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General Councils of the Fifteenth Century Joseph Vietri a Thesis In The Call for a Representative Church: General Councils of the Fifteenth Century Joseph Vietri A Thesis in The Department of Theological Studies Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements For the Degree of Master of Arts (Theological Studies) at Concordia University Montreal, Quebec, Canada November 2013 © Joseph Vietri, 2013 ABSTRACT The Call for a Representative Church: General Councils of the Fifteenth Century Joseph Vietri The Catholic Church in the medieval period should not be seen as a monolith. While many maintain the views of a centralized papal monarchy, the reality was much different. In the fifteen century, while reacting to the Great Schism (1378-1417), a group of Christians looked to the early Church and canon law for precedents which allowed general councils to depose ruling pontiffs. These individuals, known as Conciliarists, sought to reform Western ecclesiology by limiting the role of the pope. They did not seek to overthrow papal authority; instead they attempted to curb papal control over Christendom. The pope was to govern within the limitations of doctrine defined by councils. General councils were to hold the role akin to a parliament. Such hopes were lost, however, when the monarchs who originally supported the councils, began to fear chaos the nascent democratic movement produced. Papal authority did win out, through the signing of Concordats, but the call for reform to the Church hierarchy shows a glimmer of hope in a period generally perceived by many as dark. iii Acknowledgements I would like to thank Dr. Jean-Michel Roessli for his mentoring throughout my MA program. His support and encouragement helped greatly in the completion of my degree. The comments of Dr. Philippe Genequand were truly appreciated during the writing of my proposal and development of my thoughts on this topic. I would like to also acknowledge Dr. Lucian Turcescu and Dr. Jason Zuidema for their input and guidance in the completion of my thesis. My thanks also go to the Department of Theological Studies at Concordia University which has presented me with many opportunities and will always have my gratitude. Finally, I would like to acknowledge my peers, most notably Lynn Barwell, for her friendship and sound advice during the past two years. iv To my parents and sister Thanks for all the support v Table of Contents Introduction ..........................................................................................................................1 Methodology ....................................................................................................................3 Divisions of Thesis ...........................................................................................................4 Chapter 1: The Rise of Papal Authority (to 1300) ...............................................................7 Biblical Foundations of Papal Supremacy .......................................................................7 The Early Church ...........................................................................................................12 Gregory the Great (590-604) ..........................................................................................13 Merovingian to Carolingian Kingship ............................................................................14 Urban II (1088-1099) and the Crusades .........................................................................16 Innocent III (1198-1216) ................................................................................................17 Chapter 2: The Avignon Papacy, the Great Schism ..........................................................21 Pope Boniface VIII, King Philip IV of France and the Outrage of Anagni ...................21 The Avignon Papacy (1309-1378) .................................................................................24 The Great Schism (1378-1417) ......................................................................................36 Chapter 3: The Sources of Conciliar Theory .....................................................................40 The Rise of Conciliarism ................................................................................................41 The Pope and the College of Cardinals ..........................................................................45 Thirteenth Century Canonists and the Church as a Corporation ....................................46 Dante Alighieri and Marsilius of Padua .........................................................................49 Chapter 4: The Application of Conciliar Theory ...............................................................55 The Council of Pisa (1409) ............................................................................................55 The Council of Constance (1414-1418) .........................................................................59 Cardinal Zabarella and His Role at Constance ...............................................................64 The Council of Pavia-Siena (1423) ................................................................................68 The Council of Basel (1431-1449) .................................................................................71 The Council of Ferrara-Florence (1437) ........................................................................76 Nicholas of Cusa (1401-1464) .......................................................................................78 The Waning of Basel ......................................................................................................81 The Success of Basel ......................................................................................................83 Pope Nicholas V .............................................................................................................85 Chapter 5: Aeneas Piccolomini – Conciliarist to Pope ......................................................87 Aeneas’ Early Life (1405-1431) ....................................................................................88 The Council of Basel (1431-1440) .................................................................................89 Conciliarist to Neutrality (1440-1445) ...........................................................................90 Aeneas Elected Pius II (1458-1464) ...............................................................................95 Conclusion .......................................................................................................................101 Legacy of Haec Sancta ...............................................................................................101 Ecumenical Dialogue: Unification with the Orthodox Churches .................................105 Conclusion ....................................................................................................................106 Successes of Conciliarism ............................................................................................107 Failures of Conciliarism ...............................................................................................108 References ........................................................................................................................110 Primary Sources ...........................................................................................................110 Secondary Sources .......................................................................................................111 Introduction The objective of this thesis is to examine the peak of Conciliarism and its reception through the lens of Historical Theology. Conciliarism took root in Western Europe at the Council of Constance and was later reaffirmed at the Council of Basel. Constance was called in order to resolve the Great Schism. Although the council of Constance was held between 1414 and 1418, early signs of Conciliarist ideals were already present in Europe, as testified by works of canon law and Marsilius of Padua, a fourteenth century political theorist. Conciliarism most likely gained prominence due to two main factors. The first was the Avignon Papacy, seen by contemporaries as the captivity of the Bishop of Rome by the French King.1 The second factor was the Great Schism which produced, at its peak, three ruling and feuding popes.2 The presence of three popes during the same period caused great distress for the Church faithful and a general council was perceived as the only solution for the division the Church faced. An interesting feature of Conciliarism was its attempt to make the Church more universal. As catholic means universal, many, like Marsilius of Padua, believed that this universality rested in the people and the bishops as a whole. To call a Church under the rule of Rome universal was simply not possible.3 Furthermore, Conciliarism was fuelled by public perceptions of the pope and the papal court at the time. Many saw the papacy as being corrupt and lacking in morals. Two examples can be given of contemporaries 1 Eamon Duffy, Saints and Sinners: A History of the Popes, 3rd ed. (London: Yale University Press, 2006), 164-165. 2 Duffy, 168. 3 Paul E. Sigmund, “The Influence of Marsilius of Padua on XVth Century Conciliarism,” Journal of the History of Ideas 23, no. 3 (1962): 393. 1 reacting to this lack of papal morality. The first is Boccaccio,4 who in his Decameron critiques the papacy, and more generally the Catholic Church. The second critique comes from Dante Alighieri5
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