Autonomous Vehicles

Autonomous Vehicles: changing the surface landscape of communities through increased green infrastructure adoption and implementation to help US cities combat stormwater runoff by Kelsey L. Schmidt B.S. Environmental Science Lourdes University, May 2015 A Thesis Submitted to the Graduate School of the University of Cincinnati in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master of Community Planning in the School of Planning, College of Design, Architecture, Art, and Planning Committee Chair: David Edelman, Ph.D., School of Planning Committee Member: Leah Hollstein, Ph.D., School of Planning Committee Member: Travis Miller, MCP, OKI March 2018 Abstract Today many communities are trying to find different solutions for mitigating the negative impacts of growth, impervious surfaces, and stormwater runoff on the environment. Sustainable stormwater management is a challenge for cities but there is also opportunity. The purpose of this research was to explore an environmentally positive scenario to how Autonomous Vehicles will impact communities. The research attempted to gain insight about Autonomous Vehicles and their impact on the built environment, trees, and stormwater. For this report three methods of research were used: background experience, four case studies, and a site selected scenario case study. With the idea that Autonomous Vehicle adoption is going to occur in the next 10-30 years this is going to change not only the way we travel but also create changes to the built environment. Autonomous Vehicles can have positive implications to communities by allowing new ways to incorporate trees as green infrastructure and to reduce impervious surface leading to stormwater problems. Autonomous Vehicle technology has the potential to create available spaces in our communities. The built environment changes would most affect street design width and surface parking lots. The study revealed new areas of analysis to be researched in terms of stormwater and Autonomous Vehicles. Green infrastructure implementation, particularly tree planting, can be used to mitigate stormwater runoff in cities due to changes to the built environment resulting from the adoption of Autonomous Vehicles. Keywords: Impervious Surface, Stormwater, Autonomous Vehicles, Green Infrastructure, Trees, Community Planning, Built Environment, Surface Parking Lots, Depaving, Road Diet, Sustainability, Resiliency ii (Intentionally left blank) iii Acknowledgements This thesis is the result of many sleepless nights, hours staring at a computer screen, too much coffee, and piles of reports. But the great things in life do not come easy. This thesis would have not been possible without the extended support from various people. I would first like to thank my three committee members Dr. David Edelman, Dr. Leah Hollstein, and OKI Regional Manager Travis Miller. Their guidance helped me get through this report and provided me with the knowledge needed to understand Autonomous Vehicle potential in cities. Whenever a new report came out they made sure to send it my way for analysis. In addition, I would also like to thank OKI Environmental/Water Quality Senior Planner David Rutter, who was willing to help read this report and give his expertise. His knowledge of stormwater problems throughout Hamilton County helped to increase my knowledge of what Autonomous Vehicles could really do in future stormwater management and green infrastructure. The OKI staff was also important in providing completed staff projects that had additional data needed to conduct an analysis of Hamilton County and the suitability of the site for Autonomous Vehicles. I would also like to thank two Green Umbrella Action Teams: Greenspace and Green Infrastructure. These groups helped me to formulate my idea, provided me with Hamilton County stormwater information, and informed me about the potential of green infrastructure in this county. These groups have many environmental leaders that were able to provide their professional expertise. Last, but very much not least, I would like to send my greatest thanks to Christopher M. Cooper, my family, and my friends. All were there for me when I was ready to give up. They made sure to let me know how proud they were and how important this research will be to my future. iv Table of Contents Abstract ii Acknowledgements iv List of Figures viii List of Tables x Chapter I 1 What is the Relationship Between Growth and the Environment? 1 Problems with Parking 2 Cost of Parking 3 Problems with Roadways 5 Cost of Roadways 6 Stormwater Runoff Problems in U.S. Communities 7 Using Green Infrastructure as a Stormwater Management Solution 9 The use of Trees in Green Infrastructure Stormwater Management 12 Stormwater and the Relationship with Climate Change 14 Problem Statement 16 Research Hypothesis 17 Significance of the Study 17 Thesis Structure 17 Chapter II 18 Literature Review 18 Autonomous Vehicles Definition 18 Levels of Autonomy 20 Autonomous Vehicle Timeline 22 Market Timeline 22 Policy Timeline 24 Impacts of Autonomous Vehicles 25 Parking Impacts 27 Roadway Impacts 31 Environmental Impacts 39 Green Infrastructure: Trees 40 Private or Shared Ownership of Autonomous Vehicles 42 v Chapter III 45 Methodology 45 Methodology Framework 45 Background Experience 46 Case Study 47 Site Selection 47 Chapter IV 49 Case Study Analysis 49 Executive Summary 49 New Mobility Street Design: A Case Study of Autonomous Vehicles 49 in San Francisco Hacienda Avenue Green Street Improvement Project 51 The Depave Organization 52 The Philadelphia Water Department’s Waterways Restoration Team Project 53 Results 55 Chapter V 56 Discussion 56 Restated Research Questions 56 Findings 57 Recommendations 59 Changes 60 Further Research 61 Limitations 61 Chapter VI 63 Site-Selection Scenario Case Study 63 Hamilton County, Ohio 63 Background of Hamilton County 64 Built Environment 65 Natural Environment 68 Stormwater Management 69 Hamilton County and Autonomous Vehicles 71 Parking 71 vi Clusters 73 Site Analysis 75 Suitability Analysis 86 Stormwater Reduction Potential 93 Roads 94 Chapter VII 100 Conclusion 100 Next Steps 100 Appendix I 102 Appendix II 104 References 106 vii List of Figures Figure 1-1. Land required per parking space (Victoria Transport Policy Institute). 2 Figure 1-2. Parking facility costs (Litman, 2014). 4 Figure 1-3. Extreme one-day precipitation events in the contiguous 48 states, 14 1910-2015 (EPA, 2016). Figure 2-1. Levels of autonomy (Union of Concerned Scientists, 2018). 22 Figure 2-2. When will automakers release an autonomous car (Keeney, 2014). 23 Figure 2-3. When will you be able to buy a driverless car (MojoMotors & Dia, 2015). 24 Figure 2-4. States with enacted Autonomous Vehicle legislation 25 (National Conference of State Legislatures, 2018). Figure 2-5. Existing parking and a conceptual site plan of parking redevelopment 28 opportunities for the University of South Florida campus (Chapin, et al., 2016). Figure 2-6. Urban arterial street design (Schlossberg, Riggs, Millard-Ball, & Shay, 2018). 33 Figure 2-7. Decreasing width in all lanes (Author). 34 Figure 2-8. The removal of one on-street parking lane and reduced width lanes (Author). 34 Figure 2-9. The removal of two on-street parking lanes and reduced width lanes (Author).35 Figure 2-10. The removal of one travel lane and reduced width lanes (Author). 35 Figure 2-11. Rethinking radically #1 (Author). 36 Figure 2-12. Rethinking radically #2 (Author). 37 Figure 2-13. Typical residential street cross-section 37 (Schlossberg, Riggs, Millard-Ball, & Shay, 2018). Figure 2-14. Reducing the width of all the lanes (Author). 38 Figure 2-15. Removing street parking and reduced width lanes (Author). 38 Figure 2-16. Removing another driving lane and reduced width lanes (Author). Figure 2-17. Rethinking radically #3 (Author). 39 Figure 4-1. Revolutionary scenario future plan View 50 (Baumgardner, Ruhl, & Tiemey, 2017). Figure 4-2. Revolutionary scenario future cross section 50 (Baumgardner, Ruhl, & Tiemey, 2017). Figure 4-3. Hacienda Avenue green street (City of Campbell, 2013). 52 Figure 4-4. New street design (City of Campbell, 2013). 52 Figure 4-5. Depaving project Eadom Street Philadelphia 54 (Philadelphia Water Department, 2011). Figure 6-1. OKI region (OKI, 2008). 64 Figure 6-2. Hamilton County, OH (Academic , 2018). 64 Figure 6-3. Hamilton County urban boundary (OKI, ArcGIS). 65 Figure 6-4. Hamilton County impervious surface (OKI, ArcGIS). 66 Figure 6-5. Hamilton County existing land use (OKI, ArcGIS). 67 Figure 6-6. Hamilton County tree canopy (OKI, ArcGIS). 68 Figure 6-7. Total monthly precipitation (World Media Group, LLC, 2018). 69 Figure 6-8. Sewer system map (Metropolitan Sewer District of Greater Cincinnati 70 Figure 6-9. Hamilton County parking lot clusters (Green Umbrella Water Action 72 Team, 2014). Figure 6-10. Kenwood Towne Centre cluster (Author, ArcGIS). 73 Figure 6-11. Anderson Township cluster (Author, ArcGIS). 73 viii Figure 6-12. Downtown Cincinnati cluster (Author, ArcGIS). 74 Figure 6-13. Cincinnati State (ArcGIS). 77 Figure 6-14. Surface parking Cincinnati State campus (Author, ArcGIS). 78 Figure 6-15. Xavier University (ArcGIS). 79 Figure 6-16. Surface parking Xavier University campus (Author, ArcGIS). 80 Figure 6-17. Anderson Towne Center (ArcGIS). 81 Figure 6-18. Surface parking Anderson Towne Center (Author, ArcGIS). 82 Figure 6-19. Hyde Park Plaza (ArcGIS). 83 Figure 6-20. Surface parking Hyde Park Plaza (Author, ArcGIS). 84 Figure 6-21. Rookwood Commons (ArcGIS). 85 Figure 6-22. Surface parking Rookwood Commons (Author, ArcGIS). 86 Figure 6-23. Cincinnati’s Central Business District (ArcGIS). 87 Figure 6-24. Surface parking Cincinnati’s Central Business District (Author, ArcGIS). 88 Figure 6-25. Cincinnati State suitability analysis (Author, ArcGIS). 92 Figure 6-26. Xavier University suitability analysis (Author, ArcGIS). 94 Figure 6-27. Cincinnati Central Business District suitability analysis (Author, ArcGIS). 95 Figure 6-28. Hamilton County roads map (OKI, ArcGIS). 98 Figure 6-29. ODOT roadway projects (ODOT, 2017). 99 Figure AI-1. Suitability analysis rendering of parking lot to urban forest canopy 102 (Author, SketchUp).

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