others, it was represented by Women‟s Municipal League, the Public Education Association, the Federation of Churches, and the League for Political Education. Members of these associations represented large percentage of the viewers. Thanks to satisfied consumers the profits grew, which resulted in competition between the production companies. The quality of the movies improved according to this competition. Women always played a major part in the film industry, but still, it were males who gave them roles to play. Unfortunately, at the beginning of the new century, men were not ready to accept women as equal. From the gender point of view, media played a major role in the way women perceived the world. At the same time, it displayed women in the roles where men intended to keep them.

10

The first attempts to create female film stars appeared in 1910. Young women were eager to try out their luck in the filmmaking industry. Among other things, it was the only way they could use their bodies for gaining money without being judged by the society. Meanwhile, 40 000 American women went on strike with the goal of achieving salary increase and improve their work conditions. Matthews describes his opinion on this matter. Work came to have a meaning for many of them beyond the personal independence that a salary could bring: it was justification for their education, indeed for their existence, and it linked them to the wider exciting world of endeavour and achievement. In any case, the continuing uncertainties of vibrant but unstable economy meant that many middle-class women could not live in the prescribed fashion, protected by a depended on a man, as husbands and fathers died or lost their money. (Matthews 39) Many women were more than eager to change their life. They were willing to find satisfaction in their life not just including their husband‟s satisfaction. The process of gaining their independence was not simple. The future showed us, that it was only possible for men to accept it, when the economic situation did give them any other choice. Until then, the strike brought women small but sweet victory in the patriarchal society. Nevertheless, in 1912 the congress continued to decline women‟s suffrage. Movies turned the topic of women‟s suffrage into a mockery and proved that patriarchal society was not ready to take them seriously. An example of that can be also observed in The Taming of the Shrewd. “The Knickerbocker film, distributed in England by R. Prieur and called The Taming of the Shrewd, had to do with a woman who neglects her housework to attend suffragette meetings. Her husband arouses her jealousy by taking another lady to one of the meetings. This seems to me neither shrewish nor shrewd” (Ball 149). Rosen also notices what impact historical and social events had on film that represents difficulties women had to undergo on their way towards equality of rights: “The frivolous tone of the majority of suffrage films made in America is, however, the strongest comment on how the nation in the years 1910 – 1940 viewed the birth of autonomous woman. Indeed, it took a world war to bring about a climate in which women might assert themselves as useful, productive citizens” (32). In those years, Shakespeare was for its popularity adapted to many movies. Luckily, with participation of people who knew Shakespeare‟s dramas from the theatre. Vitagraph, one of the oldest and largest production and distribution companies, produced the largest number of Shakespearian movies ever made by one company. Their interpretation of

11

Romeo and Juliet (1908) was only 15 minutes long and unfortunately lost a lot of its beauty by necessary compressions in the plot. Nevertheless, according to Ball the story is clear and despite no historic authenticity in the picture, “acting is less flamboyant then most of other pictures of that period” (Ball 44). By 1912, the era of footage increased beyond one reel. With the films longer, Shakespeare got the opportunity to provide spectators with better complexity of the plot. Thanhouser‟s Romeo and Juliet (1911) was released in two parts that could sustain Shakespeare‟s supposed purposes better. Within half an hour, the film was finally able to tell the whole story. Ball argues that the parts were separated so precisely, that one deals with the love story and other shows tragedy of Romeo and Juliet. Possibilities for transferring Shakespeare from the theatre stages to the movie screen grew with the better technical equipment. In contrast to what we might expect, the production of his works even decreased and any motif was usually transformed into comedy. Various countries continued producing films adapting Shakespeare to different milieu, with the use of his symbolic, titles, names etc. An example of that are Vitagraph‟s Indian Romeo and Juliet (1912) and a Taming Mrs. Shrew ( produced by studio Rex). Taming Mrs. Shrew is a story about nagging wife. The only thing it had in common with Shakespeare was the shrew element.

1.1.2. The First World War

The World War I. had a big influence on both gender politics and Shakespearean movies. The number of Shakespearean movies shrivelled to minimum. The increase of middle class audience resulted in decline of the production appealing to minority audience. Some of Shakespeare adaptations were even published under different names (e. g. Love in a Wood). Like that they would not be recognised as Shakespearean by common audience. At that time, Shakespeare‟s name was used mainly for comic purposes. The names Romeo and Juliet figured in cartoon films a lot. An interesting fact is that these parodies were usually named after Romeo (e. g. A Seashore Romeo, Two Small Town Romeos etc).

World War I. meant a decline for Shakespeare and Film, but according to Rosen, year 1915 was a landmark for women. The heroines in the movies tried to show that middle-class women could gain some respect through their work. Meanwhile, the premiere of The Birth of Nation (1915) showed a real potential of the films; they were not produced just to make profit, but were on their way to become art.

12

In 1916 started a phenomenon of one company challenging another by using the identical topic and releasing the movie at the same time as its rivals. Ball notices that William Fox applied this method successfully in 1915 producing Carmen. The following year he made the same attempt with Romeo and Juliet in order to compete with Metro. That time, Fox was not so successful. Miss Bayne who was staring for Metro was willing to do anything for the role and she even designed her own costume. Blaisdell appreciated the piece with the following lines: Not only has it lavished its best on the adaptation of a great tragedy; not only has it brought it out in all its strength and beauty, its glamor and romance, for the education as well as entertainment of countless thousands who heretofore may have had slight acquaintance with it or concern about it. It has demonstrated that Shakespeare dead three hundred years penned in his youth lines that map him the greatest title builder in the world of to-day. (Blaisdell qtd. Ball 238) The picture was in eight reels while Foxes original seven were reduced to five to fit the regular release on its programme. Foxes picture, though not in a bad quality, failed its intentions and as Ball claims, it was even propagated under Theda Bara‟s name to reach some audience. Theda Bara became a film star for her exotic and highly erotic image. In her most popular movies she was presented as a vamp. She usually starred in the movies where she could rule the men. The question is, if the understanding of Juliet at that time was the role fitting her nature. However, her character did not mean a real threat to men, for she was too unreal. Rosen defines her role, “before Freud‟s theories of behaviour had become popularized, she cast that ominous shadow, the vagina with teeth. She sucked the blood from her lovers: she deprived them of self-respect” (61). Her popularity declined after 1918, because post-war women could not take her seriously anymore; Theda Bara could no longer satisfy the female audience who was more and more demanding and required more sophisticated images of women-hood. Nevertheless, she inspired many women which contributed to motion picture with less sexual restrictions than ever before. In 1916 moving pictures showed women more as sexual objects. Shortly after the war, movies pictured women as sloppy house-wives who were driving their husbands to unfaithfulness with the aim to underline the importance of housekeeping and tidiness. These movies, of course, were made by men. As Rosen notes, The Old Wives for New even contained the first bathroom scene showing more sexuality than critics were ready to accept, and at the same time exactly as much as public wanted to see. Milles‟ heroines were

13

presented as shrews`, therefore, as Bara‟s vamps, they were not real enough. It meant they were not dangerous for the male part of society. They were not able take care of themselves. This fact confirms Rosen‟s statement, “it is interesting, that in the name of moral outrage women and children were always lumped together: rarely was the „community‟ wary of the influence of movies on men. Males kept females helpless and childlike, subject to their own views of what was proper, and had no intention of relinquishing that control” (Rosen 24). Men who at that time had every reason to feel threatened used every instrument they had to maintain patriarchal society.

1.1.3. After the First World War

While Europe slowly recovered from the war, the United States dominated the commercial market not just at home but even abroad. Cook describes the situation forming the image of American movies for the following decade.

By the end of World War I, the American film industry had assumed the structure it would retain for the next forty years. The independent producers, led by Adolph Zukor, William Fox, and Carl Laemmle, had triumphed over the monopolistic Motion Picture Patents Company to become vertically integrated monopolies themselves, controlling their own theatre chains and distributorships. With the refinement of the feature film, motion picture audiences became increasingly middle-class and exotic “atmospheric” theatres which could seat up to three thousand patrons spread to cities small and large across the country. Thanks to increasing film length, monetary inflation, and the monumental salaries newly commanded by stars, production budgets rose by as much as ten times their pre- war level and the movies became a major national industry in the span of several years. Filmmaking practises and narrative formulas were standardized to facilitate mass production, and Wall Street began to invest heavily in the industry for both economic and political gain. (Cook 196) Only few direct adaptations of Shakespeare can be found in the twenties‟ production. American industry did not pay much attention to his themes anymore. Shakespearean production was recognised as not very commercially successful. Nevertheless, there were rumours about producing Shakespeare in Europe. Germany tried to experiment with Romeo and Juliet as well as the Taming of the Shrew, but it´s production was not very successful. Despite such claims, Ball observed that Romeo continued being used as byword to romance

14

indication and Romeo and Juliet were being used as comic comparison. We can even find the mentioning about Charlie Chaplin staring as Romeo. During the war, situation of women changed rapidly. Rosen could see that war gave women jobs, Women‟s Movement brought them closer together and auto-mobiles offered them a better way how to meet partners and provided them with some privacy. In January 1919 American women finally gained their right to vote and represented more than one-fifth of adult population and total working population. Their patience for men controlling their lives was over. They were now more educated and demanding. As Rosen comments, Stroheim even explored rights of married women regarding sex and due to complexness of his production, his movies were not moralistic enough and therefore meant a threat. Stroheim had the post-war women to follow their sexual instincts. “American films became increasingly sophisticated and risqué, reflecting the „new morality‟ of the Jazz Era - a compound of materialism, cynicism, and sexual license” (Cook 215). In order to entertain the audience, producers were willing to do nearly everything. In the end, Stroheim‟s films were almost insulting to women and his production became so controversial that it could not be followed by success anymore. While film censorship abandoned the scenes with smoking women, “feminine defiance produced soaring sales” (Rosen 77). In the new genre, women acted more like men and did not care about their looks so much. In any case, their goal remained the same; women still had to protect their virtue and wanted to get married. The difference was that an economically secure woman had more freedom in choosing a man. Accordingly, men were interested in intelligent women and did not judge them just by their look. At the same time, they were afraid of too brainy females. Twenties finally brought real female film characters into life. Rosen can see these characteristics in Clara Bow, “despite predictable moral endings, which were the fate of all twenties‟ that decade‟s …, the Bow ideal translated brilliantly into flesh and blood. Finally, movies had a woman approachable attainable, and, happily, enough like the girl next door to be very, very real” (Rosen 90). She also claims that “Clearly films of the twenties attempted to squash feminine self- determination whose seeds were rooted in the reality of events” (Rosen 105). Movies promised everything. They taught impressionable girls to trade their sex for money. Women remained being underpaid and lower classes with weaker moral rules often took up prostitution, which Hollywood treated more severely than chorus girls. Prostitutes were covered by feminism. That tried to break down Victorian purity and give women the same sexual rights as men.

15

According to Rosen, in mid-twenties women grew more bold. It resulted in men acting no more like gentlemen and made their criticism of female appearance brutal. Women who still wanted to get married started to over-care about their looks and films turned into a beauty contest. Age and any imperfection in physical appearance were not tolerated. Elderly women got roles for humorous points in the movies and they were not allowed to look pretty. Into this situation the sound movies were released. 1.2. Sound Film

As Jackson states, if we compare Shakespearean production of Silent Era with the production of the sound films, the number of sound film is alarmingly small. There are some 40 sound movies adapting Shakespearian plays to the screen. One of the factors playing a role in the number of Shakespearean sound production is that the first movies were not really commercially successful. What silent film lacked was the dialog. It might seem that with the sound it would be easy to turn Shakespearean play into the movies. The problem was that Shakespeare was written for the stage. It took a long time to the producers to figure out how to make Shakespearean film successful. Peter Brook declared that “the power of a Shakespeare play on stage stems from the fact that it happens „nowhere‟” ( Brook qtd. in Jackson 22). To create a successful surrounding for Shakespeare‟s stories without letting it overtake the story, was a challenge. On the screen, the spectators have to see what is shown to them by the director. In the theatre they may choose what to concentrate on. Movies without this diverse effect can therefore seem limiting to some audience. The financial breakthrough came with Zeffirelli‟s The Taming of the Shrew in 1966 and with Romeo and Juliet (1968).

From the beginning of the motion picture development, people kept trying to find a way to connect pictures with the sound. Ball offers an example of their effort: “In England, British and Colonial made a picture in 1915 of the wooing scene from The Taming of the Shrew in which the actors spoke the complete text. When it was presented in the theatre, the same actors, one at each side of the screen but unseen, repeated the words in what was supposed to be synchronization” (Ball 220). From the beginning of the motion picture development, people kept trying to find a way for connecting pictures with the sound. Ball offers an example of their effort: “In England, British and Colonial made a picture in 1915 of the wooing scene from The Taming of the Shrew in which the actors spoke the complete text. When it was presented in the theatre, the

16

same actors, one at each side of the screen but unseen, repeated the words in what was supposed to be synchronization” (Ball 220). In Ball‟s opinion, the result was not satisfying at all and as the sound came from different corners the illusion of sound was poor. The actors on the screen were moving and exchanging their positions, but the voices were not. The German production did not bring up a bigger success. An interesting fact about the development of the movies is that until it was threatened by television it concentrated on the sound effect without expanding other technical possibilities of the movies. It surprisingly concerns 3D technology first introduced in 1922 along with a widescreen introduced in 1926. Due to amazing technical development, cinemas were ready for sound by 1930. Unfortunately, the actors were not. In the thirties people suffered from Depression and therefore were in the need to escape to reality more than ever before. Sound film proved to be a successful form of escape. “By 1929 movie theatres had converted almost entirely to sound systems. Technicolor, another fascination, would bring in audiences despite the Depression” (Rosen 135). Characters with vocal had a potential to be more real. Yet, the Depression movies portrayed women as spies and secretaries. Women‟s place in the movies was still strong. In most of the films touching the Depression it was women who gave comfort to starving men. The actress Bette Davis meant a threat to the manhood. She was sexy, confident and played number of career girl roles. It was the time when blond girls ruled the screen and popular image gained control over individual beauty. Rosen thinks that the only people without gender expectation who were allowed to have their own personalities were children.

17

2. Shakespeare Adaptations in the Sound Film

The development of pictures is connected with historical and economic changes in the society. Therefore, before the film analysis itself it is important to learn not only about the movies and their producers, but also about the major event influencing the directors‟ approach towards the audience.

2.1. Sam Taylor - The Taming of the Shrew (1929)

While Europe struggled with the consequences of the First World War, Americans lived in prosperity. Movies made in America widely spread all over the world and had a substantial influence even on people from other continents. Undeniable advantage of silent movies was that everyone could understand them. Though the Depression struck by the end of the twenties, audience did not leave the theatres. Hollywood production showed people an exciting life, offering them a form of escape from reality, newly, in the coat of sound film. American film star Marry Pickford was one of those with the possibility of trying to develop their career in the sound film: “Pickford‟s 1929 Shrew, directed by Sam Taylor, was the first „talkie‟ Shakespeare, a production gamble she financed with both her money and celebrity as „America‟s Sweetheart‟: she was the most famous and highly paid face in the world and half of and internationally recognised „star couple‟” (Rutter 241). The first scene opens at market where we can watch a comedy puppet show. Its plot should prompt the audience with the plot of the film. Male puppet unsuccessfully requires a kiss from the female puppet, so he decides to hit her. Finally, she falls into his arms. That is also what male audience probably expected from the movie. For women, the film gained much deeper meaning. According to Barbara Hodgon, “the film opens up contradiction in this confessional portrait of woman at the mercy of bother her husband and the camera apparatus” (Hodgon 163). Even the movie stars had to deal with the situation based on the prejudices of the contemporary society. Famous as the first sound film of a Shakespearean play, Columbia Pictures Taming of the Shrew (1929), starring the legendary Mary Pickford and Douglas Fairbanks, is perhaps even more infamous for its credit line, “by William Shakespeare with additional dialogue by Samuel Taylors”, the director. (A contemporary cartoon shows a bust of Shakespeare at the library of Congress being replaced by one of Taylor.) Intriguingly, in the distribution of verbal

18

property, Shakespeare‟s poetry goes to Fairbanks while Taylor‟s additions – except for a version of Kate‟s author-ised obedience speech – fall to Pickford, who complained that Fairbanks (once a Shakespearian actor) took advantage of her. (Hodgon 163) The truth is that Katherine in this adaptation does not really say much. For the sound film she sometimes remains too dramatic like Taylor who seems to enjoy the possibilities of the sound too much. The beginning of the movie shows the consequences of her rage but not as much the rage itself. Her temper is personalised in the whip she carries and the black colour of her dress. Despite that, an underestimation of that move probably mostly arose from audience expectations more than from the quality of the movie. Without any doubt Katherine as well as her sister Bianca is beautiful. Through the film we also learn she is loving and kind. She wants to be independent and equal if not superior to the others and at the same time she shares her desires with Bianca. They both want to be loved, get married and possibly start a family. That is the reason why she cannot agree with the marriage but at the same time she waits at the altar for her fiancé and she does not walk away when offended by his dirty dress and bad manners during the ceremony. Mordaunt Hall in his contemporary review reflects the male perspective on the movie: Katherina here in the early scenes is more mad then she was ever intended to be. She not only wields a mighty whip and hurls furniture at those who arouse her ire (which, be it known, is not difficult to do), but she shatters mirrors, windows and what not. And, arrayed in a black velvet gown of considerable length, this Katherina looks almost equal to the tempestuous acts. It is no small wonder that her father, the good-natured and fearful Baptista of Padua, should desire first to get rid of the ill-natured Katherina as a wife to some man before he consents to his meek daughter, Bianca, being betrothed! (Hall) Female perspective can find the reason for Katherine to be so mean. It is because contemporary women dealt with the same problems as Katherine. There were many unresolved issues in the society and women asked question that could not be answered at that time. Rosen writes about situation of women in twenties. “As in life, as in movies, women were forced to wonder about contradictions of their partial freedom. Where did it lead? What would they do with it? What could they do with it? Where would their educations take them if men required them to stay at home and have babies” (Rosen 135)? Taming in the movie can surely satisfy the male audience. Petruchio gets what he wants by treating his wife badly, turning her into an obedient and tender women. From women‟s

19

point of view we can see that his actions woke up her compassion and she turned from a desperate child to a maternal woman. Light colours she wears after the ceremony are in contrast to black she wore being untamed. It evokes the feeling that it is the wedding that changed her attitude. By throwing her whip into the fire Katherine becomes Kate and the taming process is complete. Taylor‟s taming actually does not cost Petruchio much effort. It suggests that Katherine wanted to be tamed. She recognised it would only make her life easier. The scene of Katherine being homesick, willing to do anything to see her beloved ones as soon as possible is missing. That kind approach of gives Petruchio and Katherine herself more credit in the taming process. Not only Taylor completely skipped many parts of the taming itself, but also the wedding ceremony of her sister. Nevertheless Kate gives a speech at the dining table. Barbara Hodgon and Carol Chillington Rutter describe Kate‟s approach to men‟s power. Though she acted according to the expectations of patriarchal society on the outside, she manages to keep her own opinions intact. The final wink clearly shows Taylor‟s interpretation of the speech. By either gliding over the signs of the father in Kate‟s speech (accepting them as “natural”) or assuming that Kate is merely performing and does not believe what she says, readers can produce a scene similar to the happy rape, the fully authorised scene for female sexuality – authorised precisely because it is mastered and controlled. In such scenarios, Kate does not so much defeat the power of the phallus as take over its power in drag to play the “good girl” and so get the “bad girls” pleasure; moreover, since she achieves pleasure as if against her will, she remains a good girl. (Hodgon 161-162) Hodgon is not the only one referring to the wink. Then at the end comes the wink. In narrative terms, its effect is to invert the conclusions the “submission” speech seems just to have settled in Shakespeare‟s text. That text told one story; now this wink, another, making Kate‟s submission a ploy and patriarchal authority - the authority to tame a shrew - a male fantasy, merely tolerated by knowing women who turn out to be shrewd while men are just dopes. But the wink works on a technical level as well, and it is here that it signals the difference film is going to make to the future interpretation of Shakespeare‟s women‟s roles. (Rutter 242)

20

2.2. Production Code (1930 – 1967)

The American movie production of the thirties took an interesting turn. In 1930 public realized an influence movie had on social attitudes and behaviour. With the growing number of sold tickets easy accessibility of the movies with inappropriate scenes were alarming to parents. Nationwide study of the influence of motion pictures on children by a group of university psychologists, sociologists, and education specialists came to a conclusion that the movies influence children‟s interpretations of the world, their moral standards and sexual behaviour. In a pendulum swing away from the excesses of the “new morality” of the Jazz Era, the Production Code was awesomely repressive, and it prohibited the showing or mentioning of almost everything germane to the situation of normal human adults. It forbade depicting “scenes of passion” in all but the most puerile terms, and it required that the sanctity of the institution of marriage and the home be upheld at all times (married couples, however, were never to be shown sharing a bed). Adultery, illicit sex, seduction, or rape could never be more than suggested and then only if they were absolutely essential to the plot and were severely punished at the end. (Cook 282) The sex issue was not the only one included in the Production Code, the same restrictions applied to violence, guns, use of profanity etc. No studio belonging to the MPPDA could distribute or release any film without a certificate of approval. The Production Code (also known as Hays Code) started to be strongly enforced since 1934 and challenged producers to create something original according to its rules. The end of the code came in the sixties when Hollywood movies faced a serious threat from easier access to the film via television and also from foreign movies following no such code.

2.3. George Cukor - Romeo and Juliet (1936)

By the second half of the thirties blond image became popular and individuality and uniqueness were not supported. Beauty became a priority and women followed the image of the female stars. Due to economic crisis and the following Second World War people did not seek hopeless images and desperate people. “In the name of escapism, films were guilty of extravagant misrepresentations, exuding a sense of well-being to the nation in general and women in particular. In fact, precisely the opposite was true” (Rosen 141).

21

Rosen also contends that there were some exceptions to the frivolity in the American movie production industry. Nevertheless, most of the films were made to cover the social problems with the gloss of humour and superficiality. The Depression, smelling of antifeminism, gave Hollywood a perfect excuse for such ludicrous allegories of sacrifice, tears, and female humiliation. Therefore, audiences might have been fortunate that studio moguls like Mayer and Thalberg who had known extreme poverty as children and now had little tolerance for it preferred the veneer of films-as-entertainment. In his 1934 Annual Report, Will Hays bragged: No medium has contributed more greatly than the film to the maintenance of the national morale during a period featured by revolution, riot, and political turmoil in other countries. It has been the mission of the screen, without ignoring the serious social problems of the day, to reflect aspiration, optimism, and kindly humour in its entertainment. Consequently, industry potentates preferred to etch a totally different Depression landscape: the landscape of society fantasy. (Rosen 184-185) The sound movie production became more common and had its opportunity to learn from the mistakes made in previous production. Yet, it is important to bear in mind that the Production Code rules had to be followed. In order to understand Thalberg‟s production of Romeo and Juliet more, it is beneficial to examine Rosen asserts that Bob Tomas writes. He in his study of Thalberg explains: Although Thalberg could work in complete harmony with female writers, he seemed incapable of establishing any deep friendship with women. He had known periodic infatuations with Hollywood beauties, and he enjoyed the pleasure of their company on social occasions. But he appeared not to like women for themselves. He worked in a world that was intensely masculine, despite his employment of actresses and female writers. The studio world was everything to him, and he was devoted to the men who helped him build and maintain it …. The pleasures Thalberg sought were male pleasures. (Thomas qtd. in Rosen 153) As before, there is a love story presented by a man who as Thomas claims does not understand women. George Cukor intended to introduce to the audience the “real” Shakespeare. In Frank S. Nuget‟s opinion, “there is no precedent for this version, no stage or screen tradition to guide us in our consideration of the picture. Logically, if not chronologically, it is the first Shakespearean photo-play.” In his effort to create an appropriate

22

atmosphere Cukor might go too far. He makes Romeo and Juliet unbelievably innocent. Both, the fight scenes and the love scenes are not very much passionate and Mercucio seems be interested in girls more than in Romeo. Juliet is introduced feeding a doe and Romeo lies in pasture for sheep. Surprisingly, Romeo and Juliet gets better contemporary review than Taming of the Shrew (1929) that had to wait for its appreciation. It might be due to the fact that even though some passages had been skipped Cukor‟s script does not contain any additional dialogue which had been so criticised in Taylor‟s Taming of the Shrew. At that time the movie was nominated for four Academy Awards. Later on, Cukor‟s movie lost on its popularity while Taylor‟s movie seems to be considered undervalued by many. One of the reasons for the lessened rating of Romeo and Juliet (1936) is the age of the actors that did not correspond to the youth of the characters. “MGM brought its own brand of spectacle and star power to the casting and production of Romeo and Juliet 1936, in which the mature Norma Shearer and Leslie Howard played the teenage lovers” (Keyishian 74). According to Jorgensen declaration John Feugi also comments on Cukor‟s movie: “In response to the declared quest for „authenticity‟ in Cukor and Thalberg‟s Romeo and Juliet, John Feugi quite properly asks, „does the wealth of physical detail (the life of a great epoch) illuminate the story or does it weigh the story down under a mass of intrusive detail? Does Shakespeare in his „pursuit of reality‟ actually seek to „present life in all its fullness‟” (Jorgens 20). Feugi‟s question remains without any objective answer, nevertheless, in other ways he follows Shakespeare more precisely than any other director before him.

2.4. After the Second World War

The Second World War brought emancipation. All men capable of fighting were fighting in the war and women started to replace them. According to Rosen at that time necessity “mothered emancipation” (201) and working was a “patriotic gesture” (201). Nevertheless, women surprised everyone by working more effectively than men. In its beginning even women did not think they would be willing to make it permanent. Since the audience was almost entirely female, the Second World War was the era of women‟s pictures dealing with female problems. After the war many women had been widowed and they actually not just wanted, but needed to keep their jobs.

23

Unfortunately, soon the need for emancipation was overshadowed by an unequal proportion between the number of men and women. The drastic fall of numbers in male population multiplied their desire to find a husband as soon as possible. Female beauty was once again used for the purpose of an early marriage. Many girls attended colleges to have easy success to potential husbands. In 1948 Kinsey published his report on Sexual Behavior in the Human Male, followed by Sexual Behavior in the Human Female (1953) which caused a revolution in the sexual research. Both sexes had the same responses to sexuality and that meant that men could no longer pretend they have more right to be sexually less bounded than women. “We found no basic differences in the anatomy which is involved in the sexual responses of females and males, and we found no differences in the physiologic phenomena which are involved when females and males respond to sexuality” (Kinsey qtd. in Rosen 263). Kinsey‟s research influenced social and cultural values and provoked media interest. We can see his influence in the song Too Darn Hot from musical version of The Taming of the Shrew - Kiss Me, Kate (1948) This musical “devoted its bridge to an analysis of the Kinsey report and the “average man‟s favorite sport ”‟( The Kinsey Institute). An early marriage did not work for most of the couples and it resulted into the divorce rate in the late fifties. In any case, many girls left college with their degrees and were able to focus on their carrier. Women in general were slowly expected to educate themselves.

2.5. Castellani - Romeo and Juliet (1954)

In the fifties Technicolor was already a standard matter and Castellani uses it for defying some features of a Shakespearean play. He concentrates on settings so intensively that it makes the story line look unimportant. He tries to “quote” Shakespeare by visualising his words in the surroundings of the plot. Patricia Tatspaguh presumes that Castellani‟s screenplay “alters the original”. In Paul A. Jorgensen‟s opinion “Castellani wanted a motion picture, as none of his predecessors had wanted . . . most of the critics were not prepared to silence Shakespeare. They waited for the familiar words, and these did not come.” (114) Castellani‟s adaptation of Romeo and Juliet has its specific features in its scenic settings. On the other hand, in his movies are some crucial omissions. Roy Walker contends that Castellani “dismembers Shakespeare‟s scenes as he goes along, thereby robbing them of meaning” (118) and supports his proclamation with some specific examples:

24

Most of the foreboding notes have disappeared from the text, there is no glimpse of starry sky in the balcony scene, Juliet pours out the drug from the vial into a glass as though taking medicine and Romeo buys no poison form an apothecary, but is content to stab himself in the tomb. No much acting has been called for; camera is almost a substitute for it. So rich are the visual impressions. Qualities of the film are in production and unfortunately not in the acting. (Walker 118) Castellani‟s himself explains his approach: “Shakespeare‟s play Castellani explained in London to a reporter “was not real enough for the vast cinema audience. Certain dialogue written by Shakespeare was too theatrical. I want the public to believe that rodeo and Juliet really existed‟” (Walker 117). Even though he wanted to make the movie trustworthy, the result did not meet much understanding from the audience. In the fifties too many changes in the society were happening and people did not feel very close to Castellani‟s silent and slow motion point of view. The first really commercially successful production of Shakespeare followed more than ten years after Cukor‟s.

2.6. Franco Zeffirelli - The Taming of the Shrew ; Romeo and Juliet (1967 ; 1968)

At the end of 1960s Shakespeare became more available and thus more explored by the critics. An increasing number of scholars and students interested in Shakespeare were connected with the transformation of the society that among other things had also its impact on the movie production. The increasing interest in Shakespeare on film not only coincided with but was to a certain extent driven by major transformations within the educational system during 1960s and 1970s, whose impact was felt even within the rare field of Shakespeare studies. The social and economic changes which brought, in large numbers, an entirely new class of students into European and American universities, together with the political upheavals of the period of student protest, also created the conditions for the aims and methods of many scholarly disciplines. (Shaughnessy 6) New Shakespeare represented young generation and Zeffirelli‟s approach to Shakespeare was in accordance with it.

25

Zeffirelli is now despised for treating Shakespeare like a hack scriptwriter, now hailed for avoiding a dry, respectfully dull academic style. But granting that will always be differences in taste and that what we must not forego the obligation to judge, it still seems wise to avoid elevating our particular sensitivities to the status of universal laws…Good Shakespeare films often move fluidly between modes and styles, merge several simultaneously, so that it is not possible to make simple judgements…Shakespeare on film, into the interrelations of style and meaning which lie at the heart of these visions and re-visions. For this we require different terms and a different approach. (Jorgens 25) Shakespearean movies cannot and should not be all judged by the same rules. Zeffirelli‟s The Taming of the Shrew displayed the mood of 1960s. According to some critics as Lisa Duggan, the understanding of Katherine‟s character followed the feministic mode of those years. Zeffirelli‟s Taming of the Shrew reflects in its skeptical approach to gender performativity something of the 1960‟s push toward political resistance. The resistance of this cinematic Kate toward patriarchal oppression and biopolitical regulation allows her to become a feminist icon in a milieu of political struggle. (Duggan qtd. in Lamm) Zeffirelli‟s Romeo and Juliet also reflected changes in the society. The result of technical development and film expansion on television was one of the motivational forces defeating the production code and forcing it into the benevolence. Romeo and Juliet may be counted as one of the first controversial American movies showing the nudity in the second half of the twentieth century. The New York Times critic Renata Adler dared to go even further in her analysis of the movie and claimed that the movie can also appear as homosexual: There is a softly homosexual cast over the film - not just with Romeo and Mercutio, but with Juliet‟s bodice being much too tight, or a kind of Greek attention lavished on Romeo in the bedroom scene. And yet Romeo, his face not quite yet integrated, and Juliet, with a special lady quality of lust, work absolutely right. (Adler) Adler perceives that Romeo‟s nudity gives the movie homosexual tone that usually contained in Mercutio‟s relationship towards Romeo. The reason why Adler focuses the camera on Romeo‟s nakedness as homosexual might reside if fact that most of the nudity in films was generally targeted to male audience.

26

As it was already stated, Zeffirelli‟s style of production did not suit to everyone. While Shakespeare in the theatre is mostly dependent upon a dialogue, Zeffirelli clearly demonstrates that film does not meet the same requirements. Nicole Pfeifer argues that “Zeffirelli abandons the humor of language in favor of physical comedy.” Many critiques support her opinion, nevertheless, The Taming of the Shrew served its purpose and brought young audience to the cinemas. Zeffirelli also uses physical gestures in Romeo and Juliet. In this movie adaptation it is perceived as a positive thing displaying Juliet‟s emotional control. “Hussey‟s use of hand gestures suggests Juliet‟s ability to internalize emotion, and thus control it.” (Scott Lindsey) Robert Ebert refers to the fact that Zeffirelli decided to cast young actors and in contrast to The Taming of the Shrew he did not give the roles to well-known stars such as Elizabeth Taylor was. The success of the film depends upon Whiting and Miss Hussey. Zeffirelli reportedly interviewed hundreds of young actors and actresses before choosing them; if so, then this is the first movie “talent search” worth the trouble. They are magnificent. We can see why Zeffirelli didn‟t want older actors. The love between Romeo and Juliet, and the physical passion that comes with it, are of that naive and hopeless intensity only those in love for the very first time can comprehend. (Ebert) Both Zeffirelli‟s movies rank among the most popular and appreciated Shakespearean adaptations by the audience. Though they influenced following adaptations, the modern producers perhaps felt that there is nothing more to add to improve Zeffirelli‟s Shakespeare and choose different approaches to Shakespeare.

2.7. Baz Luhrmann - Romeo + Juliet (1996)

Luhrmann tried to balance traditional Shakespeare and the modern world. Among many modern movies concerning Romeo and Juliet‟s forbidden love or mild references to it he decided to go to the extreme. Luhrmann took Shakespearean lines and put them into the flamboyant modern environment. 2 Luhrmann has given considerable attention to taking Shakespeare's play and making it work within the contemporary setting. Respecting Zeffirelli's

2 Samlioglu in his review declares that “The modern elements of the setting, the beautiful language of Shakespeare, and the legendary love of Romeo and Juliet put this film into a special place among its kind.”

27

achievement as a “gorgeous piece for its time,” he did not wish to re-cover the same territory. He desired from the first scenes to “disarm our audience, many of whom thought they knew what to expect” and make them see the play afresh. (Evan qtd. in Hamilton) The scenes of Romeo + Juliet are set in the multicultural environment. When Luhrmann makes the film, there are no rules or restrictions he would have to follow. Female characters may smoke and furthermore, violence and nudity are expected. Luhrmann fulfils these expectations and goes even beyond them. Unlike any other producer, he chooses to cast black actor in the role of Mercucio. Radel finds a connection between the race and display of sexuality. “The film represents Romeo‟s love for Juliet as the opposite of homosexuality and as the opposite of black or dark desires” (Radel). Luhrmann also uses number of striking symbols throughout the whole movie. In the ball scene, characters are displayed by their choice of costume. Christianity is displayed by cheesy statues and neon crosses; even the priest has a cross tattooed on his back. It might signify that religion is not taken as seriously as it used to be. “In the postmodern frenzy of Luhrmann's film world, where images are devoid of depth or truth and “Christian symbols stripped of meaning and translated into designer ornaments‟” (Tatspaugh 142 qtd. in Scott). Romeo and Juliet is a love story and those are more sought by women. Unlike other producers who usually use female stars to attract the audience, Luhrmann reached for Leonardo DiCaprio. With women equal to man more than ever before, voyeurism of nineties concerns both men and women.

2.8. Loyd Kaufman - Tromeo and Juliet (1996)

Kaufman‟s B-movie Tromeo and Juliet concentrating on punk-subculture was made in the same year as Romeo + Juliet. Many critics consider it to be off-putting 3 and in contrast to most of the other movies discussed in this thesis it is neither well known nor discussed by the public. “Tromeo and Juliet is in most cases only briefly commented on, mostly along with pornographic references or among B-movies assumedly not worth further analysis” (Howard 219 qtd. in Gergopoulou).

3 „Tromeo and Juliet, directed by Lloyd Kaufman from a screenplay he wrote with James Gunn, is to Hollywood B-movies what Mad magazine is to comic books. Although many times more explicit than what Hollywood is permitted to show, there is something goofily exhilarating in the spectacle of all the staple images of teen-age sex and slasher movies transformed into farce.” (Holden)

28

As the category of B-movie suggests, Tromeo and Juliet significantly differs from Romeo and Juliet Hollywood style productions. To the average audience it may appear simply disgusting, tasteless and without any deeper thoughts. As Laura Mulvey points out, analysing the movie out of the mainstream production can be challenging. “However self-conscious and ironic Hollywood managed to be, it always restricted itself to a formal mise-en-scene reflecting the dominant ideological concept of the cinema. The alternative cinema provides a space for a cinema to be born which is radical in both a political and an aesthetic sense and challenges the basic assumptions of the mainstream film” (Mulvey). When we look at Tromeo and Juliet from another perspective we might find out that this B-movie can be analysed with many interesting conclusions, no matter how bizarrely they are presented. In Tromeo and Juliet, Juliet is sexually harassed by her own father and has a sexual relationship with her lesbian cook. On the top of that, most of the scenes are filled with blood, sex and violence. By these cruel displays of society and its perversity Kaufman transcended Shakespeare into the problems of modern society. “It is a movie that attacks daringly an imposed ideology and its cultural vehicle” (Freeth 222 qtd. in Georgopoulou). He often uses Shakespeare‟s original lines to soften his slang dialogs full of vulgarity. Georgopoulou quotes Allan Ulrich who argues that his version “communicate[s] so more eloquently to the younger generation,” (217) than any other previous version. Although Kaufman in many ways tries to follow Shakespeare‟s supposed intentions, unlike other producers, he does it with striking openness. He shows Juliet as a strong and powerful character leaving her name untouched, whereas his representation of Romeo deformed into Tromeo is more feminine than ever. He is, for instance, masturbating over porn-video tape where the woman talks to him about the marriage. Juliet, who does not seem to be very innocent in many Shakespeare adaptations, is involved in a lesbian sexual relationship. Kaufman provocatively displays women‟s homosexual desires in this case probably activated by Juliet‟s fear of masculinity. Her fear comes from sexual harassment of her father functioning as Kaufman‟s transmission of his power above her. It also leads her into having dream about man who has a monster-like penis trying to attack her. She longs for a man, but has the desire mixed together with the feeling of a threat, power and perversion. When Juliet meets Romeo, he wears a cow costume from a soft and tender material. She is intrigued by this even before she sees Rome‟s face. Perhaps, what is crucial is the softness of the material symbolising Romeo‟s tender soul. This movie as probably the only one from the discussed Romeo and Juliet adaptation does not go for the outer appearance of the

29

characters, but seeks for the inner beauty. Georgopoulou also notices that the main characters are reaching beneath the surface of characters. “Although it is not clear what exactly makes Juliet fall in love with Tromeo (it might as well be his inventive costume itself), it is obvious that she does not fall for an appearance that conforms with a social stereotype. Similarly, Juliet‟s transformation into a pig-like creature…does not seem to trouble Romeo” (Georgopoulou).

30

3. From Maturing to Taming and Power 3.1. Maturing

With a closer examination of Katherine (The Taming of the Shrew) and Juliet (Romeo and Juliet), we can find significant similarities in their characters. First, there is pressure about the marriage issue. Second, they both fight public prejudices. Third, throughout the story and as their relationships evolve, they finally mature.

Juliet in contrast to Katherine is only fourteen and in her youth she is even expected to act like a child. But despite her age, she tends to be quite reasonable. Meeting Romeo speeds up the growing process and she matures faster than one could think it is possible. Katherine also does not meet any expectations of people of her age. She is wild and child-like, not really caring about anyone, but only about herself. For a question, why an adult woman is acting like a spoiled brat, we might find different kind of answers. What makes her be so violent? She is angry if someone does not follow her will. Whatever she is asked to do, she does the opposite. Consequently, she might be compared to four year old child. When a child does not get what it wants, the sudden overwhelming emotions have to simply manifest until they are learned to be controlled. Katherine did not find any reason for learning to manage this kind of disturbing emotions. Her rage simply reflects her state of mind; she can be perceived as an unhappy character. Nevertheless, the emotions she displays are not really a sign of the bad character. If we look at her in this way, Katherine‟s overreacting to everyday life situations might also nothing more, but the consequence of her frustration. She does not know the way she could make her own decisions and be married at the same time. Staying single is not a solution; according to the patriarchal society rules, she is expected to get married. Her problem reflects the hard choices women of her time had to face. That is something women in the first half of 20th century could identify with. Katherine‟s character often gets overwhelmed by her anger and although her face is a face of a beauty, no one dares propose to her. She secretly desires for a man, but she waits until she finds someone worthy of her love; someone who will not give up. Prove of this assumption can be found in her presence at the wedding ceremony. By trying not to wake her furry, most of her surroundings just encourage Katherine‟s attitude. Petruchio chooses to have a different approach. He laughs at her attempts to discourage him from his intentions and tries to make her see through the ridiculous nature of

31

her actions. He calls her tenderly in attempt to awaken her natural female desire and supports it by kissing her. Later on he shows her a ruthless mirror of her own actions to make her recognise how her behaviour might appear to her environment. If the same technique is applied to a little child, it will in most of the cases work as well. In this way Katherine learns to control her emotions. Even though the social pressures on women persist, she finds a wiser way to express her opinions in public. Juliet fights for her freedom in a different manner. She seems to be obedient, but when she gets her opportunity to be freed from her parents‟ will, she takes every chance to use it effectively. Through taming, she reaches for her freedom. Brown argues that, “On a primary level, Juliet develops affection for Romeo because she meets a soul mate. But on a subtextual level, she is attracted to Romeo because he is malleable and controllable. Such a mate allows her to assume the dominant role in the relationship, finding the „weaker vessel‟ in Romeo.” She also notices that Juliet immediately thinks of marriage. In her female role she has to be more down to earth than Romeo. The pressure of her female public status does not leave her any choice but to be realistic. At the end of the story, we have Juliet matured through the possibility to gain control over her life. Then, there is Katherine who realised that she had never actually had the power. In the process of fighting for her freedom, she could not do what she secretly wanted – get married. At the moment their womanhood awoke through their sexuality, both women learned to use it for their own benefit. Teresa de Lauretis talks about different ways of defining women psychoanalysis. She can see the influence of one gender on another and the connection between the definition of woman and mother. Psychoanalysis defines women in relation to man, from within the same frame of reference and with the analytical categories elaborated to account for the psychological development of the male. That is why psychoanalysis does not address, cannot address, the complex and contradictory relation of women to Woman, which it instead defines as a simple equation: women = Woman = Mother. And that, as I have suggested, is one of the most deeply rooted effects of the ideology of gender. (Lauretis 20) The Taming of the Shrew deals with both of these relations. Katherine‟s relation to Petruchio pushes her development beyond just her. She recognises a stronger connection to her female side. As a result she gets to be more maternal with ability to relate to women in

32

general. That is the cause of her to either imaginary or actual final wink at the end of the story. According to Brown, Juliet finds power over her soft, kind of girlish-like husband in her sexuality. Katherine‟s brutal change from a shrew in to a “lamb” gives her power over her rude, yet kind and beloved husband. Lamm‟s interpretation of Zeffirelli‟s production follows this conclusion. “Following Kate and Petruchio‟s return to Padua, Zeffirelli makes it crystal clear that, no, the shrew has not, in fact, been tamed” (Lamm). Women were conventionally considered to threaten masculinity. At first sight, while Juliet represents the feminine elements, Katherine represents the masculine side of the woman. But in their marriage their roles are exactly the opposite. Brown‟s reading of Shakespeare based on the falconry techniques explores that “Shakespeare reverses the gender roles, as he does in other parts of the play, and has Juliet assume behaviour typically assigned to men.” We can recognize this approach during the meeting scene and famous balcony scene. Juliet also tries to check her power after the consummation of their marriage. It is Katherine who plays a passive role in the wedding process. At first, she does not want to get married at all while it is Juliet who takes on the masculine role in marriage; she actually proposes to Romeo. Brown quotes Irene Dash who argues that Juliet tries to retain “her sense of self as „essential‟ and, thus, moves the audience „with admiration for a courageous person attempting to fight her destiny as a woman‟ and „to govern her own life‟” (Brown). Katherine possesses a threat to men‟s masculinity until she is married, but Romeo‟s masculinity comes to life only after the fulfilment of his love represented by marriage. Juliet‟s character can be seen from many points of view. Shakespeare presents Juliet as a girl who is willing to do anything to be with her love. Nevertheless, she is reasonable all the way through the plot and constantly tries to prove her power over her chosen man. She finds being without her loved one is unbearable for her. With him she does not only loses husband, but also the ability to control her life. Throughout years, as our society develops, Juliet is presented in different ways to bring us an understanding of her character from a gender point of view. She is presented as a gentle creature that stands strongly in her opinions. She is passionate, but keeps her mind clear, always thinking about the future. Carolyn Brown in her critical essay notices the sudden attention that is given to Juliet‟s character: “… as criticism, especially feminist in orientation, begins to recognize the depth of Shakespeare's female characters, Juliet is receiving more concentrated, appreciative attention. And as critics look beyond her youth, they discover not a reticent virgin but a multifaceted character who transcends Romeo in maturity, complexity, insight, and rhetorical dexterity.”

33

To get closer to the audience and reveal possibilities of their characters through different perceptions, movie directors represent Katherine and Juliet in a very different fashion. It seems ironic that the more recent screen adaptation of Shakespeare‟s play, Baz Luhrman‟s William Shakespeare's Romeo + Juliet, should offer audiences a Juliet who is passive, rather than active, by comparison. Although both films satisfy many of the conventional requirements for the category of “teen-Shakespeare,” Luhrmann‟s Romeo + Juliet features a Juliet who is oddly lacking in the desire and agency of Shakespeare's heroine. (Scott) According to Scott Luhrmann‟s Juliet acted by Clare Danes suffers from the omissions of her lines which in result changes her approach to Romeo. On the other hand, there must be some purpose in those omissions. In contrast to Zeffirelli‟s movie Clare Danes is quiet and pure, but the nature of her thoughts can be seen through her actions. The different representation of the same protagonists does not necessarily mean her character crucially differs from Zeffirelli‟s. We can find her nature displayed in Romeo‟s face instead of her own. In the movie Tromeo and Juliet her character has lesbian tendency. Kaufman‟s decision for this approach was probably based on the beginning acceptance of people with different sexuality. Also Jane Jensen starring as Juliet does not have character as gentle as it presented in Shakespeare‟s original play. She does not fight for her freedom just metaphorically; she ends up killing her father. The poison Juliet in the play took to pretend her own death turns into the potion that physically changes her into a monster in order to challenge her suitors. When she metamorphoses into a pig-like creature she also gets to have a penis; a physical representation of male character in the female.4 All the way through Kaufmann‟s movie it is Juliet who is braver and more forward than Romeo. An example of this is strongly displayed in the scene where both of them are being tattooed. Whereas Romeo‟s grimace shows agony, Juliet put into the exactly same situation just smiles. Kaufman‟s approach shows that the power Juliet possesses is not just on the inner level, but gives her strength to overcome physical pain.

4 Stephen Holden in his review says: “After trying almost everything to sicken him, she finally succeeds by imbibing a potion that turns her into a snorting gray-snouted pig with a long droopy tail.”

34

Whole maturing process of the female Shakespearean character can be analysed within three major scenes present in their every production. This maturing in the process is reflected in a desire to gain freedom through their relationship and grasp the power over their husbands.

3.1.1. The Meeting Scene

The meaning scene is crucial for both heroines. It represents the start of their maturing. These characters develop due to their physical and psychological relationships with men. Physical attractiveness and passion are part of the taming process in both movies; therefore the meeting scenes are crucial for both films. On this basis, in both the Taming of the Shrew and Romeo and Juliet, meeting of the two main characters should be represented with a corresponding passion The producers decided to arrange the scenes in different ways. Their goal was mostly to reach the audience of their time. As it was already mentioned in the chapter Shakespeare Adaptations in the Sound Film, they mostly based their approach on changing attitude of the society to sex and its public display. However, they also found their inspiration in the previous versions of the stories and the reactions of the audience to it.

4.1.1.2. Katherine

Having a closer look at Katherine meeting Petruchio in Taylor‟s The Taming of the Shrew (1929) the passion is contained everywhere, e. g., when they fight they don‟t pretend it. They are not afraid of hurting each other. As passionately as they fight, they also kiss. Their kissing is the only moment when Katherine calms down, wondering about the feelings she has got from their closeness. It pushes her towards the realisation that the life she leads is not fulfilling. Consequently, she decides to marry Petruchio, but at the same time Petruchio tries to tame her and she starts the process of her maturing and self-awareness. The meeting scene of Katherine and Petruchio in Taylor‟s version could be easily compared to a battlefield, whereas when Romeo meets Juliet we can feel more like on a playground. Zeffirelli seems to combine both of the aspects to create a passionate taming atmosphere. Katherine is astonished by cheeky Petruchio. Her first reaction to his proposal is denial of the whole situation, which leads them towards Hide and Seek game. The resulting impression reminds Romeo and Juliet‟s with-within reach dance. By this scene, Zeffirelli successfully achieved exciting atmosphere. He goes even further than Taylor and lets Katherine to get in both physically and mentally vulnerable position; she gets injured during the fight with Petruchio. Her cry from pain could also be an expression of her desperate

35

feelings about losing the fight. Admitting her defeat, she lets him support her. This situation could be also translated as a metaphor for her acceptance of the necessity to have a man by her side, which was generally expected by the public at that time. David Richards‟ Katherine chooses to get married for two reasons. The first is purely rational. Even in the modern society, marriage gets her better image for her plans of candidacy to parliament. As Katherines before her, she, as a single independent woman, does not have many advantages in the male-dominant society. Secondly, she feels just the career without relationship does not make her fully satisfied. Katherine is a modern woman and she wants it all. When she meets Petruchio in the elevator, he makes her feel like a woman; she enjoys feeling like an object of sexual desire of an attractive male counterpart. That is perhaps the crucial moment for her to get into the position of maturing in her approach to relationships.

4.1.1.3 Juliet

Unlike Katherine, Juliet knows what she wants from the very beginning. First directors such as Cukor and Castellani did not dare to suggest it directly, but the character of Juliet gets more daring with every new adaptation. She quickly grows from an innocent child into mature woman and her sexuality awakened by Romeo plays a huge role in it. When they meet, the scene is displayed with innocence, yet they also explore their sexuality. Through this arises Juliet‟s awareness of her possible influence on men. Romeo‟s desire for her is strong, filled with expectations. Juliet quickly understands what advantages her relationship with Romeo can mean for her future and she acts accordingly. Taylor‟s Katherine wears black to illustrate her temper; Cukor‟s Juliet has white wedding-like dress to illustrate her innocence. That is to correspond with demands of the society of that time and their expectations about what women should be like – obedient and innocent. With the possibilities of the Technicolor even Castellani introduces Juliet in the white dress, but this time she is in the room full of red robes. Red being the colour of passion strongly underlines that passion has not touched Juliet yet. Beside this effect on the viewer, thanks to her appearance Juliet is also impossible to stay unnoticed in the crowd. Castellani literally serves her on the floor for everyone to watch. The scene is filled with strong sexual tension. Yet, he made the meeting scene of the two lovers very pure in a sense that no kissing had actually happened. Castellani‟s Juliet is well aware of her female advantage over Romeo. Judged by the impression they make, the dancing scenes of Cukor and Castellani are nothing

36

alike. Whenever we can see Juliet looking at Romeo directly, she makes the impression as if she wants to be kissed. Even their conversation seems to be used as foreplay to their kiss. Showing less in Castellani‟s production works as a big advantage; it only highlights the tension between the characters. As during their dance, Juliet is and at the same time is not within reach. Just a year after his successful taming presentation Zeffirelli came on screen with a new conception of Romeo and Juliet. His sacrifice in the form of line omissions and modern treatment of the roles brought him positive criticism from the audience. Elsie Walker appreciates the means he used to achieve his aim: “...like Zeffirelli and his version of Romeo and Juliet, Luhrmann caters for a wide audience (both those familiar and unfamiliar with Shakespeare), mediating boldly between the original theatrical medium and film.” For the first time, we can see Juliet dressed in a different colour than white. Perhaps Juliet at that time does not need to appear as innocent even on the outside. The red dress underlines her being judged as an object of male desire. Zeffirelli uses the scene for displaying her recognition of women inside her. This assumption can be supported by Scott‟s comment on the visual aspects included in the scene: The colourful visual excess of Zeffirelli‟s ball scene creates a space for Juliet‟s sexual awakening and her self-progression from adolescence to womanhood: lavish displays of fruit and wine; warmly lit archways; rich fabrics, and Juliet‟s red dress as central focus, all connote a feminine softness that alludes to the “ripeness” of Juliet's impending sexuality. (Scott) While in Castellani‟s version Juliet seems to be fully aware of her sexuality from the very beginning, Zeffirelli shows how her sexuality awakens through her meeting with desirable male. Olivia Hussey takes time to discover her newly found feelings. Romeo‟s kiss is the final ingredient for her awakened womanhood. When kissed, she nearly touches her lips and her eyes are wide open. At that moment the viewer can actually believe that this was her first kiss and at the same time the last moment of her childhood. During the following kiss we can see Juliet eager to explore her discovered sexuality. According to critics, Claire Danes is supposed to be one of the most innocent Juliets ever presented. Luhrmann has her dressed in an angelic costume going back towards the lucidly innocent image of Cukor‟s Juliet. Romeo wears armour in representation of the supposedly female desire to be rescued and perhaps also in representation of all his male

37

qualities. 5 Although Juliet at first really appears to be rather shy, she has no problem to flirt with Romeo. When they kiss in the elevator and they do so even more times than they are supposed to, Luhrmann is aware of the fact that the audience accepts the sexuality in movies as something common. 6

3.1.2. Display of Sexuality in the Maturing Process

Sexual attraction plays an important role in Shakespearean productions and in the development of his characters. Therefore, many different representations of it can be found in the movies. The protagonists in Shakespeare cannot deny strong sexual attraction to each other. The attraction is a key factor playing an important role in psychological development. When they meet not knowing each other, they are only left with what they can see on the outside. Main characters, in the age where most of the marriages are prearranged, are not left much time for wooing. With this in mind, we can see that physical attractiveness and sexuality play a huge role in their relationship. As result, the most commercially successful Shakespearean movie adaptations are filled with sexual tension, but that is represented diversely. In this area, the changes in the society‟s attitude towards various relationships are probably the most evident. For instance Cukor‟s movie has a big trouble with persuading the viewers about sexual tension between the main characters. But although there is no sexual tension present, he chooses different way for attracting the audience. He uses voyeurism to show how appealing Juliet is for Romeo. When Romeo first sees her, she smiles, dancing in provocative middle position among the guests. We can dare to say that Romeo stares at Juliet even uncomfortably and there is no wonder she watches him as well, forgetting she is dancing with Paris. The production code may have forbidden directness, but voyeurism in this movie is striking. The Marriage Consummation Scene is the one where the sexual tension should show some significant results in the maturing process and the power grasping contest between the characters.

5 Kristin Kobes Du Mez Truly feminine women do not long for their own adventure; instead they long to be swept up in a man‟s adventure. Women desire not to fight, but to be fought for. God made women to be dependent and vulnerable, to be pursued and to be rescued by a masculine hero.

6 An interesting fact is that the newest discussed version of The Taming of the Shrew by Richards also contains important events of this character happening in the elevator.

38

4.1.2. The Marriage Consummation Scene 4.1.3.1. Katherine

It is Zeffirelli‟s version of The Taming of the Shrew where we can watch Katherine undressing in front of Petruchio, for the first time. In the previous filmed versions of the play there is no direct suggestion of expected sexual intercourse between the characters. The audience can only guess what is supposed to happen there. The passion in the film is present only during the fights between the characters. Elizabeth Taylor breaks this approach when she shyly starts taking her clothes off and Petruchio tries to help her while gently kissing her on the shoulder. His act awakes her fear from their closeness and its possible consequences it might result in. She is afraid that he might recognise her agreement in the bedroom as her final defeat. Only after she realizes his weaknesses she lets herself to appear tamed. Richards surpassed the other producers in the display of the bedroom violence in the scene. He goes directly into the sex issue. Katherine denies Petruchio the pleasure of fulfilling their marriage, so he tries to rape her. The following moment she visibly yearns for him; she is punished by being left alone unsatisfied. In the end of the twentieth century there is a discussion about women dreaming to be raped and this scene fulfils this phantasy.7 In the previous versions of the Taming of the Shrew were some suggestions of men‟s need to be understood and taken care of by women. Richardson takes those suggestions in clear display. Petruchio tries to manipulate Katherine into obedience and uses her desire for him as a tool for gaining her love. Though the result seems to be satisfying, it is actually his childish act in desperate need for love and understanding what makes Katherine to forgive Petruchio his behaviour. Showing her new founded maternal side, she is able to understand him and love him without conditioned demands. Later on she accepts his childishness and when she realizes that she has to do the first step to call a truce and give some satisfaction to his ego, she proves him she cares about him. At that moment we can see her maturity process to be concluded, whereas in the other versions of the movie we need to wait until the final scene.

7 Michael Castleman reports that, “From 1973 through 2008, nine surveys of women‟s rape fantasies have been published. They show that about four in 10 women admit having them (31 to 57 percent) with a median frequency of about once a month. Actual prevalence of rape fantasies is probably higher because women may not feel comfortable admitting them.”

39

4.1.3.2. Juliet

Where Cukor is passionless, Castellani seems to change a grasp of sexual openness. After their night together, Julie and Romeo are not fully dressed anymore; they are in the sleepwear, finally daring to go on the grounds of the bed. That is the place where Cukor did not dare to let Romeo lie with his whole body. The physical closeness and nakedness of their bodies seems to reflect Romeo‟s state of mind and his reaction to upcoming dawn. The bigger part of his body lies next to her and the less closed he is, the more he is willing to grant her request and stay with her under threat of death. Both in the Taming of the Shrew and in Romeo and Juliet, Zeffirelli goes farther than any director before him. For the first time, we can see the couple sharing the bed the way the couples are expected to. Furthermore, there is the first nudity appearing in the discussed productions. It makes the consummation act more apparent and it helps the viewers to grasp the meaning of their following dialogue better. As the whole movie, Baz Luhrmann makes this scene the most playful one from all previously mentioned Shakespearean adaptations. Claire Danes is by critics often referred to as the most passive Juliet. Nevertheless, it is her who starts to take off her husband‟s clothes when he comes through her window, all wet from rainy night. They kiss and pet each other and it would feel unnatural to do otherwise in the sexual openness of the nineties. No matter how passive Danes may appear due to her lack of Shakespearean lines, her actions speak instead. Another important detail is that this is the first adaptation when we can see them wake in the morning with Juliet lying on the top of her Romeo. It expresses her freedom from the sexual taboos in the commercial movies of the first half of the 20th century. It also represents her engagement in keeping Romeo close to her and not letting him leave until his actions are approved by her. Certainly the most interesting adaptation covering the sexual orientation of the characters is Kaufman‟s adaptation of what modern characters of Romeo and Juliet could be like. He gets closer to the modern female audience. Modern women do not need to wait for sexual experience until there are married. As well as Richards8, he shows a wide range of sexual orientations. His Juliet is having lesbian affair with her cook. Though she is bounded by the rules of her house, her lesbian relationship shows us that she is not broken.

8 Richard‟s presents his Petruchio as transsexual. As the Cambridge dictionary states, transsexual is “a person, especially a man, who feels that they should have been the opposite sex, and therefore behaves and dresses like a member of that sex.” When we think about it further, Petruchio‟s manipulative taming technique may in some places remind us the qualities that are generally assigned to women.

40

Furthermore, she is ready to act independently and take any advantage she can get from the situation. While in Luhrmann‟s movie Juliet wakes up on the top of Tromeo, Kaufman goes even further and we see them having sex in the sitting position with Juliet on the top. She does not ask Tromeo to marry her, but she is dominant in sex. Juliet only lets him be on the top of her later, when she has gained her small victory. 9

After their love-making act, they lie next to each other in kind of an equal position. Tromeo then takes initiative and asks Juliet to marry him. It means their dominance is more balanced. An example of this is also shown in the scene where they are together engaging in murdering Juliet‟s father. Nevertheless, it is always Juliet who does the first and the last step.

4.1.4. The Final Scene

The final appearance of the female characters at the end of the movies shows us completed process of their maturity. In these scenes, some of the most significant differences in translating Shakespeare can be found. The scene main focus is to let the female characters make their own choices. Their inner choices are made the basis of the outer circumstances. It could be said that while Juliet dies in the direct sense of the word, Katherine dies metaphorically and only Kate remains.

4.1.4.1. Katherine

Katherine‟s speech also changed a lot in how she was viewed by the public, in this case mostly also represented by her family. She showed her maturity letting the shrew die and Kate to be known. It is disputable whether or not her final speech is a sign of maturity, submissiveness or victory. Zachary Lamm comments on the situation that arose from the final scene in The Taming of the Shrew, Kate‟s final speech, in which she “ventriloquizes the voice of Shakespeare‟s culture and lets it her body” (Hodgdon gtd. in Lamm 541), is by far the most troubling scene in both the play and the movie, as well as the most frequently discussed by critics … Kate takes her place on stage to deliver a speech so full of gender performance that one might rightly think of it as a verbal rendering of the homily on marriage in verse ... While Zeffirelli makes sure that Kate says what

9 The whole scene is very voyeuristic since while they are making love Juliet‟s lesbian lover watches her. In this way Kaufman shows voyeuristically shows voyeurism making the whole scene more provoking.

41

she says in the play … the important question arises, could Kate mean what she says? (Zachary Lamm) This question concerned all the producers when they were choosing the mode of the scene. Taylor somehow manages to skip most of the scenes showing the taming process. In the final scene we can see Kate developing a speech about women‟s obligation to love and be obediet to their husbands. There is not much choice left to his audience. Katherine‟s final wink more than clearly suggests what hidden meaning her words have. With the speech she satisfies her husband in order to make her marriage successful. It is by some critics recognised as a last act in completing her maturing process. What at first sight might be considered as a Katherine being tamed, could be also translated as Katherine recognising her options and wisely choosing the one that brings no actual harm to anyone. Zeffirelli made a scene that included not just the family but the public. Not only Elizabeth Taylor won Petruchio‟s bet by obeying his order, but she even brought disobedient wives with her giving them a lecture on their duty to their husbands. According to Zachary Lamm, Zeffirelli‟s purpose is not unambiguous. Though Katherine tells her speech seriously and without any winking present, there is definitely some contradiction to be found in her words and actions. Lamm reffers to opinions of different scholars: Reading Zeffirelli‟s autobiography encourages Hapgood and Henderson to view Taylor‟s iteration of Kate‟s performance without seeing irony, while having either written before the 1986 publication of the autobiography (Jorgens publishes in 1977) or apparently not looking at it (Brode does not cite the book) causes others to have a very different impression simply from watching the film without directorial input ...The smile lets us know that patriarchal hierarchy has not been restored; it has, in fact, been undermined ... as the crowd rushes in to offer their congratulations to the “victorious” couple, Kate runs away … This final action indicates that Kate meant to say what she said but did not necessarily believe her meaning; it was all a show. In the film, Kate's insight into gender performativity and Petruchio‟s desire for proper gender performance allow her to "pass" in two ways: as a woman, and as an acceptable member of patriarchal society; she was never really either. (Lamm) As well as Taylor‟s, Richardson‟s Katherine delivers the speech to her family. But this time her speech is for them, especially her sister, too much to take. Kate speaks seriously, yet in the current age the speech seems to be ironic. The truth is that even though she is aware of the fact that her words might not be applied to every relationship between men and women,

42

she actually believes it will work for hers. With regards to Kate‟s words to her sister, it is clear that any other type of relationship would not be satisfying for her. According to Kate, she would do anything for her husband, because she feels he would do the same for her. In Richardson‟s adaptation, the speech may be understood as the speech about the trust and equality in the relationship. Unlike the Katherines before her, she also has got some expectation put on her husband. When she tells him about her pregnancy she is not planning on giving up her career. He is not concerned with it and he does not mind to take on conventionally female role and take care of children. Petruchio proves Kate that he is worthy of her love and the trust she has in him.

4.1.4.2. Juliet

Juliet‟s choice of death carries many meanings and reasons. The most obvious one is that she died for her love. But by doing so, she also died for the society and its judgement. Although public approach changed after the recognition of the impact their attitude brought, there is a remaining question if she either could or could not predict it. The consequence of Romeos death was not just that she lost her husband. With him she also lost the freedom she hoped to achieve through their relationship. If she were to outlive him, she would probably be forced into marriage again. That can be predicted from her conversation with a nanny. The marriage arranged by her parents for the social and financial purposes was not promising her anything. Her choices would be taken away with the death of her beloved one. She did not love only Romeo; she also loved liberation he represented. As it was already mentioned, Romeo was not a typical representative of the male population at that time. In any case, many motifs can be found in her suicide.

3.2. Taming and Power

With the maturity also comes the ability to be more focused on leading our actions towards the specific intentions. Through their mature and reasonable behaviour both Katherine and Juliet are able to control their lives more An interesting fact about the plays is that while Juliet tames Romeo, Petruchio tames Katherine. Katherine and Juliet are included in the taming process on the opposite sides. “Just as Petruchio proclaims Katherine to be „my Kate‟, Juliet declares her beloved to be „my Romeo‟, as if she possesses or owns him” (Brown). Yet, in the end two different taming processes have the same bases.

43

Some people might argue that in The Taming of the Shrew it is Katherine who tames her husband. They might be right as well. When Katherine recognises that she is being tamed, she does the same to her husband. Whereas young Juliet by instinct knows how to use her sexuality to tame a man, Katherine has to learn it. The taming process in which she was going through the awakened feminine side of herself brought with it a wiser perspective of the mature women. She realizes that her husband needs some satisfying result of his taming effort, for both of them to be happy. She gives him what he wants and at the same time she mocks him with it. Katherine shows him, that she is not the only one who acted immaturely in their relationship. Lamm does agree with the fact that Katherine did not let herself to be tamed: When Petruchio demands “Kiss me, Kate”10 on a public street, Taylor‟s wideeyed, opened-mouthed shock exudes embarrassment: … When Petruchio threatens her … she quickly responds… and plants a peck on the tip of his nose. While one might view this as a playful exchange between two flirty lovers, I would argue that it is an act of transgression, one that prefigures the film's later action, in which Kate will again seem to grant Petruchio his wishes to a degree, only to ultimately deny or undermine them (Lamm). The difference between male and female might not be as big as it seemed at the beginning. There are different approaches concerning the same thing such as gaining power in the relationship. The Taming of the Shrew teaches that it is the man through whom woman gains her power. Only at the moment they are able to think one of another they can give the power to each other and reach some kind of equality in the relationship. Through the closer psychological development in relationship and through the understanding to each other, they are also able to control their actions and emotions more effectively. They can lead them towards the certain purposes with better prediction abilities of the consequences that may follow. Hodgon explains gender problematic in display of the play: Pleasure, Shrew teaches, is not owned by “woman” but it is arrived at second-hand; it depends on relative differentiations, not on absolute difference. Whether male or female, Shrew´s spectators remain conscious not just of powers unavoidable role in sex, gender and representation but also of how oscillating gender identities may, on occasion, unfix that power and jostle its loose. (Hodgon 160)

10 This quotation even inspired the name of musical Kiss me, Kate (1948) and movie inspired by the musical Kiss me, Kate (1953).

44

Since Shakespearean audience was not ready to accept men and women as equal, The Taming of the Shrew shows us the outer power of men and inner power of women within the same play. At the beginning of the play, Katherine was trying to act independently. Impossibility of fulfilling this task on an outer level (visibly to the public), led her into the extreme form of desperate behaviour. She tried to act as a strong independent woman to hide her fragility. Having a closer look at Juliet‟s behaviour in the movie we can see how she applies the taming method on Romeo. Many people think that Claire Danes starring Juliet in this play is not the Juliet that would be able to tame the man, but percieve her as a victim of love. What is perhaps most unexpected, given the cultural climate of Luhrmann‟s film and “the pressure put on cinema by an increasingly educated, increasingly sexually confident, and increasingly salaried female audience” of the nineties (Daileader 187), is that, in terms of desire and agency, Claire Danes‟s Juliet resides at the opposite end of the spectrum to Olivia Hussey‟s . . . Juliet is not only still: she is also frequently silent. Her character suffers most from Luhrmann‟s textual omissions, and her verbal expressions of passion and agency are often weakened by the apparent denial of her screen presence. At moments where Shakespeare‟s Juliet is able to take control of the language, Danes is ignored by Luhrmann‟s camera as it repeatedly searches for Romeo (Scott) Juliet might be also just aware of how innocent she seems to Romeo and uses it to her advantage. But, when she speaks about Romeo mentioning that name is not “any other part belonging to a man” (Romeo + Juliet) the way she speaks suggests that she thinks of male part of the body. In another scene she is captured on her bed obviously looking forward to their marriage consummation. Claire Danes gives her necklace with the cross to Romeo and later she sends him her ring with a love declaration. It is another example of her being in charge of the situation that is supposed to be performed by men. Usually men give presents to women in order to keep their hearts and as a reminder of the connection between them. This reversed situation seems to be another male characteristics in subverting seemingly purely female character of Clare Danes as a Juliet. When Romeo receives the ring, he does not hesitate and comes to her proving that her taming strategy was successful. When concerning the power, Brown concentrates on the last words of the tragic love story. Those might play a key role in better grasp of our understanding to Juliet‟s character.

45

The last words of the play reinforce the inequitable relationship between Juliet and Romeo: “For never was a story of more woe / Than this of Juliet and her Romeo.” There has been a transference of power in the play, of Juliet attempting to “turn the world upside down” and assume the role of dominance in the relationship and in her life. In a listing of a husband and wife, the husband's name usually occurs first, symbolically representative of his role as patriarch. In this case, Juliet has usurped this role, and Romeo becomes “her[s],” an extension of her and a possession, similar to the situation of a woman in marriage. (Brown)

Juliet was trying to have power over Romeo just because she felt it was her only chance not to fully live under the male control. That is the cause of her trying to gain dominance.

3.2.1. The Marriage Consummation Scene 3.2.1.1. Katherine

The marriage consummation scene shows Katherine in between her wild independent behaviour displaying her desire for freedom, and learning to keep her power within the relationship with Petruchio. Katherine and Petruchio try to be dominant in their relationship. Juliet uses her sexual attractiveness to get what she wants from Romeo, even though she shares his desire for sexual intimacy. Katherine unaware of her natural gender power tried to gain her freedom with the use of the same means as men would. Petruchio uses Juliet‟s strategy to tame Katherine and as Juliet, suppresses his sexual desires. He denies Katherine the consummation of their marriage. This fact, together with other factors playing the role in his strategy, shows Katherine possibilities of desire and its power. Later on, after Katherine appears to be tamed, she non-violently takes her power back without visibly disturbing Petruchio‟s power. Brown notices that, Katherine … tries to assert her selfhood and integrity and objects to being treated like a “puppet” whose actions, while ostensibly her own, are controlled by another. But Shakespeare has Petruchio exercise his control over his falcon footnote nonetheless. Petruchio behaves similar as Juliet: he argues with Katherine that the sun is the moon. Petruchio declares, “I say it is the moon that shines so bright,” to which Katherine responds, “I know it is the sun that shines so bright”. In this way, their relationship reaches some kind of balance without being clearly displayed to the public.

46

Taylor‟s interpretation of The Taming of the Shrew clearly states Katherine‟s vulnerability towards men, concerning the sexual part of the relationship. In an expectation of marriage consummation, she feels rejected by Petruchio‟s behaviour; he does not appear to have an interest in it. Taylor shows no nudity, but in Zeffirelli‟s version we can watch Katherine and Petruchio beginning to undress in front of each other, making the sexual tension more visible. Richards in his version from the year 2005 goes directly to sexual issue. When Katherine denies the pleasure to her husband, he decides to rape her. At the point when she wants to be raped, he leaves her unsatisfied. Unlike them, Zeffirelli‟s Petruchio kisses Katherine on the shoulder forgetting all about the taming strategies. It is his gentle touch that alarms Katherine. It makes her act defensively as she protects herself from giving him power over her. This act slows down the taming process. It takes her a long time to find a way for keeping some of her power and yet have a satisfying relationship. To make things simpler, Taylor has Katherine to discover Petruchio‟s taming intentions by overhearing his speech. At that moment, her anger goes away. She realizes that she, in fact, has some kind of power over him, because he feels the need to tame her. She decides to use this information against him to restore her power that she felt she began to lose after their wedding. This part of the film is turned into a contest between them two. Whatever mean thing he does, she pretends that she does not mind and tries to follow his example by doing the same thing more effectively. Petruchio appears frustrated by her actions, but at last manages to get her angry. As a consequence, she hits his head with a stool. Realizing what she has done she throws her whip into the flames and starts taking care of him. Her independency is personalized in a whip. When she finally throws it into flames; she admits that she has been tamed on, at least on an outer level. At that time she feels powerful for she has the power to either hurt or comfort her man. Richard‟s Katherine realizes Petruchio is in heart just a little child and she loves him for it. She decides to call a truce and kisses him passionately. Zeffirelli‟s Petruchio was the only one who did not use his sexuality to tame the shrew. Therefore he has to try harder in order to get some results. Among other things, he decides to use Katherine‟s desire to see her father in the taming process. Now, her father has no longer any power over her and she wishes to see him.

47

3.2.1.2. Juliet

From the beginning Juliet tries to use Romeo gain her power over her life. When they consume their marriage she needs to make sure that her effort was not wasted by the sexual development of their relationship. She decides to prove her power over him by trying to make him stay with her though it is dangerous for him. Romeo‟s reaction to her effort reveals the balance of the powers in their relationship. Brown comments on this. The morning after Romeo and Juliet consume their marriage Juliet tries to “exert control over Romeo by convincing him that „day is night‟”(Brown). Romeo and Juliet movies of the first half of the twentieth century have their marriage consummation scene without any passion included. Even though Juliet is supposed to have a sexual power over Romeo we cannot see it clearly from the scenes. Perhaps, the directors were trying not to shock the audience too much and follow the censorship. When Juliet tells to Cukor‟s Romeo that it is the nightingale who sings, he reacts very rationally and opens up the curtains to prove her wrong. Only after she kisses him she gets to hear that it is not day yet. Like this is presented her use of the sexuality to get what she wants and at the same time we can see Romeo to be more masculine after their sexual act. Although, producers could not afford to admit Juliet‟s power over Romeo very openly at that time, when men were ones who held the power strings in the real life, Castellani chooses to put Romeo in subordinate position when he kneels down and hugs Juliet. When he opens the curtains to see if it is the day, he seems to be sad that it is not the nightingale who sings. He listens to Juliet arguments, willingly admitting she is right. The heroes of the second half of the century do not seem to take the situation with day and night very seriously. In Zeffirelli‟s version it is really clear it is the day from the light in the scene. But when he says it is day, he kisses her like in an apology; he has to tell her the truth that is not the same as hers. From this Juliet we can hear the straight order to him that she “must” hear from him every day. This is the first time we can see her using the power so forwardly. Women of that time had more power than ever before and in order to get closer to the audience, Zeffirelli was not afraid to reflect it on his Juliet. Baz Luhrmann goes even further and when she tells him it is the night he does not protest very much and instead he laughs and says that, “death can take me if Juliet wills so.” This sentence clearly shows Juliet‟s power over Romeo although she does not try as hard as Juliets before her. Kaufman in his modern adaptation changes Juliet‟s character into courageous woman that found power in Romeo‟s love for her. She is confident enough to suggest him he should

48

leave and when he is tying her back she just smiles. These chains are metaphor for their wedding and she feels happy, because these are chains she chooses voluntarily.

3.2.2. The Final Scene

The final scene of the movie is crucial for the display of the maturity of female characters as well as for the recognition of power they gained through the process. It is important to be aware of the fact that power both heroines tried to reach is not the power over other people‟s lives. They wanted to gain some sort of freedom that could be in the contemporary society only gained through man. It means that their freedom could only depend on their ability to gain some control over their husbands. Though both women loved their husbands they used them as a tool for asserting themselves in the society full of prejudices.

3.2.2.1. Katherine

As already mentioned, there are many various interpretations of the final scene in The Taming of the Shrew. Perhaps this is the scene through which movies get their dimension and through what are so interesting for both the audience and critics. The speech full of opinions about women inferiority can destroy Katherine‟s effort to control her life if not lead it independently. Zachary Lamm is fully aware of feministic tendencies in translating the plot and comments on Zeffirelli‟s version of the comedy that in fact deals with serious matter: Though Kate is never explicitly “queered” within the film, she nevertheless escapes the policing of heteronormative culture that would see her married and settled whatever the cost to personal freedom. It is this ultimate escape that, I believe, enables the reading of the rest of the film as notably feminist; though Kate performs a version of idealized femininity for a while, her ultimate escape reemphasizes the disingenuousness of her earlier shows … Kate ultimately outwits and evades her husband, leaving him to his chauvinistic buffoonery, no longer to have a well-tamed woman by his side. While the film does not offer alternatives, it acknowledges the shortcomings of the familiar sex-gender system, the unhappiness that it might bring to women, and, at the very least, imagines the potential and desirability of opportunities for escape. (Lamm) At the beginning of the movie, Katherine might by some feminist critics be understood to be feministic character. Though later on she breaks this concept she never becomes mild

49

inferior creature as her final speech suggest. Lamm refers to the contradiction between Katherine‟s words and following and previous actions. It is possible, that Katherine meant what she said, but her previous and following actions in presented form does not agree this conclusion. Lamm‟s point of view is rather pessimistic. He explains that the patriarchal sex- gender system is not very enabling for women to reach happiness. It is possible that through this play Shakespeare tried to express his opinion on the only solution that women had in finding some sort of escape from their undesirable situation. His pessimistic point of view is also shared by David Daniell. He points out that not many gender critics go beyond the final scene trying to analyse Katherine and Petruchio‟s possible future marriage. “…modern solutions making it a statement of contemporary doctrine, or of male fantasy, or of almost unbelievably sustained irony, do not any of them seem to suggest that there is much for Katherine and Petruchio to look forward to in marriage.” Despite of that, Harold Bloom predicts that Kate and Petruchio “rather clearly are going to be the happiest married couple in Shakespeare (short of the Macbeths)” (Bloom 28 qt. in Lamm). Perhaps Petruchio knew his wife did not truly mean what she said. Though it was his aim to make her an exemplary wife at least for the outside world, he might have been glad her nature stayed intact. When he chose her to be his wife, not only did he decide to marry her for her fortune but also because he felt she might be the “one”. Taming might bring a satisfaction to his ego, but broken Kate was not the women he chose to be with. Nevertheless, both the plays and the movies tend to let the audience feel positive about relationships. Richardson modern adaptation goes even further and we can see the actual happy-end.

3.2.2.2. Juliet

As the term tragedy suggests, Romeo and Juliet is not going to end with “they lived happily ever after”. With Romeo‟s death Juliet loses her love and possible freedom at the same time. The only thing she has left is her choice. She decides not to behave according to slave to public expectations and does not wont to be enforced to anything. Her suicide is viewed as either her loss or win. Her death frees her from public prejudices and expectations. Yet, the question whether death can be really viewed as a win remains. Carolyn E. Brown sees in Juliet‟s death the only possible solution to keep the power she got from her relationship with Romeo. That means to be strong enough to leave the world where she is not allowed to have a free will.

50

With her loss of control over Romeo and with his death, Juliet's story is, indeed, “woe[ful],” and her only option seems to be death. When Juliet earlier contemplated death, she said “If all else fail, myself have power to die” (III.v.242). Since her only chance to control her life passes with the death of “her Romeo,” Juliet‟s suicide may be her last act of defiance, her last act of controlling her own destiny by exercising the power to take her own life. Shakespeare suggests that for Juliet - and perhaps for all intelligent, strong-willed women - a physical death is preferable to a spiritual death in a world that denies women power over their own lives. (Brown) Juliet‟s final scene ends with her suicide. At first, the producers were not very innovative and let her stab herself with Romeo‟s dagger. An interesting thing is that in most of the adaptations, Juliet seems to be sad but not devastated by Romeo‟s death. It is the most apparent in Castellani‟s version of the tragedy. She does not even touch Romeo when she dies and it makes an impression she is driven to the suicide more by rationality then by the death of her love. Zeffirelli‟s Juliet seems to be most grieving Juliet until Luhrmann‟s production. Luhrmann manages to make the whole scene more tragic then anyone before him. When Romeo dies, he can see her awakening. At the same time, she can do nothing but watch him die. For some critiques, Juliet‟s suicidal weapon is crucial. Luhrmann decides not to go for the dagger and Juliet uses gun to end her life. Lindsey Scott views the dagger as a “phallic weapon” and examines the possible interpretation of the suicidal tool: With a fatal gunshot, the sexual agency of Juliet's suicide is also, in a sense, erased, as the phallic nature of the object does not have any material bearing in the final act of suicide. In contrast to Zeffirelli's exclusion of Romeo's use of his sword in the tomb, Luhrmann returns the phallic power of Juliet's suicide weapon to Romeo. (Scott) The possible interpretation of the Juliet‟s gun is that the final power goes to Romeo, as there is no clear phallic significance in it. She also does not quote Shakespeare‟s lines written for her final grasp of the power that may be viewed as her triumphant in reaching for the freedom. Scott sees the use of the gun as a failure for both Juliet and scene presentation. “It is an act that is presented to the spectator as defeat rather than triumph, helplessness rather than control.”

51

The fact is that guns are present in the whole Luhrmann‟s movie and his interpretation does not leave so much space for the use of old-fashioned weapons. As well as the dagger the gun could also symbolize the phallic element. Kaufmann‟s end goes far beyond all those images and he we can once more clearly see how fearless his Juliet is. The fatal threat to their happy ending lies in opening even controversial topic than a suicide. In this case it is information that Romeo and Juliet are, in fact, siblings. Juliet‟s line “fuck it” (Tromeo and Juliet) pretty much covers her opinion about public opinions. Non-commercial Juliet has without any doubt gained what she longed for and the following shots are the shots of their happy future.

52

4. Conclusion

The Taming of the Shrew is a comedy about woman that needs to be tamed. What are the reasons for this plot to be so appreciated by the different type of audiences through the centuries? It surely is not just the relationship between men and women. Barbara Hodgon (in Shaughnessy) considers The Taming of the Shrew “to be playful, but pornographic.” She also provides us with an example leading her towards this conclusion “Kate physically torturing her sister together with Petruchio‟s humiliating actions towards his servants combines lesbian and sadistic fantasies” (Hodgon 157). Also Romeo and Juliet hide different and often secret desires some people might have. In this case, it is covered with a love story. It covers violence and also voyeurism. Sexual and violent displays in the movies work as projections of the some peoples‟ phantasies. These projections are usually not broadly accepted as normal and acceptable behaviour. In the movies we can see those projections displayed for everyone to see, yet hidden behind the comedy or tragedy label. For Katherine to psychically mature it was necessary to realize how she behaved to the others, while she was trying to find the way leading her towards gaining the freedom. Her sexual attraction towards Petruchio seems to be the starting point for the whole process of that recognition. Energy she putted into abusing her younger sister and terrorizing her surrounding later turned into her marriage. Juliet, on the other hand, followed the will of her parents willingly until she realized she could do otherwise. Her sexual awaking brought up the recognition of the female power she held. The difference between Juliet and Katherine is that Juliet met her sexual attractive mate earlier and her mental and physical maturity went hand in hand. Katherine had to wait years after she was physically matured. Both women managed to balance the power in the relationship, but kept holding its longer end. When Petruchio tried to tame Katherine, all he did was done in order to empower her. Could it mean that she was the one actually holding the power all along? That would mean that Katherine as well as Juliet had the power from the very beginning and she just needed to learn how to recognise it and use for gaining positive outcomes. Men were those holding the power in the society, but at the same time, they wanted and perhaps needed women in their life. Women were tightly bound by society rules and they were not supposed to engage in an intimate relationship without being married. That meant that men wanting to achieve satisfying relationship needed to get married. Both sexes were mutually dependent on each other and therefore held a certain amount of power over each

53

other. Even though the society gave men undeniable advantages, Juliet and Katherine managed to use all their wit to balance the power inside the relationship. Moreover, thought they were obligated to follow the society on the outside, they did everything they could to free themselves in their intimate relationships. The end was both tragic and liberating for both heroines. Juliet lost her power over her life with Romeo‟s death and she used her will to escape from the conventions by committing suicide. Her death was her last free act, yet it is questionable to what extent it may be considered to be victory. Katherine eventually found some sort of inner peace in her relationship and she managed to govern it discretely. Though she perhaps reached some sort of happiness, she will never be able to speak freely in public and perhaps not even to Petruchio. For her it means having her wit challenged all the way through the marriage in order to keep the power in their relationship balanced.

54

Works Cited

Primary Sources

Romeo and Juliet. Dir. George Cukor. Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer, 1936. Film. Romeo and Juliet. Dir. Renato Castellani. DD Home Entertainment, 1954. Film. Romeo and Juliet. Dir. Franco Zeffirelli. Paramount Pictures, 1968. Film. Romeo + Juliet Dir. Baz Luhrmann. 20th Century Fox, 1996. Film. The Taming of the Shrew. Dir. Sam Taylor. Hollywood Classics, 1929. Film. The Taming of the Shrew. Dir. Franco Zeffirelli. F.A.I., 1967. Film. ShakespeaRe-Told: The Taming of the Shrew. Dir. David Richards. BBC Drama Group, 2005. Film. Tromeo and Juliet. Dir. James Gunn; Lloyd Kaufman. Troma Entertainment, 1996. Film.

Secondary Sources

Adler, Renata. “Movies.” Rev. of Romeo and Juliet, Dir. Franco Zeffirelli. The New York Times 9 Oct. 1968. Movie Review - Romeo and Juliet. Web. 29 Feb. 2012. Ball, Robert Hamilton. Shakespeare on Silent Film: A Strange Eventful History. London: George Allen and Unwin LTD. 1968. Print. Blaisdell, F. George. “Romeo and Juliet.” The Moving Picture World. 4 November 1916. Print. Bloom, Harold. Shakespeare: The Invention of the Human. New York: Riverhead, 1998. Print. Bluestone, George. Novels into Film. London: University of California Press, 1966. Print Brown, Carolyn E. “Juliet‟s taming of Romeo.” The Free Library 22 March 1996. Web. 05 May 2011. Castleman, Michael. “Women‟s Rape Fantasies: How Common? What Do They Mean?” Psychology Today. 14 January 2010. Web. 12 Jan. 2012. Cook, David A..A History of Narrative Film. New York: W. W. Norton a Company, 1996. Print. Daileader, Celia. “Nude Shakespeare in Film and Nineties Popular Feminism.” Shakespeare and Sexuality. Ed. Stanley Wells and Catherine M. S. Alexander. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2001. 183-200. Print.

55

Daniell, David. “The Good Marriage of Katherine and Petruchio.” Shakespeare Survey Volume 37: Shakespeare‟s Earlier Comedies. Ed. Stanley Wells. Cambridge University Press, 1984. Cambridge Collections Online. Cambridge University Press. Web. 21 January 2012. Davidson, Bill. “Kinsey: On the Difference Between Men and Women.” Collier’s Weekly 4 September (1953) : 19-21. Web. 12 March 2012. Davies, Anthony, and Stanley Wells. Shakespeare and the Moving Image: The Plays on Film and Television. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1994. Googlebooks. Web. 20 Jan. 2012. ---. “Shakespeare and the Media of Film, Radio and Television: A Retrospect.” Ed. Stanley Wells. Shakespeare Survey: An Annual Survey of Shakespearian Study and Production. Vol. 39. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1987. 1-8. Google. Web. 29 Feb. 2012. De Lauretis, Teresa. Technologies of Gender: Essays of Theory, Film and Fiction. The United States of America: Indiana University Press, 1987. Print. Ebert, Roger. “Romeo and Juliet.” Rev. of Romeo and Juliet, dir. Franco Zeffirelli. Robertebert.com. Sun-Times News Group, 15 Oct. 1968. Web. 29 Feb. 2012. Freeh, Matthew. “All I Ever Know About Life I Learn from Spielberg (Or How I Learned to Stop Worrying about My Family and See Troma as „Art‟): How Troma Destruct the Idea of the Nuclear Family.” Troma. 4 March 2007. Web. 22 March 2012. Georgopoulou, Xenia. “Parting „Totally sucks‟: Filming Romeo and Juliet for Generation X.” Web. 6 May 2010. Web. 12 December 2011. Haeberle, Erwin J., ed. “The Kinsey Institute - About Sexology - History [Related Resources].” The Birth of Sexology: A Brief History in Documents. 1983. 4-12. The Kinsey Institute: For Reaserch in Sex, Gender, and Reproduction. Indiana University Bloomington. Web. 12 Jan. 2012. Hall, Mordaunt. “The Screen; The Jungle Girl.” Rev. of The Taming of the Shrew. The New York Times 30 Nov. 1929. Web. 6 December. 2011. Hamilton, Lucy. “Baz. Vs. the Bardolaters, or Why William Shakespeare‟s Romeo + Juliet Deserves Another Look.” Literature/Film Quaterly (2000): 118-25. Literature Online. Web. 6 Dec. 2011. Holden, Stephen. “Where Art Thou, Decorum?” Rev. of Tromeo and Juliet. Dir. Lloyd Kaufman. The New York Times 28 Feb. 1998. Web. 6 December 2011. Hodgon, Barbara. “Katherina Bound; or, Play(K)ating the Strictures of Everyday Life.” Shakespeare on Film. Ed. Shaughnessy, Robert. The United States of America: St. Martin‟s Press, INC., 1998. 156-172. Print.

56

Howard, Tony. “Shakespeare‟s Cinematic Off-hoots.” The Cambridge Companion to Shakespeare on Film. Ed. Russell Jackson. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000. 295-313. Print. Humm, Maggie. Feminism and Film. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1997. Print. Ivy, Diana K., and Backlund Phil. Exploring Gender Speak: Personal Effectiveness in Gender Communication. USA: McGraw-Hill, 2000. Print. Jackson Russell. The Cambridge Companion to Shakespeare on Film. United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press, 2000. Print. Jorgensen, Paul A. “Castellani‟s Romeo and Juliet Intention and Response.” Focus on Shakespearean Films. Ed. Charles W. Eckert. Englewood Cliffs, N. J.: Prentice Hall, 1972. 108-115. Print. Jorgens, Jack.J. “Realising Shakespeare on Film.” Shakespeare on Film. Ed. Shaughnessy, Robert. The United States of America: St. Martin‟s Press, INC., 1998. 18-42. Print. Keyishian, Harry. “Looking at Shakespeare‟s Women on Film.” The Cambridge Companion to Shakespeare on Film. Ed. Russell Jackson. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000.72-81. Print. Lamm, Zachary. “The cinematic shrews of teen comedy: gendering Shakespeare in twentieth- century film.” The Free Library 1 June 2009. Web. 5 May 2011. Matthews, Jean V. The Rise of the New Woman: The Women’s Movement in America, 1875- 1930. Chicago (US): Ivan R Dee, 2003. Print. Mez, Kristin Kobes Du. “Beyond Knights and Damsels: Evangelicals and Gender.” God's Word To Women. Web. 12 June 2012. Mulvey, Laura. “Visual Pleasure and Narrative Cinema (1975) - Laura Mulvey.” Screen (1975): 6-18. Jahsonic. Web. 20 May 2011. Nugent, Frank S. “Metro‟s Film of „Romeo and Juliet‟ Opens at the Astor – „My American Wife‟ at the Music Hall.” Rev. of Romeo and Juliet. Dir. George Cukor. The New York Times 21 Aug. 1936. Web. 6 December 2011. Pfeifer, Nicole. “Zeffirelli‟s Taming of the Shrew Is Really Much ado about Nothing.” Cinema Retro: Celebrating Films of the 1960s & 1970s. 25 Feb. 2008. Web. 29 Feb. 2012. Radel, Nicholas F. “The ethiop‟s ear: race, sexuality, and Baz Luhrmann‟s William Shakespeare's Romeo Juliet” The Free Library 1 January 2009. Web. 30 October 2011 Rosen, Marjorie. Popcorn Venus: Women, Movies and the American Dream. U.S.A: Avon Books, 1974. Print.

57

Rutter, Carol Chillington. “Looking at Shakespeare‟s Women on Film.” The Cambridge Companion to Shakespeare on Film. Ed. Russell Jackson. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000.241-260. Print. Thomas, Bob. Thalberg; Life and Legend. New York: Doubleday 1969. Print. Saccio, Peter. “Shrewd and Kindly Farce” Shakespeare Survey Volume 37: Shakespeare‟s Earlier Comedies. Ed. Stanley Wells. Cambridge University Press, 1984. Cambridge Collections Online. Cambridge University Press. Web. 21 January 2012. Samlioglu, Zehra. “Romeo and Juliet a film review: the legendary lovers in 21st century.” The Free Library 22 December 2007. Web. 30 October 2011. Scott, Lindsey. “‟Closed in a dead man‟s tomb‟: Juliet, space, and the body in Franco Zeffirelli‟s and Baz Luhrmann's films of Romeo and Juliet.” The Free Library 1 April 2008. Web. 1 May 2011. Tatspaugh, Patricia. “The Tragedies of Love on Film.” Shakespeare on Film. Ed. Russell Jackson. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2000. 135-59. Print. Ulrich, Allan. “Wherefore Art Thou, You Crazy Cutup?: The Redoubtable Troma Guys Tackle Romeo and Juliet.” Rev. of Tromeo and Juliet. San Francisco Chronicle 18 April 1997. Web. 12 March 2012. Walker, Elsie. “Pop Goes the Shakespeare: Baz Luhrmann‟s William Shakespeare‟s Romeo + Juliet.” Literature/Film Quaterly (2000): 132-39. Literature Online. Web. 6 Dec. 2011. Walker, Roy. “In Fair Verona.” Focus on Shakespearean Films. Ed. Charles W. Eckert. Englewood Cliffs, N. J.: Prentice Hall, 1972. 115-121. Print. Willems, Michéle. “Video and its Paradoxes.” The Cambridge Companion to Shakespeare on Film. Ed. Russell Jackson. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000.35-46. Print.

58