Girl and her sister, the Philippines, 2017

In 2006 Plan International UK began a research study following a group of 142 girls and their families from nine countries across three continents (Benin, Brazil, Cambodia, Dominican Republic, El Salvador, the Philippines, Togo, Uganda and Vietnam). The aim of the study was to track a cohort of girls from birth to 18 in order to better understand the reality of their daily lives. This report is the culmination of the first 10 years of this primary research. The study documents the detailed experiences of the girls, their families and the environments they live in. It helps to put a human face on the available statistics, theories and academic discussions, including the voices of the girls themselves – describing their hopes and dreams and their daily realities. It provides genuine insight into the way family and community shape girls’ expectations of what they can do, and be, right from the very beginning.

Plan International UK strives to advance children’s rights and equality for girls all over the world. As an independent development and humanitarian charity, we work alongside children, young people, supporters and partners to tackle the root causes of the challenges facing girls and all vulnerable children.

Plan International UK registered office: 5-7 Cranwood Street, London, EC1V 9LH For more information about this study visit: https://plan-uk.org/real-choices-real-lives Or contact: [email protected] Real Choices, Real Lives: Registered Charity No. 276035 Girls’ Burden of Unpaid Care Cover image: Girl, Vietnam, 2017

48 real choices, real lives: eleven years on 1 Acknowledgements

Research Team: Research Manager and Author: Lili Harris – Plan International UK Research Assistant: Rosie Chapman – Plan International UK Acknowledgements ...... 2 Part 2: What girls do, what boys do Independent Consultant: Sangita Lim – Research Assistant and how work at home impacts Part 1: Eleven Years On ...... 4 on life outside it ...... 24 Input gratefully received from: Acceptors, Consenters and Resistors: ...... , Cambodia ...... 29 Rebekah Ashmore, Policy and Advocacy Officer, Plan International UK Tanya Barron, CEO, Plan International UK Tracking the changes from 10 to 18 ...... 6 What do you learn at school? ...... 30 Simon Bishop, Deputy CEO and Director of Policy and Programmes, Plan International UK Education ...... 8 The Acceptors ...... 35 Jasmine Gideon, Senior Lecturer in Development Studies, Birkbeck, University of London Gabriella Pinto, Gender Advisor, Plan International UK Health ...... 12 The Consenters ...... 36 Kerry Smith, Head of Girls Rights and Youth, Plan International UK Case Study: Nimisha, Uganda ...... 12 The Resistors ...... 38 Kathleen Spencer Chapman, Head of Policy, Advocacy and Research, Plan International UK Sarah West, Head of Communications, Plan International UK In Memory Of ...... 14 Conclusion ...... 39 Amelia Whitworth, Policy and Advocacy Manager, Plan International UK Family Economics ...... 16 Recommendations ...... 41 Case Study: Rebeca, El Salvador ...... 18 Editorial and Design: Research Design and Methodoloty . . . . 43 Editor: Sharon Goulds – Independent Consultant The Informal Economy ...... 20 Theoretical Framing ...... 44 Design and Production: New Internationalist Publications Ltd ‘Real Choices, Real Lives’ Cohort Study Map: Where the girls live . . . . .46

2 real choices, real lives: eleven years on 3 Part 1 : Eleven Years On

Introduction the perspectives of girls themselves. It In 2006, Plan International UK began demonstrates what these very varied a research study following a group of countries have in common with regard 142 girls from nine countries1 across to the experiences of girls as they three continents. The ‘Real Choices, approach adolescence and where and Real Lives’ cohort study was initially sometimes why there are differences. set up to bring to life the analysis and By documenting and analysing the statistics being presented in Plan girls’ thoughts and experiences at International UK’s ‘Because I am a Girl: different stages of their lives the ‘Real The State of the World’s Girls’ report Choices, Real Lives’ study is able to series, first published in 2007. The aim foster a clearer understanding of the of the cohort study is to follow the lives root causes of gender inequality and of the girls involved from birth until the of the social norms, attitudes and age of 18. The information from the cultural practices, which are embedded cohort study provides real insight into at home and in community life. This the daily experiences of girls and their analysis is important: first of all to families worldwide. inform how we support girls in our ‘Real Choices, Real Lives’ is a work and the findings from this study relatively small cohort study but it will also enable Plan International to enables Plan International UK to develop wider recommendations for examine, in depth and in detail, a range targeting gender inequality at a policy of issues affecting girls’ lives. Every and programme level. year, researchers visit the girls and their families to document the changing world 2017: Eleven Years Old in which the girls are growing up and The girls in the ‘Real Choices, Real to see how their lives are developing. A Lives’ study are now 11 years old. Plan Eleven years of gathering in-depth and their fears. Girl, longitudinal study of this sort is rare and, International UK has tracked their lives qualitative data has enabled us to In addition to the annual update Dominican over the years, researchers have been from birth – through their first steps, identify the influences shaping the girls’ findings this year, the analysis will Republic, able to track and monitor the different first words, first experiences of school, lives as they enter their second year of concentrate on how, and to what 2017 life stages of the girls taking part and the their developing independence as they early adolescence. We can see how extent, established gender roles and factors that influence them. The in-depth progressed into middle childhood – family dynamics, economic status and social customs are increasing the qualitative research undertaken provides and now, for the last two years, their the physical and cultural environment time girls spend on household chores rich and nuanced material about the girls transition into early adolescence, the girls live and interact with offers and care work, and what impact this themselves, and also illuminates the their experiences of puberty and opportunity or to impedes progress. is having on their opportunities to attitudes and behaviour of the families their developing understanding of the This longitudinal approach allows us to learn and develop. As their domestic and communities they are part of. world around them and their role in analyse the most powerful individual responsibilities increase (which they The purpose of the study is to it. Alongside the girls, we’ve talked and collective factors exerting control have done, in most cases, each build a greater understanding of the to the families, mostly parents, some over the lives, and gender roles, of year of the study), time poverty will challenges and opportunities that grandparents and other relatives, about the girls in our study. As the new undoubtedly affect their academic girls face as they grow up in various their attitudes towards parenting and data comes in, we reflect on the girls’ success and their capacity to find countries around the world. This gender roles at home, and how these experiences, looking at the economic decent work. Each of these factors unique dataset is gathering information have changed – or stayed the same – situation of the family, their health and perpetuate entrenched gender roles on the social, economic, cultural and as we have followed the girls through how they are getting on at school. and keep women and girls from institutional variables that influence the different stages of infancy and The girls talk about their hopes and realising their potential. Since their girls’ lives and opportunities through childhood. aspirations, and express their opinions early childhoods, the girls in this study

4 real choices, real lives: eleven years on 5 have been prescribed a ‘curriculum of gather their information from female Girls from the chores’ to follow in order for them to family members. It’s clear that if there Dominican be considered “good” girls, daughters, is a continued lack of information, Republic sisters and future wives. or continued misinformation, about Our data clearly indicates that the safe sex practices, then the girls in burden of domestic work is perpetuating the study could be at risk of early gender inequality and limiting girls’ pregnancy and sexually transmitted opportunities at school and in terms of diseases. their economic and social empowerment. In 2017, we conducted a As the girls get older, Plan International retrospective analysis of the girls’ UK will be particularly interested in experiences of violence.2 The analysis continuing to track the impact of this found there has been a marked and curriculum of chores and its potential worrying trend in the number of them to exacerbate risk of vulnerability to reporting varying levels of abuse as violence later in life. they move into early adolescence As the girls move into early from middle-childhood. Our analysis adolescence and puberty, we have indicates that this is linked to two also found, in this year, that there factors: as they enter puberty their are varying levels of knowledge identity becomes increasingly and understanding of sexual and sexualised – they are no longer seen reproductive health. The data shows as little girls – and their increased that most of the girls who do report mobility. They travel further to school, knowledge of sexual and reproductive for example, and this potentially puts health, whether it is correct or not, them at increased risk of violence.

Acceptors, Consenters and Resistors: them and the extent to which they agree with or into the categories of acceptor, consenter education for girls, especially in enabling girls Tracking the changes from 10 to 18 challenge this stereotyping varies. or resistor. They have changed over time to cope if a (later) marriage did not go well.3 Our analysis over the last two years has and will continue to do so. We are currently Going forward, the ‘Real Choices, Real Lives’ “Girls are weak… If [they are strong], no one identified three groups among the girls and looking at a multitude of factors which may study will be able to do in-depth longitudinal will love us when we grow up. We should also their families, largely categorised as follows: influence an individual girl’s ability to resist and analysis of some of the resistors and their • The ‘acceptors’ – those who do not appear at why they support resistance in some girls families, like Ayomide quoted below, to tease beautify our body. At Pchum Ben (a religious to question gender norms; and not others. The factors emerging range out the factors that encourage resilience festival), we should make up our face… It is • The ‘consenters’ – those who demonstrate from the availability of positive role models, and the ability to challenge the status quo. attitudes that question gender norms but do to a girl’s position in the family, to levels of Tracking these changes will, over the years, okay if boys are not beautiful, but they must not feel able or want to challenge them; poverty, as well as the prevailing attitudes in help our understanding of the multiple factors be rich.” • The ‘resistors’ – those who challenge gender the community and the individual’s family. For – individual, political and cultural – which norms both in their attitudes and, in varying example, a recent study in Uganda has shown support or impede girls’ ability to resist gender Roumany, Cambodia degrees, their behaviours. the importance of parental ideas, particularly stereotyping in all aspects of their lives. All of the girls in the study are aware of the mothers’ views, on shaping and challenging social rules and structures that surround “Girls are not given equal chances as the boys gender norms. In some communities, ideas “No, my parents don’t expect different things their home life, their relationships with family to go school… No, it’s not fair… Because the around girls’ early marriage are slowly from me and my sisters in relation to my members and their school activities. Questions beginning to shift. The researchers found that about household chores and play reveal girls are left at home working as the boys go some parents had more equitable views on brothers because they want the best for all of early differences surrounding the families’ to school.” girls’ education and if decisions needed to be us. I think that this is normal… My dream is to expectations of what girls and boys can and made on whether or not to take children out Miremba, Uganda should do. The girls in the study reflected this of school, they felt these should be based on become a minister. I have designed my office and from an early age. Not all of them are happy to Although these groupings are proving useful to academic performance rather than gender. I see myself sitting in it arranging my files.” conform to the roles generally imposed upon our analysis – the girls do not always fit neatly They also recognised the importance of Ayomide, Togo

6 real choices, real lives: eleven years on 7 Education as child marriage, early pregnancy of their classes at some point. As with previous years we have found and sexual violence – all potential Whatever the precise reason for poor that at age 11, the cohort girls and barriers to the cohort girls progressing attendance at school, poverty plays their families are largely committed academically. a central role: the inability to afford to their continuing education. Overall, school fees or school-related costs are parents want their children including “Well, I am scared she might get a key concern for the families in the their daughters to enjoy a better married too young, that at least I study. Beti from Uganda, like many education than their own. They see can prevent, because I want her to girls in the cohort sample, told our it as driving positive change in the learn, not to pay attention to too researchers that she is regularly sent girls’ lives. The girls themselves also many boys. She knows that once home from school because her fees have high hopes: they often report you get involved with a man, you have not been paid: to Plan Internatioal UK researchers tend to forget about school.” that they would like to complete “I went to school and was sent Sharina's mother, secondary school and go on to study back home for school fees… [It Dominican Republic at university. annoys me] to just sit home when every time I go to school, they Hopes, dreams and worries At 11 years old, the girls have a send me back home for school varied curriculum at school, covering fees.” “I would like to go as far as university reading, writing, mathematics and Beti, Uganda and gain a doctors diploma. I dream physical education. Most are now literate, to varying levels, and many There are other issues leading to about becoming a doctor because this report learning another language, poor attendance. Some families is what my mother had started to such as English, in addition to their have reported distance as a barrier. mother tongue. However, many of Transport may cost money, parents study before becoming pregnant; she the girls still have trouble reading may not be comfortable with had to abandon her studies. I would and writing and many, o f them their daughters walking to school and their parents, worry about not unsupervised and taking them has an like to make her proud of me.” understanding the school curriculum. impact on the parents’ time for work or household tasks: Thea, Benin Consequently, in some cases, academic progress is slow and leads However, despite the high educational to grade repetition. “This year, my family condition aspirations among families, parental is worse because we are worry about being unable to support “I don’t think there are any other impoverished, and local weather the girls financially to progress subjects she should be learning. is unfavourable for a good yield. academically has intensified. This What worries me is the new My family is in this condition mainly due to increasing poverty curriculum, I wish the government because my father is very old, and reliance on single and insecure would change it because we can’t my husband is disabled, and my income streams, such as rain-fed get on top of it.” children are too young to earn money. Davy is never absent from agricultural labour. Melanie's mother in Alice's mother, Benin the Philippines told our researchers: school, but sometimes she goes to I’m just worried about what she Girl, school late because she doesn’t might think. That’s what I’m worried Benin, 2017 have a bicycle and the school is far.” “I’m worried that she might be “Missing some classes . . .” about. I’m scared that her mind dreaming of finishing her studies This year, all the girls, except for Davy's mother, Cambodia might change into something else.” but we fail as parents to support one, are enrolled in primary school her... She’s so interested in her Melanie's mother, the Philippines but attendance is a different issue. Others have reported safety fears: studies that she wakes up at four in Fourteen girls reported having to both the danger from passing traffic on the morning, especially if there are Likewise, as the girls get older, repeat a grade and while only one the journey to school and the risk of school competitions… If she has parents have become increasingly reported attending irregularly, 51 gender-based violence is a key a dream that she wants to pursue, vocal about the risks of gender-based reported “missing some classes” and concern for the girls’ families. and we can’t afford to support it, violence: harmful practices such six girls reported having dropped out

8 real choices, real lives: eleven years on 9 teaching schedules, lack of teachers, daughters’ education. It is “a choice and inadequate teaching means that that no mother should be forced to they don’t see any benefit from their make, and no child should have to live daughters going to school. Juliana's with.”5 This domestic burden placed mother, for example, has been very upon older girls, at the expense of frustrated with the quality of available their education and future prospects, state-funded education. She wanted to will be discussed in greater detail later send Juliana to a private school, as in the report. she thinks the quality and consistency There are, of course, girls within is better, but this year has been very our sample who report a combination difficult financially – her husband of the reasons highlighted above, Girl and recently lost his job so she has been or all, as to why they are attending her sister, unable to do so. school irregularly, or dropping out Cambodia, altogether. 2017 “…The teachers miss work very often. [Juliana] hardly ever has classes – when there is no water, there is no class there. It’s a mess, and it seems that the school building is rented and as the mayor is not paying the rent, there’s a huge problem. And who suffers the most? The students… Juliana (and her sister) have always done so well at school… and after she came to study here, at this school, her performance fell a lot, do you see?” Juliana's mother, Brazil As they get older, the girls themselves Girl, Brazil, her bracelet and necklace… I was Irregularity of attendance is a complex report that this risk of violence is 2017 [also] afraid to travel on the lower issue, which is widely regarded as increasingly becoming a reality: road where my aunt was [nearly] hit affecting girls’ development and with a club. Only women were hit.” educational attainment globally. Some “Something bad could happen if Roumany, Cambodia of the girls in the study, particularly it’s too far. There is always a fight, older siblings, have reported on and sometimes I say: ‘Francisca, These incidents are bound to their own and others’ experiences of let’s go through this alley here’, influence both the families’ willingness missing school due to daily chores or because I do not want to go near a to let their girls out of their sight and care work at home, or helping with fight.” the girls’ own attitudes, which will have agricultural labour at harvest time. Tatiana, Brazil an impact on their journey to school. Additionally, adolescent girls are often the ones looking after siblings when As the girls become more aware of “When I ride my bicycle to school their mothers are ill or need to work: the violence around them, and their alone, I am afraid of being raped as as other research studies have noted, vulnerability to it, their fear of it is also the road to school is quiet.” this contribution to the family income increasing: comes at a cost.4 Sokhana, Cambodia In poorer households, mothers are ”Long ago (maybe two years), a Other families report that poor- often forced to choose between their nine-year-old girl was raped in the quality education is a crucial factor income-earning potential and their forest and she was beaten to give in inconsistent attendance: irregular

10 real choices, real lives: eleven years on 11 Health Case Study: Nimisha, Uganda Nimisha's father and male siblings carry This year, the majority of health out chores outside of the house such as problems reported were coughs and “(This year we’ve experienced) poverty that bricklaying, chopping wood or agricultural work. colds, sometimes developing into more When asked about the difference between men we never expected…” serious respiratory issues. However, and women’s chores, Nimisha says that women over the years, many of the girls in the Nimisha lives in a semi-rural area of Uganda, in cook, and that this is fair because “that is what study have been affected by serious one of the poorest districts with her parents and women are supposed to be doing”. Over the illnesses which are exacerbated by siblings. Over the years, the family have years the family have alluded to being worried poverty and a lack of information. struggled with illness and poverty and the about gender-based violence in the community, Malaria is often reported and this year, consequences have been serious. When and are particularly worried about Nimisha 14 girls were affected by it: eight in Nimisha’s elder step-brother died two years ago, being kidnapped as she was at the age of two: the family were in a desperate situation. They Uganda, five in Togo and one in Benin. could not afford the funeral costs and felt unable Q. Do you have any worries as Nimisha travels Nearly all of the girls in the Ugandan, to ask neighbours or those in their community for to school or while she is at school? Togolese and Benin cohorts have help. been affected by malaria at some point Nimisha and other family members suffer “Apart from these people who are planting during their lives. regularly with malaria. This year, the family sugar canes everywhere, we had no problems reported that Nimisha’s malaria was so bad that Girl and her father, Uganda she had been underperforming at school as a because the kidnappers one time had taken her Type of Illness Reported result. They also said that famine had forced them crops – as much as he would like to. His illness is when she was just two years [old]. This keeps to reduce the family’s food intake, leaving Nimisha Dengue one of the driving forces behind the family’s worrying us that it might happen again because Fever 1% and her siblings with only one meal a day. extreme poverty and lack of basic food. The resulting hunger and poor nutrition Despite Nimisha’s father’s fairly open approach everywhere they go to collect water is full Respiratory have also contributed to Nimisha’s poor academic Illness 10% to gender roles at school, and the home, it seems of canes.” progress this year. She is small for her age and that tasks and responsibilities within the Malaria 17% her family believe that malaria has stunted her household are still split according to traditional growth. Her father sees a clear link between patriarchal lines, with Nimisha’s mother and her Nimisha says the best part of her day is praying, Nimisha’s poor academic progress and the female siblings performing the majority of “because I can pray to God whatever I want him combined impact of poverty, hunger and malaria: household chores. Nimisha’s father says that he to do for me”. She can see that she has grown sometimes helps out with cooking the meals: up and no longer plays the same games such as Cold/Flu/Cough/ “What I know is that she would have “blowing sand, role playing mother and father, Other Fever 37% 23% performed better at school than she did if she “I sometimes go to cook. I don’t want to lose cooking food, making dolls and building houses” because, as she says, “I am grown up now”. had not caught malaria. It was very serious my wife since I am now old, where will I get Nimisha enjoys school; her favourite subject is and also the famine affected her. Hunger is another one?” mathematics, and she reports also enjoying cleaning the classroom, which she says is done sickness so these two things are mixed up.” Last year our researchers reported that he was more by boys than girls. Nimisha says that boys peeling yams in preparation for the family meal and girls play separately at school in completely Skin Despite this, Nimisha’s parents have high hopes with Nimisha’s help. different areas. She would like to stay in school Dental ailment for her education, they want her to progress and problem 5% Nimisha herself reports that she spends until the grade ‘senior six’ and she would like to 2% go further than they did: nearly 10 hours per day on household chores: become a nurse in the future. Nimisha says it is Parasites, including ironing and washing clothes, important for both girls and boys to have equal worms “Nimisha being at school, I hope that if she 2% sweeping, cooking, digging and washing opportunities to study: “So that we can help the Digestive completes school she can find herself a better life.” utensils. Nimisha says she carries out these nation.” problems/ chores with her mother and spends time Unfortunately, Nimisha’s story is a common vomiting 4% To add to this, Nimisha’s father, the family’s main practicing reading with her father. It is hard to one. Many girls in the ‘Real Choices, Real Lives’ breadwinner, has an ongoing illness which he has see, if she does this every day, where and how study, are struggling with a combination of not been able to seek treatment for. He says that Nimisha would have time to take part in school poverty and ill health which affects their the hospital is too far away and too expensive. His and homework activities or in playing and academic progress and may continue to have illness prevents him from being able to work – developing friendships. an impact for the rest of their lives. harvesting and selling the family’s

12 real choices, real lives: eleven years on 13 Sexual and Reproductive Health: the same as her, since she started There are notable differences falling in love with my father at age between the levels of knowledge the “I have heard of this at school. We 13… Menstruation… when you have girls have and how explicitly these were taught about puberty, and that already, you can’t eat fish, you things are discussed. In West Africa, can’t eat anything. And it’s better for example, many of the parents reproductive and sexual health, but I [that way], you see, because they have forbidden our researchers to ask don’t remember it. I think it is good tell me that that’s good.” questions focusing on these topics. Where questions were asked, many Q. And what have they (the teachers) for us to be knowledgeable.” of the girls in the West African cohort said about sex? Bopha, Cambodia reported that their knowledge was “Sex is with a male’s penis and a very limited: As the girls progress into early female’s vulva.” adolescence, our data has reflected Q. And how to avoid pregnancy? Have “I know about looking after my body further on their attitudes towards, and they talked about that? but I don’t know what puberty is.” knowledge of, menstruation, sexual Reine, Togo and reproductive health education as “To not have sex.” well as their thoughts on marriage and Stephany, El Salvador The bulk of any knowledge they do pregnancy: have tends to come largely from older As this quote shows, like many of female family members. Ayomide, “I sometimes wonder how girls the girls in the study, Stephany has some when asked about periods, told become pregnant, I’m trying to knowledge of menstruation and researchers: understand this as soon I’ll be pregnancy through her mother and also a big girl.” her teachers at school, but the advice “Yes, I know what to expect. My Annabelle, Benin is misinformed. Apart from promoting sisters have explained it to me.” In abstinence, she has been given no Uganda, Amelia had learnt from Some of the girls reported being afraid information about pregnancy prevention. “girls at school and my friends”. of menstruation and others admitted The mothers of the cohort girls in El knowing nothing about it. Most quoted “My mom was telling me that when Girl with her Salvador were all under 18 when they got These findings are supported by what they had learned at school, I start developing, I have to be a mother and pregnant and many of them were in their the wider academic literature which though some had also talked to their good girl and not fall in love at 10 or father, Benin, early teens – demonstrating the need for also reports a considerable lack of mothers or other female relatives. at 11 – the same as the other girls… 2017 more effective forms of contraception to knowledge among young girls – and be available and understood. boys – on issues around menstruation Dolores, from the Philippines, where and reproduction. For example, in In memory of . . the subject seems to be addressed Cambodia, several studies highlight the Sadly, seven of the girls from the original cohort have died. Lillian from Benin, Aisosa from more openly, had one of the clearest lack of knowledge and education Togo and Nicole from the Philippines died in accidents. Nicole drowned, a leading cause of views on why education about sex and among young people on issues around 7 death for children in the Philippines. She had no sanitation facilities at home and was swept reproduction is so important: puberty and sex education. Although away while using the river. girls sought advice from their mothers Nasiche from Uganda died from malaria; Omalara from Benin and Izegbe and Isoka from “It’s good [to be taught about or other female relatives on Togo died from undiagnosed illnesses. menstruation, sex and how to avoid menstruation, widespread persistent All these deaths come back to poverty – the ‘accidents’ to poor housing and lack of getting pregnant]… To avoid getting negative attitudes toward menstruation sanitation facilities and the ‘undiagnosed’ illnesses to malnutrition, the cost of medical care pregnant early… If you got pregnant were reinforced in schools through lack and the distance to a medical centre. Six of the deaths occurred before the girls reached their early, you’ll get sick… Well, she of information and appropriate fifth birthday. doesn’t know how to take care of menstrual hygiene management In recent years, the global under-five mortality rate has declined by more than half, her baby yet… It will destroy her measures, all of which contributed dropping from 12.7 million in 1990 to six million in 2015.However, despite this, in 2015 studies, if she got pregnant early… to girls’ fear and confusion around 8 16,000 under-fives were dying every day.6 The deaths of the girls in our study can only She might not return to school, menarche. Similarly in Uganda, emphasise further how important it is to maintain the focus on reducing under-five mortality. because she’ll always be mocked particularly in rural areas, girls remain [or laughed at].” uneducated about these issues.9

14 real choices, real lives: eleven years on 15 Family Economics terrace and said she couldn’t go Yet again this year, the majority of to school that afternoon as she the families in the cohort study have was too hungry so she had to stay reported that their economic situation at home.” has declined. This is particularly Tene's mother, Togo evident, as the graph below highlights, for the countries in the study sample Families’ responses to this economic where families are reliant on rain-fed decline and subsequent food agriculture, such as Uganda, Togo, shortages has varied. However, as Benin and Cambodia. Families report with previous years many parents of changing, or more extreme, weather adopt the ‘work harder, eat less’10 patterns, which reduce agricultural approach as their only option. production, affecting both their diet In addition, many of the families and their livelihood. They also talk of experiencing extreme economic food prices rising as a result of crop hardship have reported being late failure. paying school fees, or not paying them at all. Unlike many of the “This year we experienced a long Ugandan cohort, Justine's family have drought when it should have been a more diverse income stream than the rainy season which adversely most – her mother has set up a small affected our crops. As a result business selling cassava chips and we were often left hungry in the petrol, and her father is a farmer middle of the day even the children, who also works as a veterinary including Tene. I remember one time assistant. However, despite this, even when I came back from the market, they have reported an economic she was lying on the decline this year and like many of the

Reports of changes in families’ economic status (2017) Ugandan families in the study, have year, Jane's mother described how Girl, Togo, Ordered by % reporting a decline only been able to eat one meal per essential items such as posho (a 2017 day and have been late paying staple maize/flour based food) and 100% Remained Justine's school fees: soap had increased in price, making it 90% the same “We do not have enough food to eat difficult for the family to afford to buy 80% Improved them. As well as the increase 70% compared to other days due to less in the price of shop-bought items, Declined drought caused the families’ crops to 60% harvest caused by the long drought… fail, leaving them with not enough to 50% Sometimes we have difficulties in eat, difficulty in paying for school fees 40% and other essentials and at risk of paying Justine's school fees… We go in increasing their debt: 30% for loans but all in all, we need to 20% “Our crops have dried up because 10% work hard.” Justine's mother, Uganda of too much sunshine and there 0% is no food for our family… We Other Ugandan families like Jane's, depend on crops. This means lack of

Togo money. [Jane] gets little food, and Brazil Benin who are extremely impoverished, etnam

Uganda we have delayed payment of her Vi

Republic dependent only on small-scale Cambodia

Dominican (school) fees.” Philippines

El Salvador agricultural produce, also report how much they are struggling. This Jane's mother, Uganda

16 real choices, real lives: eleven years on 17 Case Study: Rebeca, El Salvador which she had surgery for last year, as well The family live in a small building: as bad asthma. She also appears to have Rebeca lives with her grandmother, her aunt, some learning difficulties as well as problems “There are just two rooms. The other one is her baby cousin and her aunt’s partner. interacting with other children socially: Rebeca’s step-grandfather does not appear to for the kitchen and so we wanted to make live in the household, though he is responsible “Well, she doesn’t talk and they make fun another little room so that my mom and for supporting the family financially. The family were evicted from their home last year, and had of her. They’re mean to her, they tease her, Vilma could move into it. But because of to move to a rural area. They live in a house and since she doesn’t talk, she can’t defend money we haven’t been able to do it.” owned by a family member who has agreed to Rebeca’s aunt, El Salvador let them stay there as they had nowhere else to herself... She tries to play more with other go. Rebeca’s father has migrated to the United girls, although both boys and girls bother her, Money has been so tight that the family have States and sends remittances to the family, but needed help with their daily living expenses: this seems to be irregular. Not much is she gets along more with girls.” mentioned of Rebeca’s mother, though from Rebeca’s aunt, El Salvador “Thank God we have family close by, and always time to time, the family report having to asking Rebeca’s educational progress has been slow God. There’s always someone who would help us.” her for financial support. and marred by illness and financial difficulty. Q. And in what way? “Sometimes when my mom doesn’t have the This year, she dropped out of school half-way through the academic year, because “she didn’t “They’d give us food for the day.” money or we don’t have enough to get her want to go anymore”. She was in a grade three Rebeca’s aunt, El Salvador years below her age-appropriate level and was medicine, we ask Rebeca’s mother and say to Rebeca seems to have few friends but, despite unable to progress to the next grade because the family’s increasing poverty, is fortunate in her, ‘Look, give us money for medicine for she could not read, and worryingly, her family the support she gets from her grandmother and report that she is actually getting worse your daughter, help her out’, because it’s her aunt. They appear keen for her to finish her academically. Rebeca herself told researchers studies although, according to her aunt, almost obligatory that we go because my that she liked her classes but didn’t like Rebeca herself does not like school: mom is prideful and she says that it’s been “sweeping” and when asked how boys and girls hard for her to raise the girl. She wants to see behave in school, she answered “badly”. Girl and her family, El Salvador “She said that they would hit her and take The family income is insecure. They do not her money away but my mom says that how she turns out, but when we have no other grow crops and have to buy all their food as well “That hadn’t ever happened to us . . .” as other household items. They are vulnerable to The loss of Rebeca's step-grandfather’s maybe that was an excuse not to go so she options we do have to go running to her.” rising prices and, this year, their financial situation Rebeca's aunt, El Salvador got worse as Rebeca's step-grandfather, who had income has been significant. Spending on sent her this year.” been the main breadwinner, was unable to work. essentials like food and health care has been Her grandmother is very protective of Rebeca There are several factors, including Rebeca's Rebeca’s grandmother works “in a house” doing reduced which has been distressing, especially and views her as her own daughter: academic difficulties, which might prevent her domestic work and supplements this by doing when the children go hungry: from continuing at school: the family’s poverty, laundry. Rebeca’s uncle (her aunt’s partner) “She adores her. She gives her everything. She “It’s affected us quite a bit because, as I said, her own reluctance to go and her lack of social works as a waiter seven days per week, earning skills all make life extremely hard. goes around with her, gives her little things $8 a day. The family also receive remittances my stepfather was left without a job and his from time to time from Rebeca’s father: and since she says she’s like her daughter, money doesn’t make ends meet. My mom lost Q. What could keep Rebeca from reaching that she’s getting bigger and she asks her for little “Well, regarding the economy, my stepfather her job and had to start up the bread sales. level in her studies? things, and I see that she does love her.” worked in the fisherman’s dock before but he Sometimes we’d just eat two eggs with beans, “The economic part, or that she no longer Rebeca’s aunt, El Salvador has been without work for almost a year... and since Rebeca likes things to be abundant, wants to, or that her friends reject her, more Rebeca’s family treat her with an extra degree and my mom has started working but money she’d cry and my mom would feel desperate. than anything when you don’t have friends at of care due to her general health and developmental problems. She has a number of isn’t coming in like it used to.” That hadn’t ever happened to us.” school you feel very alone.” health conditions, such as a bad heart Rebeca’s aunt, El Salvador Rebeca’s aunt, El Salvador Rebeca’s aunt, El Salvador

18 real choices, real lives: eleven years on 19 Girl with her their income and have a little protection – as mirrored in wider research – it mother and from the ups and downs of the wider happens at home, at school and in brother, the economy. The Philippines, Brazil and the community. Our analysis of the Philippines, the Dominican Republic are the only girls’ experiences looks at physical 2017 three countries where families reported (including sexual), emotional and government financial support schemes. structural violence (for example non- Though, in previous years, families in individual, institutionalised violence); both El Salvador and Vietnam have the perpetrators can be parents, family also received some sort of government members, teachers and peers, as well assistance. In the absence of state as strangers. help, many rely on informal networks of This is a worrying development, friends and family to help them out and and could be attributed to the girls increasing numbers of mothers migrate now moving into early adolescence for work leaving children in the care of and increasing both their mobility and grandparents. This year, a total of 16 their visibility. They may walk further of the cohort study girls are living with to school, they may run errands their grandparents or in some cases or see friends who are outside the great grandparents. immediate family circle. They are also approaching puberty and will be Violence increasingly viewed as sexual objects. As we have seen in the earlier section These changes in their lives are all The Informal Economy when I am sick and I must pay on education in this report, girls’ accompanied by rising risk. Many of the families in the cohort my debts to others and the bank. mobility is restricted by the violence study, across all countries, rely on When we are short of food, I borrow they have both heard about and They’re afraid . . work in the agricultural or informal money from the bank and sell my experienced This is yet another factor Many girls have grown up in homes sector. If they fall ill – for a short, or labour.” reinforcing their domestic role and and communities where violence is long period, or another family member Lina's mother, Cambodia keeping them more confined to home rife. In El Salvador and Brazil, gang falls ill and they have to care for them and their immediate neighbourhood violence occurs on a daily basis; – there will be no money coming The countries in the study, like the than their male peers. many of the girls’ mothers have in. As many of the families cannot Philippines, where families are more Global research with girls and reported partner violence and abusive afford preventative measures against likely to have a dual or diverse income women over the years also indicates relationships. It is worth noting that all diseases such as malaria and dengue stream tend to have reported a more that violence is one of the key barriers of the mothers in the El Salvadorian fever, this means the ‘breadwinners’ stable economic situation over the past to gender equality. Girls talk about their cohort were under the age of 18 at the of the house are often sick, creating year. Rubylyn's father in the Philippines experience of it at home, at school and birth of their first child; the youngest gaps in employment and income and works as a hired day labourer at in their wider communities.11,12 They do was only 13 – just two years older than adding pressure to children in the coconut plantations and other not feel safe. Both the fear and the fact the girls in our research study. household to fill the gaps, whether it agricultural sites, but he also works for of violence saps girls’ confidence, and is inside the home or outside in the a motorbike delivery service: limits their opportunities: it keeps them “Yes (It is dangerous for girls to walk fields. Children will often be required “in their place”. to school alone)… because there are to care for sick relatives, and due to “Yes, he’s only doing labour. But if This year, we looked specifically at gender roles, this often falls to the girls someone gives him the opportunity the experiences of violence among a lot of crazy men drinking booze in the family. to ride a motorcycle, since he the girls and their families taking on the streets. The girls are afraid… knows how to ride it, then he also part in Plan’s ‘Real Choices, Real “My family condition has changed. does it because he’s getting paid Lives’ cohort study sample and there They’re afraid to walk alone at This year, we were short of food in driving it.” has been an increase in the total night.” the middle of the year because we Rubylyn's mother, the Philippines number of girls reporting incidences Natália, 2017, Brazil were sickly, and my husband had to of violence: 109 11-year-old girls do the farming alone. Lina is fine. I The families in the cohort study who reported violence, compared to 74 In Uganda, despite being only 11 years try my best not to let my children go receive a form of social support from 10-year-olds. As girls grow so too old, the girls in the cohort fear being hungry… My spending increases the government are also able to boost does their experience of violence and raped while walking to school and

20 real choices, real lives: eleven years on 21 Girl and “Education must be equal for boys only play at home. My father refuses to her brother, and girls; our rights must be equal, let us go elsewhere. If we go, he beats Uganda, 2017 too, but this doesn’t happen. Often, us.” Essohana, who is from Togo, told we want to take a professional us also about her mother’s reaction to course, but the community doesn’t seeing her play with boys: “If mom offer it. Our mothers never let sees me having fun with the boys, she us take a course outside the beats me saying ‘Have you ever seen community because normally the girls playing with boys?’.” school is far from home and they We know that violence, actual or are afraid of sexual violence and anticipated, constrains girls’ mobility, harassment. The boys want to go opportunities and aspirations, and too, and there isn’t enough money we can see that the girls in the ‘Real for both, so the boys end up taking Choices, Real Lives’ study are already the course.” reporting ways in which they have Teenage girl, Brazil changed their behaviour and actions to reduce the threat of violence. The data demonstrates not only Many girls report altering their school that violence becomes increasingly journeys to avoid “bad men”, making common during the transition their daily commute twice as long and from middle childhood into early ultimately their schooling more difficult. adolescence. Violence, or the fear of Despite the best efforts of many of their it, is often used at home to teach a families, the girls in these communities curriculum of gender roles and chores will find that as they grow, violence, tell of other girls in their communities looking for a boyfriend because no that shape girls towards their expected and the fear of it, may shape their lives. which this has happened to. Likewise, one wants to go around with a big future roles as wives and mothers. It may determine where they can go in the Asian cohort countries, girls fear belly at a very young age.” Many of the girls, like Dembe from and what they can be – even when being attacked or kidnapped on their Uganda, talk about being beaten: “We they escape physical harm. Gabriela, 11, El Salvador way to school and report high levels of violence when they get there. It is not only the girls who are Violence at school is the most concerned about violence at school common form of violence reported – their parents are increasingly by girls across our cohort study, and worried about their daughters being peers, rather than teachers, are the attacked, raped or kidnapped on main perpetrators of that violence. In their way to school and becoming 2017, there were 77 reports of violence pregnant as a result. Some parents at school – 65 inflicted by other and grandparents accompany their children, 12 by adults. Girls tell of boys daughters on the often long journey bullying them verbally and physically: to school, but others are unable to describing boys pushing their way do this and many girls travel alone. into the school toilets and harassing The study will continue to monitor 1 Benin, Brazil, Cambodia, the Dominican Republic, El Salvador, T-A. & Sommer, M. (2017). ‘Cambodian boys’ transitions them. Many girls are now reducing the whether these safety risks will affect Philippines, Togo, Uganda and Vietnam. into young adulthood: exploring the influence of societal and 2 Plan International UK, ‘Real Choices, Real Lives: Violence in masculinity norms on young men’s health’, Culture, Health & amount of time they spend playing and the parents’ continued support for Girls’ Daily Lives’, 2017. Sexuality, 19:7, 767-780. socialising with boys, who they see their daughters’ schooling as they 3 Wodon et al., 2016. 8 Sommer M et al., 2015. 4 Samman, Emma et al., ‘Women’s work: Mothers, children and 9 Muhanguzi, F. K., Bantebya-Kyomuhendo, G. & Watson, C. as “rough” and “violent”. Some girls get further into adolescence. It is the global childcare crisis’, ODI, 2016. (2017), ‘Social institutions as mediating sites for changing appear to have distanced themselves already clear from earlier focus group 5 Samman, Emma et al., ‘Women’s work: Mothers, children and gender norms: Nurturing girl’s resilience to child marriage in the global childcare crisis’, ODI, 2016. Uganda’, Agenda, 31:2, 109-119. from boys altogether, creating separate discussions with older adolescent 6 http://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/2015_MDG_Report/pdf/ 10 Plan International, ‘Because I am a Girl – The State of the gendered spaces. girls in the cohort communities that MDG%202015%20rev%20(July%201).pdf World’s Girls: Pathways to Power’, Plan International, 2014. 7 Sommer, M., Ackatia-Armah, N., Connolly, S. & Smiles, D. 11 See for example: UNICEF, ‘A Statistical Snapshot of Violence opportunities for girls can become (2015), ‘A comparison of the menstruation and education Against Adolescent Girls’, UNICEF, 2014. restricted in later adolescence due to experiences of girls in Tanzania, Ghana, Cambodia and 12 Plan International, ‘Girls Speak Out 2015, Counting the “Teachers treat girls well. They Ethiopia’, Compare: A Journal of Comparative and International Invisible’, Plan International, 2016. advise them not to go around the threat of sexual violence. Education, 45:4, 589-609; Scandurra, L., Khorn, D., Charles,

22 real choices, real lives: eleven years on 23 Part 2 : What girls do, what boys do and how work at home impacts on life outside it

“Ah, boys study and play, and girls reflect an acceptance of gendered social norms by young girls – and must help their mothers.” boys – and domestic chores being Larissa, Brazil an inevitable part of being a girl. Nevertheless, research is starting to In recent years the issue of unpaid highlight girls’ experiences of unpaid care work has become a major focus care work. It is clear they take on a for many development organisations, much larger proportion of this work policy makers and academics.13 than boys,18 and that it is ultimately a For the most part, this focus has major obstacle to girls enjoying their been on women’s unpaid care work. rights to education, health services Questioning the impact of women’s and economic empowerment.19 In domestic responsibilities on their particular, the ‘Young Lives’ research ability to participate in the labour study20 has provided greater insight force, examining women’s time use, into the experiences of girls, showing the value of “women’s work”, and the that girls aged five to nine years old link between unpaid care and violence spend 30 per cent more time on chores against women. It also raises other than their male counterparts, and that considerations such as the impact this increases to 50 per cent when girls of unpaid care work on those with reach 10-14 years old.21 disabilities, in poverty and/or from rural Emerging research on girls’ unpaid communities.14 work from the Institute of Development Yet, despite the research, and Studies, ActionAid and UNICEF, despite a growing focus in programme provides further evidence that girls and policy terms on unpaid care are “shouldering a disproportionate work there is much less attention share of the unpaid work compared to given to the experiences of girls: their boys”.22 This research indicates that in relation to the availability of TUS as unpaid household workers is a key Girl with specific needs and priorities are often girls are being trained in household well as the methods employed and the factor in defining their status – or lack her brother lost within a focus on outcomes for tasks from as young as five years old age range of participants within the of it. It not only limits independence and and father, women.15 According to the Overseas and are often expected to take over surveys. TUS for the ‘Real Choices, the economic and social opportunities Cambodia, Development Institute, this reduced when mothers and other female family Real Lives’ research countries remains of girls and women but daily domestic 2017 emphasis on girls is exacerbated by members are at work, ill or away relatively limited and variations in duties also serve to reaffirm female the overall lack of data on children from home. Girls from large families, the total time worked across the subservience and perpetuate the as caregivers, which is limited (for those living in rural communities or countries may also be due to different notion that girls are worth less than instance) by the fact that most caring for people with disabilities, and methodologies employed in TUS or boys. As wider research indicates, this children doing unpaid care work live in those whose families cannot afford relate to more substantive differences idea, if it remains unchallenged, can houses headed by adults.16 Moreover, alternative childcare are particularly between particular countries such as stay with both girls and boys for the children often see household chores affected. gendered norms about what constitutes rest of their lives: as something that benefits the family Policy makers are starting to men’s and women’s work. Therefore, it as a whole and feel that there are acknowledge the importance of is difficult at present to draw on wider “Within the first seven years of life, direct or indirect benefits for them collecting data on children’s work research to indicate whether the findings girls are already indoctrinated into personally if they engage in unpaid within Time Use Surveys (TUS).23 in this study correspond to wider trends the idea of being subject to men. care work.17 Their willingness to take Nevertheless, at present there is in relation to children’s work. This starts on the household and is on household responsibilities may also considerable variation across countries The role of women and girls as reinforced in the community.” 24

24 real choices, real lives: eleven years on 25 Additionally, this concept of female household chores; something that “Sometimes when my mother goes inferiority may also encourage the most boys in the household are not out and there is nobody to stay at violence against women that is so compelled to do. Interestingly, there home, I stay at home, taking care of widely reported and, which as we have appears to be a significant distinction the house.” seen, the 11-year-olds in our study are between the under-reporting of girls’ Bianca, Brazil increasingly subject to.25 absence from school as a result of her assistance with domestic chores Ingrained gendered roles, Too much work at home, too little from parents or family members, responsibilities and behaviour within time at school compared to the increased number families and communities continue Unsurprisingly, many girls in the of girls discussing this with our to order how chores are divided. Our cohort study are reporting absence researchers. There is no clear, analysis has found that across many from school as a result of their prescriptive answer as to why this of our cohort families, there appears support and help with domestic might be. However, we do know that to be a strict gendered division of chores both inside and outside of parents may underestimate the time labour which tends to dictate that girls the home. Given the insecure nature it takes for girls to carry out their bear the responsibility for supporting of many family incomes, illness, domestic chores, or they may not their mothers within the home and accident or unexpected emergency want to disclose the reality to the are required to help with care work can mean girls’ availability to do researchers as it runs counter to such as looking after younger siblings, domestic chores takes priority over their aspirations and hopes for their cooking, cleaning and collecting food their schooling. Girls tell us they are daughters. and water. All of the girls in the cohort expected to help care for younger siblings, or to help with running the household, when their mothers are needed elsewhere or are ill. Likewise, during harvest periods, many girls are absent from school in order to help their families in the field, or to take Benin Brazil Cambodia Dominican Republic Salvador El Philippines Togo Uganda Vietnam Total their mother’s place at home while Time spent on girl’s household chores (daily), reported by the girl she helps with the harvest. Less than 3 3 0 1 1 2 2 2 2 16 “I am absent when I am sick. Sometimes, 30 minutes 30 mins – my mother asks me to be absent in 1 2 1 5 1 2 1 0 8 21 1 hour order to take care of my younger siblings 1-2 hours 5 0 7 0 3 1 2 3 1 22 because she is busy harvesting rice.” More than 0 0 3 2 0 0 0 2 2 9 Nakry, Cambodia 2 hours

Research from the ‘Young Lives’ work. The analysis found important Girl and her Time spent on girl’s household chores (daily), reported by the family study has shown that there is a clear gender differences: when the “health mother, Brazil, Less than relationship between household shock” affected the father, children 2017 4 3 1 1 3 0 1 1 7 21 “health shocks” and children taking (particularly boys) took on paid work to 30 minutes on increased work – either paid compensate for income loss due to a 30 mins – 2 2 4 11 2 7 1 2 7 38 or unpaid. Parental health issues father’s illness or death. In the case of 1 hour tend to be more important for older a mother’s illness, older girls take on children because they reduce the additional domestic tasks but do not 1-2 hours 4 3 1 0 2 0 15 2 3 30 financial resources available within reduce the time spent at school.26 More than 0 1 7 0 3 1 0 6 2 20 the household for investment in Many girls also report being absent, 2 hours education and older children are or late, for school on a regular Total reports 10 10 14 12 13 14 17 12 20 122 often taken out of school and sent to basis, due to the daily demands of

26 real choices, real lives: eleven years on 27 study are required to carry out chores school in the morning but accepts on a daily basis. And, as they get her numerous chores which include older, they are often required to take sweeping the floor and compound on even more responsibilities. Many and washing the dishes, as well as families, despite having ambitious preparing a meal: “I prefer the morning aspirations for their daughters’ because I am in a hurry to finish my education, still view the domestic household chores, wash myself and sphere as entirely “women’s work” go to school”. Despite this long list of and girls are expected to take this on jobs, Alice says that as she is the in their capacity as daughters, and youngest in the family, she doesn’t eventually, wives and mothers. Last do more than others but helps her year, we asked the girls in the study older siblings and mother. The reality what constitutes being a “good” girl, of fitting education and schooling daughter and friend; the responses around household work and care were revealing. A “good” girl does responsibilities mean that the girls’ what she is told, sticks to the rules and time to learn is seriously compromised is quiet and disciplined. and it could be argued that this is, at least in part, the reason for much of the “To be a good daughter, I should poor academic performance and grade do housework and do what my repetition. In turn, the lack of academic parents want… Good girls behave Girl, Cambodia well at home and do everything progress is also likely to discourage they are told to do… My parents girls from going to school and their parents from sending them. Gender make me and my sisters work much Case Study: Davy, Cambodia and only helps with a small portion of the and age have a large role to play harder than my brothers and I think Davy lives with her elderly grandfather, two firewood collection. when deciphering who is responsible they’re right.” parents, elder sister (aged 17), brother (aged Davy’s elder brother has recently dropped Reine, Togo for what task is delegated: it is 13), and two younger brothers (aged nine out of school in order to train as a barber, and apparently often unacceptable for and six). Her father is disabled after losing a it is not clear whether her elder sister The amount of time it takes girls to older males to take on household- leg and her mother is the sole breadwinner. is still in school or not. This year, Davy’s carry out their chores varies: ranging based, or care work, though boys Davy accepts that chores are split according mother discussed the difficulties she faces from 30 minutes to more than five sometimes help out. The rigidity of to gender and helps her mother and elder trying to support her family: “This year, hours per day with some reporting norms (and what is or isn’t appropriate sister with the bulk of the household work: my family condition is worse because we doing even more. Girls are often for men and boys to do) will depend “I think it is different because men and are impoverished, and local weather is expected to finish their duties before on the context, although broadly boys do heavy work such as chopping wood, unfavourable for a good yield. My family is in and after they attend school, leaving speaking there appears to be a strict collecting water and breaking soil… Female this condition because my father is very old, very little time for them to do their gendered delineation between inside work includes washing dishes, cooking rice, while my husband is disabled, and my children homework, play with friends or rest. and outdoor work: and washing clothes. I think it is fair because are too young to earn money. [Davy] is never A study of the impact of water boys and men are stronger.” absent from school, but sometimes she goes collection on girls education in Ghana “Men don’t do domestic work, She says it takes her around two hours to school late because she doesn’t have a suggests that if time spent hauling only women do this and they go a day to do her chores: “I cook rice, wash bicycle and the school is far.” water was halved this would increase to the market. Boys and girls dishes, wipe things in the house and She told researchers that despite her wish school attendance by around seven help with domestic chores. As collect fire wood. I carry fire wood from the for Davy to have a better education than her per cent for girls aged five to 15, with an example, my mother always ground floor to the first floor because the own, and a future career, she is worried about the results being more marked in rural draws the water and my father has kitchen is there.” Davy says that she does her ability to continue to pay for her schooling. areas.27 never done it because the women occasionally have to miss school to help As Davy gets older, and further into her This year some of the girls reported cannot stand by and watch the her mother or look after her brother: “I was adolescence, it will be interesting to monitor how hard it is every day to try and men doing it. My big brother absent [from school] because I was busy whether the demands on her time for domestic complete their household tasks sometimes prepares food but not helping my mother.” Despite this, her mother work continue, and whether this will result in alongside their school work. Alice in for everyone.” reports that she is never absent from school, her increasing absence from school. Benin is often in a rush to get to Alice, Benin

28 real choices, real lives: eleven years on 29 What do you learn at school? Acceptor, Consenter, Resistor? Girl and her The gendered division of labour is not This year, in keeping with our ‘acceptor, brother helping confined to the home but follows girls to consenter and resistor’ framework, we are with farming work, school where nearly all of the girls in the seeing a difference in how girls respond Uganda, 2017 study are responsible for a number of daily to chores at school. Many voice their chores to a greater extent than the male dissatisfaction with the unequal distribution of pupils. these tasks and the time taken to carry them out. They frequently draw attention to the “Before the teacher arrives, me and my increased time boys have to play at school as friends do mathematics exercises and then we a result. sweep the classroom.” Q. If you were a boy – think about a boy from Isabelle, Benin the school from your class – would your ordinary school day be any different? While it does appear that boys also have school based chores that they are responsible “Ah, it would be just playing, because the for, there seems to be a gendered divide in boys there just play.” the type of chores which they are required to undertake – similar to that divide that exists Larissa, Brazil at home. Boys are largely responsible for “outside-” or “manual-” based chores such as “Girls have to do school chores because the fetching water; girls’ tasks are largely based teacher says that if someone fails to do them, Q. Why is it not fair? not do it well, either. It’s not fair… Boys play within the classroom or compound, such as sweeping and collecting rubbish. they have to stand on one leg. Sometimes, “Because it’s over loading girls as compared to more and make the class dirtier more than boys don’t do them, and girls have to do boys.” girls do, but they don’t clean the class well, so them instead. Also, the teacher says that if Miremba, Uganda it’s not fair.” boys don’t do it, girls have to help them… I For both resistors and consenters, at school, Kim, Vietnam the degree of dissent tends to be measured think it is not fair because the teacher always more in words than behaviour: active There are also girls within the study who do asks girls to do them.” resistance is particularly hard in this context accept their role, apparently unquestioningly. compared to at home where some girls have They do not seem to feel that the heavier load Roumany, Cambodia the support of their mothers or older siblings. of chores at school is unfair and appear happy A comment made by many girls is that boys with a system that divides society into male Other girls in the study, the consenters, are often do not do cleaning tasks as well as girls and female jobs, attitudes and abilities. Girls less indignant and more resigned: they might at school or at home. They feedback that boys and women, the cohort girls feel, are better at not necessarily agree with the inequality cannot clean as thoroughly just because they are cleaning and tidying, and boys should not be of the division of chores between boys and boys and are innately not as capable of keeping overly concerned with this type of work. girls but they nevertheless accept it as an things tidy. This goes back to the curriculum of unavoidable; nor do they have the agency or chores that girls are taught from an early age “My sisters and I do the same tasks but I have support to be able to question or challenge which encourages them to believe that they are this further. more jobs than my little brother because I am better suited than boys to caring, cooking and Q. Do girls do chores more than boys when at cleaning. Even those who feel that giving girls the a girl and I will live with my husband later… school? greater share of any domestic chores is unfair Yes, it’s our duty. That’s the way it is. The also believe that this is just how things are – boys “Yes.” make things dirty; girls clean up. teachers make us sweep the classrooms so it’s Q. Do you think this is fair? “Yes, boys are so lazy, they do not like clean but the boys don’t sweep well.” Annabelle, Benin Girl, Cambodia, 2017 “No.” sweeping and cleaning the classroom. They do

30 real choices, real lives: eleven years on 31 Filling the Gap Making Ends Meet contradictions of needing their older “When mother asks me to do As well as filling in for their mothers girls’ help both at home and in income something, she’ll say: ‘You’ll be at home, the study, in line with wider generating activities against the longer absent today because we’re doing research findings, has found that as term good of them continuing their something’.” girls get older they are also required education. Girls may also be married to support their families with income- off too early, which in most cases puts Reyna, the Philippines generating work. Although research an end to their education, in order to Increasingly, the study has found that on the whole indicates that it is boys relieve the financial burden on the where there are opportunities for the who take on the primary responsibility family.30 girls’ mothers to participate in paid work, for the family finances in households or to work outside the house in other affected by illness, girls also play their “I think it is difficult for girls areas, such as supporting the family’s part. A quantitative study conducted in because parents don’t want them to agricultural harvest with the responsibility Uganda found that among households study.” of caring for younger siblings or with people living with HIV/AIDS Q. Why don’t they want girls to study? household care gap often falling to the (PLWHA), girls tended not only to cohort girl. Many of the families do not shoulder most of the household chores “They want them to help do farming. have social or other family support to rely but also to earn money to compensate Some parents have no money to on in times of illness, emergency or for household labour loss. The study support their study. Many girls seasonal agricultural demands. As a found that girls spent seven hours quit school. Some parents have result, despite their participation in more per week in paid work compared no money for their study. Some income-generating activities, most of the to boys.29 ask their daughters to dance in mothers in the study still have Our analysis also indicates that girls the orchestra and sell labour such households to run. Wider research has are reporting absence from school as as picking rubber seed, pulling indicated that girls are shouldering a a result of having to work in the fields cassava, clearing grass and growing disproportionate parcel of this care and during peak harvesting seasons in cassava.” domestic work compared to their order to help their families financially. Mealea, Cambodia brothers and male friends and the Q. So you’ve been absent at school. analysis from Plan’s ‘Real Choices, Real What do you and your Mama do Overall despite most of the study Lives’ study largely supports this view.28 when you’re absent? participants being enrolled in school As the data has demonstrated, the and many of them having parents cohort girls have been immersed “Help out in the field… Sometimes who express a commitment to girls’ in a ‘curriculum of chores’ from an when mother or father have a fever, education the realities of daily life early age and their responsibilities are In the Philippines, it seems that there Girl, the we do the harvesting.” and the accepted models of male increasing as they get older. Their role as is absence from school in order to Philippines, Reyna, the Philippines and female behaviour are having an substitutes for their mothers is beginning support domestic work amongs both 2017 enormous impact not only on the to dominate their right to education. boys and girls, but this is divided along Some of the girls in the study have girls’ ability to attend school regularly gender lines between work outside reported that they know of girls in and learn but on how they spend “Sometimes we go out to do errands. and inside of the home: their community who have had to their time generally. It is increasingly Sometimes because I go to the clinic. drop out of school altogether because difficult for many of them to study at “My boy classmates go fishing.” of the pressure to support their home or to have the chance to relax Sometimes I have to go to the port to Q. That’s why they are absent? families in the fields, or elsewhere. and to socialise. They are also often do some shopping… Sometimes I have Very low-income households who unable to escape the established “Yes.” are solely dependent on informal, female role of cleaner and carer when to take care of mommy if she’s sick. Q. How about the girls? and insecure incomes, often have they are at school. All this will have a Sometimes I can do something for her, to choose between feeding their continuing impact on their academic “They get sick or sometimes they families or educating their children. progress, their self-confidence like if she can’t get up. That is why I have to take care of their younger We know from Plan International’s and their ability to see a role for hardly go to school. siblings.” wider work supporting adolescent girls themselves beyond the domestic one Valeria, El Salvador Rosamie, the Philippines that families often struggle with the of wife and mother.

32 real choices, real lives: eleven years on 33 It’s just the way it is: the gendered “Here in the house, he does very little The Acceptors: “These roles rarely change...” division of labour Over the years, it is interesting to note because he’s always out working. My that girls and their families frequently chores here are sweeping the floor, use the phrase “it’s just the way it is” when questioning or discussing gender washing the dishes, cooking lunch, roles, particularly the division of labour doing the laundry, cleaning the yard within households, and ultimately, who holds the power. The power of every day.” social norms, the way things have Tatiana's Mother, Brazil always been done, can be so strong that people often adopt them without In many, if not most, families the understanding why they exist, or even women and girls are responsible for without truly believing in them. The the interior (or domestic chores) and roots of gendered behaviour are so men and boys for either paid work deeply embedded that they can seem outside of the house – chores which immoveable. are perceived to be heavier or require Overall this year, the proportion of greater physical power. This division of male to female sharing of household labour prevents women from entering tasks is largely unchanged. The study the paid workforce and, being confined is made up of a majority of families who largely to the home, restricts their report that domestic chores are largely financial, social and psychological performed by females, a substantially independence.31 It also limits their smaller group who report sharing opportunity and ability to acquire new chores equally, and a very small skills and undermines any chance of number of families (only three) where building the self-confidence necessary men do the lion share. to challenge the gender stereotyping Girl and her mother, the Philippines, 2017 that has kept them “in their place” for generations. It is hardly surprising then that in some families the woman is ill and sometimes women help with the mothers, or female heads of households, are positive in their acceptance of the status the weeding in the field; it’s a fair division where quo. They find it fair that women and girls no one is being tricked… These roles rarely change are responsible for the domestic chores in the household and may even want to actively unless the woman is away which means the man Household promote this division of labour between males chores has to do the cooking.” and females: for them domestic chores are Folami’s mother, Togo entirely “women’s work” while men have an active role as the breadwinner for their Similarly, many of the fathers in the study Benin Brazil Cambodia Dominican Republic Salvador El Philippines Togo Uganda Vietnam Total families. It seems that on the rare occasions appear to be happy with the way things are, and Majority when men do take over some of the domestic take it entirely for granted that girls should be performed 8 10 11 12 8 9 17 12 13 100 tasks, it is only because the mothers in the responsible for the housework: by females study are ill or away from the home for a “A good girl is well behaved at home, and Majority period of time. performed 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 3 “Generally, the women look after household jobs well-dressed. She must be good for everything by males and can help do all housework. A good boy Shared and the men are responsible for work in the fields. 1 0 2 0 5 4 0 0 6 18 should be the same. He should help us, but he equally The girls and boys help all the adults with their should not do much housework.” Total reports 10 10 13 12 13 14 17 12 20 121 work. In some cases men help with the cooking if Sothany's father, Cambodia

34 real choices, real lives: eleven years on 35 The Consenters: “I think it is not fair...” The Resistors: “It should be equal…” Madelin’s mother remarked that in her community sexism was rife: you take a shower, you pick your underwear up “People think that only women can wash up.” and wash it. If you brush your teeth, don’t leave the brush there, put it in the right place... You As these comments illustrate, many women are reluctantly accepting a status quo they are have to take care of your hygiene.’ It doesn’t not really happy with. Many also discussed the mean anything if a man cooks a meal or washes intergenerational differences between their own relationships and what they wish for their his clothes, this is not a flaw –everybody does children. it – and I say: ‘You won’t have Mummy around “Men often bully women, ah, that: ‘if my wife forever’.” doesn’t give me a glass of water, I won’t drink Natália's mother, Brazil This year, Natália's mother told our researchers it’, even if they are right there… They won’t that her family was unusual in the local even get up. ‘Look, get me a glass of water.’ community as she made sure there was equality between the sexes in terms of the domestic They don’t even get up… But if the wife isn’t work load. She feels that it is important for boys to learn about chores so that they can look after there, he is forced to get up to get his glass of Girl's father cooking, Cambodia, 2017 themselves in later life: water… No, I tell my sons they have to learn.” A smaller, yet significant number of families Valerie's mother, do appear to be resisting gender stereotypes “My boys, sometimes they do things. They Dominican Republic both in their attitudes towards domestic work at prepare the food, get the rice out of the pan home and in their behaviour: They feel there has been progress: some of and I say: ‘You have to learn, my son, because their sons take on more of the domestic burden “No, no, no. It should be equal. And boys should when you go away, nobody’s gonna do this for than their fathers or even their older brothers learn the same things, and tasks should be divided would have done while they were growing up. you’…Yes, I always tell the boys they have to They are hopeful that for their younger children Girl, Vietnam, 2017 equally in the house but you know that our there will be more equality between their do the same things – it’s no shame… No., it’s daughters and sons as they grow into adults parents’ tradition in the past was that girls were However, not everyone is quite so keen on the very different [in other families]. Usually one and begin families of their own. for doing housework and boys were for working, accepted male/female division of labour. Some person does everything in the house.” of the mothers in particular indicate they might “I think it is not fair. When they grow and it’s not like that. Everyone has the right to Natália's mother, Brazil like a change but seem to feel powerless to act: up and have families, I think they should work, everyone has the right to clean, and everyone Despite the seemingly resistant attitudes of both Natália's mother and Saidy's grandmother, when Q. And why can’t a boy cook or wash the help each other… I don’t know how to has the right to cook and wash the clothes.” our researchers asked detailed questions as to clothes? Saidy's grandmother, make changes, but I see that mostly sons who carries out specific chores it appeared the Dominican Republic “Oh, because they will call him gay, understand these tasks when they have wives. majority were in fact still done by the women. This Natália's mother is another apparent resistor. suggests that perhaps while attitudes towards supposedly here, because my husband, when They work hard (collect water, cook rice, The family – father, mother and six children – gender equality within the household are he was in the capital, he washed clothes, etc). I think we should have discussions about live in the north of Brazil. Natália's father makes changing, it is still difficult to bring about concrete a living as a bricklayer and her mother largely changes in behaviour. However, Saidy and cooked, everything.” helping each other. In one family near my looks after the home, while taking on some Natália have both been exposed to different ways Q. But does your husband do that here? house, the husband and wife help each other, paid sewing work. of thinking, and to a smaller extent, different ways of behaving, as have the men and boys in these “Not anymore.” and they have happiness.” “I always call their attention and say: ‘My son, households. Tracking the impact of this over the Chantal's mother, Dominican Republic Lina's mother, Cambodia you do this. Washing a shirt won’t hurt you. If next few years will be illuminating.

36 real choices, real lives: eleven years on 37 Building equality at home parents acknowledging that this is The issue of the balance of domestic which might eventually bring about Progress is slow, but Natália's mother a generational shift from their own work and how girls spend their time is a more secure future. It is hardly and Saidy's grandmother are not alone, childhoods: becoming increasingly important as surprising that, faced with hunger, there are encouraging signs of they get older. It is reassuring to see families prioritise food over school resistance across the nine countries: “It shouldn’t always be just girls that many families are questioning fees. And who is going to support In Cambodia, Leakhena's mother doing it. I really don’t like that idea. the established rules of behaviour but girls’ education in times of hardship commented: But I admit that it wasn’t like this it is also difficult to ascertain how far when patriarchal tradition dictates before. Boys didn’t act like this the girls and their mothers are really that girls go to their husbands’ “When living with their parents, men before. It’s only now when I reached able to bring about change on their families and boys look after their do no housework. But after they get this age that I became aware that own without support from the wider parents? today it’s not only the girls doing community. Despite some of the Many, if not most, of the girls in married, they love their wives and can chores at home, but rather boys are more definite attitudes and reported the study are time-poor: it is this that do this task themselves. For instance, also doing it now. But my children changes in behaviour from the families differentiates them from their brothers and I are used to that kind of living in the study, further analysis often and other male peers. Domestic chores my son helps his wife do household already.” reveals a more complex picture. eat into their time to study and into their The girls and their mothers are not social/play time and their household chores. I said, ‘It is better for you to Melanie's mother, the Philippines easy to define simply as ‘resistors’ responsibilities are increasing as help your wife do housework.’” Both Jasmine's mother and Jocelyn's or ‘acceptors’ as they may possess the girls get older. This will this limit mother also told researchers that, in elements of both in how they express them academically, lead to fewer In Uganda, Amelia's mother their families, “the work is divided themselves and in the patterns of qualifications and skills and poorer job was also convinced that things had equally” and not according to gender. behaviour emerging in the different prospects. It will also affect their self- changed: Similarly in Vietnam, there are families. It is safe to say that power confidence, their social skills and their families who report that domestic tasks at home still rests primarily with the ability to make friends and contacts “There is no specific work for both are shared more equally: men, girls’ education is at risk from outside the family, which in turn will men and women. If you just sit and their domestic roles and, though many affect their access to the information wait to be served then you won’t be “Many men don’t do the chores the see it as not fair, changing the rules, they need to make informed decisions in position to eat. The jobs are not same as my husband does. They in terms both of domestic chores and about all aspects of their lives. different, maybe the drivers, but consider those chores are their wife’s gender ros lem ore broadly, is proving Girls are schooled into an even a woman can drive her car to responsibilities. They think cooking difficult. acceptance of a curriculum of chores work.” food is women’s task and they only from an early age: their idea of what Conclusion they can aspire to is limited by their And significantly, among the study tend pigs and then are relaxed. They domestic responsibilities and by the families in the Philippines this year, don’t care whether their wife goes “I want to have no labour division whole concept of “women’s work”. there appears to be something back home early or late – their wife There is little articulated awareness of a concerted effort to resist the still has to cook as normal. However, between male and female work. I want of the impact of this domestic focus inequality embedded in the “normal” my husband doesn’t behave like boys to help do female tasks such as from either the girls themselves or household division of labour. Chesa's that. For example, when I come their families. Their world shrinks mother who told researchers: “There home late, he will cook food and cooking rice, and girls and women should and, as they grow, many of the cohort doesn’t seem to be anyone like wait for me to eat.” Trinh's mother, Vietnam wash dishes and help do male work.” girls begin to unquestioningly accept that here. Whatever work one has, Thearika, Cambodia the gender roles allocated to them they help each other out because This view was supported by Oanh’s including the idea that a “good girl” is whatever they see they also copy. father, who told the researchers: The data collected over the last obedient, caring and hardworking: Whatever work they see, they say to two years, as the girls enter early their siblings, ‘Let’s do that, so we “It’s fair to men and women in adolescence, has really emphasised “Good girls work in the house: drawing finish quickly,’ the three of them” – my family: cooking, shopping… If how difficult it is for girls’ lives and which was reflecting a wider trend. It anyone has free time, that one does opportunities to change. When water, sweeping the court and going seems that many families are housework. For example, if we run families struggle with poverty they will to school and they stay quiet. It’s the reporting non-gendered selection and out of rice and my wife is not at fall back on tried and tested coping distribution of chores and are happy home, I will do the husking or go to mechanisms which bring short-term same for the other girls in the area.” with this arrangement – with many buy some food.” gains against a longer term strategy Anti, Togo

38 real choices, real lives: eleven years on 39 This acceptance, not only from the girls so. Many of the girls say clearly “it’s but from their families and communities, not fair” and some will fight for their Recommendations in itself limits the possibility of equality. transformative change. Girls rarely Girls’ rights are also on the agenda see alternative role models close to in national and international forums It is important to acknowledge that much excellent work has been done recently – particularly home or come into contact with other and campaigns for their right to be by the UN Secretary General’s High-Level Panel on Women’s Economic Empowerment,32 the ways of being. The idea that girls are educated, to live free from violence UK Gender and Development Network,33 as well as other individual agencies34 – to develop worth less than boys – which their and to be valued equally with their comprehensive recommendations in relation to unpaid work. There is a strong consensus around role as household servant reinforces brothers are in the forefront of the need to recognize, reduce and redistribute unpaid work, and to improve the representation of – also makes girls more vulnerable to development campaigns, policy those affected in decision-making processes. violence in all its forms. The impact of drives and programme design. This study has sought to contribute to and enrich the discussion around unpaid care by highlighting the imbalance in domestic life is far- Violence against girls and women is in particular the roles and responsibilities of girls. As this study has shown, patterns of inequality reaching and the rules of behaviour increasingly recognised, publicised are established in childhood – in particular, in early adolescence – and can become increasingly are firmly entrenched in family and and punished, though so far not normalized and entrenched over time, contributing toward roles and expectations in later life. community life all over the world. effectively enough. It is therefore recommended that governments and policymakers should: This impetus must not be lost “It’s not fair . ”. and in understanding the detail of However it is nevertheless clear from girls’ daily lives, ‘Real Choices, Real Recommendation 1: Support the recognition of unpaid care work by: the study data that over the last 11 Lives’ can help put in place the policy • Funding data collection, including time-use surveys, that captures and recognizes years, attitudes, and in some cases and programme, the legislation children’s work . behaviours, have shifted. Parents know and the education which will make A key first step is to better understand the scope of unpaid care work and its distribution it is better to keep their daughters in a meaningful difference as these within households. Time-use surveys have proven useful tools, and funding should be made school even when they struggle to do 11-year-olds grow into young women. available for such surveys to improve the measurement and understanding of unpaid care and household work. These surveys must be done in such a way that they can be disaggregated by sex, income bracket, rural/urban location, migration status and other key characteristics – including, importantly, age, in order to make visible the often hidden contributions of children to their households. Other relevant age-sensitive indicators should also be tracked, including, for 13 For example, see Institute for Development Studies (IDS), 22 UNICEF, ‘Harnessing the Power of Data for Girls: Taking stock example, the number of girls dropping out of school due to domestic burdens. ‘Transforming Care Dynamics: Lessons from Programme and and looking ahead to 2030’, UNICEF, 2016; Bolton, Tessa, Policy’, IDRC, IDS and Oxfam, 2016; UNICEF, ‘Harnessing Jessica Hartog and Melissa Bungcaras, ‘Beyond Caring: the Power of Data for Girls: Taking stock and looking ahead to Enabling women’s leadership in disaster risk reduction by • Promoting the systematic use of gender-responsive budgeting and age-sensitive gender 2030’, UNICEF, 2016. breaking down the barrier of unpaid care work’, ActionAid, impact assessments . 14 Crivello, Gina, ‘Care and Children: Young Lives’, UNICEF, 2017; Chopra, Deepta and Sohela Nazneen, 2016. 2016; Crivello, Gina and Sylvie Cordier, ‘Caring for people with 23 Floro, MS and King, E, ‘The present and future of time-use These processes help to highlight the gendered impacts of government policies and intellectual disabilities in poor rural communities in Cambodia: analysis in developing countries’, Asia-Pacific Population programmes on women, men, girls and boys and to shape more appropriate responses. experience from ADD International’, Gender & Development, Journal, 38 (1): 5-42, 2017. 22:3 (2014): 549-561. 24 Bantebya, Grace, Florence Muhanguzi and Carol Watson, Macroeconomic policy is never gender-neutral, and policy proposals should explicitly analyse 15 Chopra, Deepta and Sohela Nazneen, ‘Addressing unpaid care ‘Good Policies Versus Gender Justice in Uganda: Country and consider the likely effects on the often invisible burden of unpaid care shouldered by women for economic empowerment of women and girls’, IDRC, IDS Briefing’, ODI, 2013. and Oxfam, 2016. 25 WHO, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine and and girls. Even positive strategies – including, for example, schemes designed to facilitate 16 Emma et al., ‘Women’s work: Mothers, children and the global South African Medical Research Council, ‘Global and Regional women’s entry into the labour force – should be monitored for potential negative knock-on childcare crisis’, ODI, 2016. Estimates of Violence against Women Prevalence’”, Geneva, 17 Pankhurst, Alula; Gina Crivello and Agazi Tiumelissan, 2013. effects on adolescent girls forced to fill gaps in households with working or absent parents. ‘Working Paper 147’, 2016. 26 Dhanaraj, S, ‘Effects of parental health shocks on children’s 18 Zaidi, Mubashira et al. ‘“My Work Never Ends”: Women’s schooling: Evidence from Andhra Pradesh, India’, International Experiences of Balancing Unpaid Care Work and Paid Work Journal of Educational Development 49: 115–125, 2016. through WEE Programming in India’, Institute of Development 27 Nauges, C., and Strand, J, ‘Water Hauling and Girls’ School Studies (IDS), Working Paper 494, IDS, 2017; Samman, Attendance: Some New Evidence from Ghana’, Environmental Emma et al., ‘Women’s work: Mothers, children and the global Resource Economics, 2015. Recommendation 2: Promote the reduction of unpaid care work by: childcare crisis’, ODI, 2016. 28 Chopra, Deepta and Sohela Nazneen, ‘Addressing unpaid care 19 Chopra, Deepta and Sohela Nazneen, 2016; Samman, Emma for economic empowerment of women and girls’, IDRC, IDS • Investing in technologies and infrastructure that reduce the burden of unpaid work . et al., ‘Women’s work: Mothers, children and the global and Oxfam, 2016. This may include safe roads and safe public transportation, piped water, clean cook stoves, childcare crisis’. ODI, 2016; UNICEF, ‘Harnessing the Power 29 Abimanyi-Ochom, J., Inder, B., Hollingsworth, B. and Lorgelly, of Data for Girls: Taking stock and looking ahead to 2030’, P, ‘Invisible work: Child work in households with a person living home electricity and access to fuel in both rural and urban areas. Investments should be based UNICEF, 2016. with HIV/AIDS in Central Uganda’, Journal of Social Aspects of on analysis and pilots of what will be most effective in reducing unpaid work, ensuring that new 20 ‘Young Lives’ is a longitudinal study of 12,000 children over a HIV/AIDS, 14:1, 93-109, 2017. period of 15 years (2002-2017) in Ethiopia, Peru, Vietnam and 30 Plan International, ‘Because I am a Girl – The State of the technologies do not inadvertently exacerbate women and girls’ time poverty. India. For more information see: www.younglives.org.uk World’s Girls: Pathways to Power’, Plan International, 2014. 21 Crivello, Gina, ‘Care and Children: Young Lives’, UNICEF, 2016; 31 Samantroy, Ellina, ‘Reconciling Work and Family Life: A Study Crivello, Gina, ‘Tracing the links between girls’ unpaid care work of Women’s Time Use Patterns, Unpaid Work and Workplace and women’s economic empowerment’, www.younglives.org.uk Policies’, NLI Research Study Series, 2015.

40 real choices, real lives: eleven years on 41 Recommendation 3: Support the redistribution of unpaid care work by: Research Design and Methodology • Shifting social norms that dictate what is women’s and girls’ work and encouraging more equitable distribution within households . This study employs a largely basis, with the support of the nine It is critical to work with men and boys – and to feature and spotlight male champions and qualitative methodology and is participating Plan International influencers – to promote more equitable distribution of labour within households. Schools should embedded in a feminist research Country Offices and their research also be recognized as key sites of intervention, recognizing that gendered-assignment of school perspective which aims to reject teams. They are in turn supported chores can contribute to emerging attitudes and assumptions about what is appropriate and power hierarchies and gender centrally by the research team expected for girls and for boys. Teachers should be trained in gender-responsive pedagogy and discrimination. It builds upon a at Plan International UK and, in supported to ensure that learning environments do not reinforce harmful norms and stereotypes, life-course approach, focusing its several of the countries, by local and instead promote more positive messages. attention on critical transition points, academic institutions. Trained local • Investing in affordable, accessible high-quality care services, including for children, the and on how the influences in early researchers are bound by the global elderly and the disabled . girlhood and middle-childhood child protection policies of Plan For struggling, time-poor households, redistribution among members of the household will will define girls’ later lives. When International and ethical guidance not be sufficient on its own to alleviate the burden of unpaid care work. Governments have the study began, it was rooted in from best practice experiences of a responsibility to provide quality care services as part of broader commitments to universal principles of grounded theory,35 NGOs working with children. Data is social protection. Paid care work must also be decent and valued work, with appropriate wages, based upon data systematically coded and analysed adhering to Plan training, working conditions and support. gathered and analysed, with some International UK’s child protection central lines of inquiry mirroring the policy to prevent any misuse of data • Investing in research around models of care provision . Millennium Development Goals. or images that might jeopardise the NGOs, women’s rights organizations and self-help groups, labour associations, and other actors Over time, as the amount of data wellbeing or safety of any of the are piloting and exploring alternative models of alleviating and redistributing the burden of care. increases, the need for more complex participants. Further research is needed into how the most promising of these initiatives could potentially be lines of inquiry has emerged. The scaled up more widely. flexibility inherent in the qualitative approach has allowed the study to This birth cohort started in 2006, adapt to the lives of the families following 142 girls born between and girls as they get older, making 1 January 2006 and 31 December Recommendation 4: Facilitate the representation of those affected by the adjustments year by year to the in- 2006. The sample group are burden of unpaid care work by: depth ethnographic interviews. all from countries where Plan • Ensuring carers – including girls and young women – are better able to meaningfully Age-appropriate and some International works and where the participate in decision-making structures at all levels . interactive tools are introduced country office team were happy This requires identifying and seeking to overcome the multiple barriers to women’s, and each year to allow us to engage in a to take part in the project. The particularly girls’, participation in decision-making, from the local or traditional level up to holistic manner with the experiences sampling was purposive, and each the national level. Positive steps may also include supporting and building the capacity of of the girls and to help us understand country was requested to sample in women’s and girls’ rights organizations, carers’ associations, etc. to advocate for opportunities their sense of self and their this way: for those most affected by the burden of unpaid work – and therefore best placed to identify engagement with the world around • 50 per cent urban; effective and ineffective solutions – to have a meaningful voice in relevant policy processes. them. The data now provides us with • 50 per cent rural; a rich picture of the world that the • Date of birth of the girls falling girls are growing up in, the social between 1 January and 31 rules, structures and relationships December 2006; that surround them, and a real sense • Family income: low (self-defined, of the opportunities and challenges of using Plan International Country life from their viewpoint. Office indicators). Data collection occurs on a yearly

42 real choices, real lives: eleven years on 43 The capabilities approach, first a property that Sen describes as the Theoretical framing articulated by the Indian economist ‘agency aspect’ of the individual.44 The and philosopher Amartya Sen in main elements of Kabeer’s45 women’s the 1980s and further developed empowerment theory – access to “All too often, women are not treated by several scholars,42 is focused on resources, the role of agency, and a as ends in their own right, persons what people are able to be and what sense of achievement – are also critical they are able to do; the choice they to our analysis. with a dignity that deserves respect are able to exercise. To Sen, human This framework allows us to from laws and institutions. Instead, capabilities, or ‘substantial freedoms’, explore some of the similarities are the ones that allow “people to live and differences across and within they are treated as mere instruments the lives they have reason to value households from a gendered of the ends of others – reproducers, and enhance the real choices they perspective. It enables us to have”.43 In addition, societies should understand better the impact on caregivers, sexual outlets, agents of a support access to opportunities and women’s and girls’ capabilities, family’s general prosperity.” dignity, which people may then choose agency and choice when resources to exercise in action, or not. The are scarce; how they adapt in Martha Nussbaum, 200036 centre of Sen’s vision is the richness these contexts; and to explore in The ‘Real Choices, Real Lives’ of human life and, within that, people’s greater depth the impact of coping research is following girls growing up capability to function in society, on their capabilities and personal in the 21st century in the context of rather than the usual concentration empowerment. The application of grinding poverty surrounded by social on rising GDP, technical progress, or life course analysis to the data helps norms that either inhibit or support industrialisation.43 us to understand girls’ progress and their progress. In order to examine He outlines five distinct freedom the factors that either support or girls’ development in this way, the domains: political freedoms, economic impinge on the development of their research makes the connection across facilities, social opportunities, capabilities, over a period of time. two approaches: capabilities37 and the transparency guarantees and study of social norms. protective security. Freedom, he says, “When poverty combines with gender There is a large and is a principal determinant of individual inequality, the result is acute failure interdisciplinary literature which initiative and social effectiveness; it is explores what social norms are and good primarily because it enhances the of central human capabilities.” why people tend to comply with them. ability of individuals to help themselves, Martha Nussbaum, 200146 This body of thinking understands and others are supposed to do) and Girl and social norms as patterns of behaviour ‘descriptive norms’ (what people family, Brazil, motivated by a desire to conform to actually do).40 2017 the shared social expectations of Social norms differ from attitudes people who are important to them; in that they are ‘interdependent’ – they may both value others’ approval they reflect values shared amongst and fear their disapproval. They can a group of people. Actual behaviour be defined as the ‘informal rules that is influenced by an interplay of social 35 Nussbaum, Martha C., ‘Women and Human Development: 41 Robeyns, Ingrid, ‘The Capability Approach: a theoretical govern our behaviour’.38 The power norms, personal and factual beliefs, The Capabilities Approach’, Cambridge: Cambridge University survey’, Journal of Human Development, 6, No 1 (2005): 93- of social expectations and the drive and other external circumstances Press, 2000, p. 2. 117. 36 Sen, Amartya, ‘Development as freedom’, New York: Oxford 42 Sen, Amartya, ‘Development as freedom’, New York: Oxford to ‘belong’ can be so strong that – such as poverty. Social norms University Press, 1999. University Press, 1999, p. 293. people follow norms even where themselves can be both positive and 37 Marcus, Rachel, Caroline Harper, Sophie Brodbeck and Ella 43 Sen, Amartya, ‘Development as freedom’, New York: Oxford Page, ‘Social norms, gender norms and adolescent girls’, ODI, University Press, 1999; O’Hearn, Denis, ‘Amartya Sen’s these contradict their personal beliefs negative; they can both drive and 2015. Development as Freedom: Ten Years Later’, Policy and and attitudes.39 This difference prevent change, help to explain weak 38 Marcus, Rachel and Caroline Harper, ‘Gender justice and Practice, A Development Education Review, (8), Spring 2009. social norms – processes of change for adolescent girls’, ODI, 44 Ibid between the rules or standards implementation of laws intended to 2014. 45 Kabeer, Naila, ‘Resources, agency, achievements: Reflections people commonly expect and what protect and extend women’s and girls’ 39 Marcus, Rachel, Caroline Harper, Sophie Brodbeck and Ella on the measurement of women’s empowerment’, Development Page, ‘Social norms, gender norms and adolescent girls’, ODI, and Change 30, No 3 (1999): 435-464. they actually do has led to some rights (social, cultural and economic) 2015. 46 Nussbaum, Martha C, ‘Women and Human Development: The distinguishing between ‘injunctive and mean that discriminatory practices 40 Marcus, Rachel and Caroline Harper, ‘Gender justice and Capabilities Approach’, Cambridge: Cambridge University social norms – processes of change for adolescent girls’, ODI, Press, 2000, p. 3. norms’ (what people believe they are continued.41 2014.

44 real choices, real lives: eleven years on 45 ‘Real Choices, Real Lives’ Cohort Study Map; Where the girls live

Benin Alice Annabelle Barbara Vietnam Catherine Chau Eleanor Hang Dominican Isabelle Hoa Jacqueline Huong Republic Kieu Chantal Layla Margaret Kim Dariana Ly Griselda Thea Ianna (m) Mai Katerin Nguyet Leyla Elaine (m) Elizabeth (m) Nhi Madelin Oanh Nicol Omalara (d) Lillian (d) Quynh Raisa Sen Rebeca Tan Saidy Thi Sharina Tien Valerie Trinh Ana (l) Thom Cara (l) Uyen Oria (m) Yen El Salvador Andrea Bessy Doris Gabriela Gladys Cambodia Hillary Togo Bopha Karen Davy Ala-Woni Kannitha Mariel Anti Raquel Leakhena Anti-Yara Lina Rebeca Ayomide Stephany Mealea Brazil Azia Mony Susana Amanda Djoumai Valeria Nakry Bianca Essohana Puthea Camila Fezire Uganda Reaksmey Fernanda Folami Amelia Roumany Juliana Ladi Beti Sokanha Larissa Dembe Philippines Larba Sothany Chesa Natália Lelem Jane Thearika Patrícia Joy Christine Mangazia Kanya (m) Darna Sofia Nana-Adja Justine Tatiana Miremba Dolores Nini-Rike Jasmine Beatriz (l) Reine Namazzi Feliciana(l) Nimisha Jocelyn Tene Mahalia Luiza (l) Adjoa (l) Rebecca Valentina (l) Sheila Maricel Iara (l) Melanie Catarina (m) Melyah (m) Shifa Elena (m) Sylvia Michelle (m) = migrated Aria (m) Reyna Florencia (m) Dofi (m) Achen (m) (d) = deceased Margarida (m) Nasiche (d) Rosamie (l) = left the study Esi (m) Rubylyn Pietra (m) Omorose (m) (from 2016) = Sancia (m) Angela (m) girls added to the Aisosa (d) Nicole (d) Isoka (d) study in 2016* Izegbe (d)

46 real choices, real lives: eleven years on 47