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Publisher's Note Publisher’s Note Salem Press is pleased to add Principles of Ecology as This reference work begins with a comprehensive the fourteenth title in the Principles of series that in- introduction to climatology, written by volume editor cludes Modern Agriculture, Physics, Astronomy, Computer Jennifer Heath. Science, Physical Science, Biology, Scientific Research, Sus- The book includes helpful appendixes as another tainability, Biotechnology, Programming & Coding, Clima- valuable resource, including the following: tology, and Robotics & Artificial Intelligence. This new • Timeline of American Environmentalism, resource introduces students and researchers to the tracing the field back to the limits and restric- fundamentals of ecology using easy-to-understand tions on cutting timber and hunting to the cur- language for a solid background and a deeper under- rent administration’s proposed cuts to environ- standing and appreciation of this important and mental programs evolving subject. All of the 110 entries included in • Key Figures in the areas of ecology and envi- the volume are arranged in an A to Z order, making it ronmentalism, offering biographical informa- easy to find the topic of interest. tion and a brief description of their contribu- Entries related to basic principles and concepts in- tions clude the following: • U.S. federal laws concerning the environment • Fields of Study related to the topic; • Directory of U.S. National Parks • Principal Terms and definitions; • Major world national parks and protected areas • A Summary that provides brief, concrete sum- • Environmental organizations mary of the topic and how the entry is orga- • Bibliography nized; • Subject Index • Text that gives an explanation of the back- Salem Press and Grey House Publishing extend ground and significance of the topic to modern their appreciation to all involved in the development agriculture by describing developments such as and production of this work. The entries have been Bacterial resistance; Brownfields; Carrying ca- written by experts in the field. Their names and affili- pacity; Deep ecology; Geoengineering, and Su- ations follow the Editor’s Introduction. perfund legislations; Principles of Ecology, as well as all Salem Press refer- • Illustrations and tables that clarify difficult con- ence books, is available in print and as an e-book. cepts via models, diagrams, and charts of such Please visit www.salempress.com for more informa- key topics as the Glacial melting, Greenhouse tion. gas emissions; Groundwater pollutions, and hazardous wastes; and • Further Reading lists that relate to the entry. vii Contributor List Richard Adler Frank N. Egerton Robert W. Kingsolver Emily Alward Jess W. Everett Samuel V. A. Kisseadoo Robin Attfield C. R. de Freitas Bill Kte’pi Michael P. Auerbach Brian J. Gareau Andrew Lambert Elizabeth A. Barthelmes James S. Godde Timothy Lane Melissa A. Barton Lissy Goralnik M. Lee Raymond D. Benge, Jr. D. R. Gossett Thomas T. Lewis Margaret F. Boorstein Daniel G. Graetzer Josué Njock Libii Richard G. Botzler Phillip A. Greenberg Donald W. Lovejoy Pat Brereton Wendy Halpin Hallows R. C. Lutz Jack Carter Wendy C. Hamblet Marianne M. Madsen Nader N. Chokr Clayton D. Harris Sergei A. Markov Thomas Clarkin Gerald K. Harrison Steven B. McBride Kathryn A. Cochran Jennifer Heath Roman Meinhold Daniel J. Connell Thomas E. Hemmerly Alice Myers Mark Coyne Joseph W. Hinton Nancy Farm Männikkö Greg Cronin Robert M. Hordon Peter Neushul Anna M. Cruse Solomon A. Isiorho Zaitao Pan Robert L. Cullers Bernard Jacobson George R. Plitnik Roy Darville Bruce E. Johansen Robert Powell Joseph Dewey Karen N. Kähler Donald F. Reaser Gordon Neal Diem Jamie Michael Kass Claudia Reitinger Stephen B. Dobrow Julia Kendrick Raymond U. Roberts xiii Contributor List Principles of Ecology James L. Robinson Toby Stewart William R. Teska Charles W. Rogers Dion Stewart John M. Theilmann Neil E. Salisbury Toby Stewart, Oluseyi A. Vanderpuye Robert M. Sanford Alexander R. Stine Megan E. Watson Martha A. Sherwood Mary W. Stoertz Shawncey Webb Carlos Nunes Silva Hubert B. Stroud Robin L. Wulffson Roger Smith Rena Christina Tabata Courtney A. Smith Julia Tanner xiv A Accounting for nature FIELDS OF STUDY Agriculture; Biology; Culture; Ecology; Economics; Environment; Environmentalism; Forestry; Wilder- ness; Nuclear Technology SUMMARY In comparisons of the costs and benefits of various actions related to the environment, the coordination of ecological and economic expertise can result in a balanced problem-solving approach. PRINCIPAL TERMS • biological wealth: the natural species of all living things responsible for the structure and mainte- nance of all ecosystems and that sustains human life and economic activity • contingent valuation: survey method used to es- timate the value of non-market resources • cost benefit: economic analysis assigning a nu- merical value to the cost-effectiveness of an operation, procedure, or program • debt for nature swap: concept to deal with de- Photo of Dr. Paul R. Ehrlich, entomologist. By Ilka veloping-nation indebtedness and its conse- Hartmann (eBay). quent deleterious effect on the environment, so that ameliorating debt could simultaneously promote conservation other negative spinoffs to find a better measure • globalization: the process of interaction and in- of true national income tegration among people, companies, and gov- • polluter pay principle: commonly accepted ernments worldwide. practice that those who produce pollution • Gross Domestic Product (GDP): the broadest should bear the costs of managing it to prevent quantitative measure of a nation’s total eco- damage to human health or the environment nomic activity, representing the monetary value of all goods and services produced within a na- tion’s geographic borders over a specified Environmental decisions frequently set ecologists period and economists on a collision course: Does society’s • net economic welfare: proposed national in- demand for energy justify the environmental impacts come measure that attempts to put a value on of mining and burning coal? Is the increased eco- the costs of pollution, crime, congestion, and nomic efficiency of large corporate farms worth the 1 Accounting for nature Principles of Ecology loss of a rural lifestyle? How much should the public if cut; if left alive, however, the oxygen it produces, sacrifice to protect endangered birds or plants? carbon dioxide it absorbs, wildlife it feeds and shel- These decisions are difficult because they force com- ters, soil it builds, evaporative cooling it yields, and parisons of “apples and oranges,” pitting one set of flood protection it provides are worth far more on an values against another. Quantitative models (or ac- annual basis. counting systems) that compare the costs and bene- fits of a course of action are frequently used to guide National Wealth business and government decisions, but these have In 1972, economists William Nordhaus and James generally omitted environmental values. Accounting Tobin refined the concept of national wealth by de- for nature in these models cannot produce com- veloping an index of net economic welfare (NEW) to pletely objective solutions but can help coordinate replace the more familiar measurements of eco- ecological and economic expertise in a more bal- nomic health such as gross domestic product (GDP). anced problem-solving approach. Their criticism of the GDP was that it counts any ex- Ecologist Edward O. Wilson, among those who penditure as a positive contribution to national popularized the term “biodiversity,” has identified wealth, whether or not the spending improves peo- three kinds of national wealth: economic, cultural, ple’s lives. A toxic waste dump, for example, contrib- and biological. He has observed that nations fre- utes to the GDP when the pollutants are produced, quently create the illusion of a growing economy by again when millions of dollars are spent to clean it, consuming their biological or cultural “capital” to and yet again if medical costs rise because of pollu- create short-term economic prosperity. For example, tion-related illness. Nordhaus and Tobin’s NEW burning rain forests and replacing them with row index subtracts pollution abatement and other envi- crops may temporarily increase farm production in a ronmental costs from the value of goods and services developing nation, but tropical soils are often nu- that actually improve living standards. trient-poor and easily degraded by exposure to the Economist E. F. Schumacher subsequently argued sun and rain. If the biological basis of production is that environmental costs should be “internalized,” or ignored, the population simply transfers wealth from charged to the industries that create them. This idea, one category to another, ensuring ecological disaster also called the “polluter pays principle,” not only for its children in the process. generates funds for environmental cleanup but also Developed nations have also neglected biological encourages businesses to make environmentally wealth in past cost-benefit analyses. Nations have jus- sound decisions. The price of recycled paper, for ex- tified the damming of wild rivers to make recre- ample, would be more competitive if the public costs ational lakes, for example, by counting the benefits of deforestation and pollution from pulp mills were of lumbering trees from the watershed but not the added to the price of virgin wood fiber. Proposals for losses of aquatic and forest habitats. Recreational ac- internalizing environmental
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