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Films and TV-Series About Resistance During World War Two and the Construction of Norwegian Identity

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Films and TV-Series About Resistance During World War Two and the Construction of Norwegian Identity Ritualistic Remembrance Films and TV-series about resistance during World War Two and the construction of Norwegian identity Håvard Rustad Markussen Master’s thesis at the Department of Political Science UNIVERSITY OF OSLO 23.05.2017 Number of words: 44 211 !I !II Ritualistic Remembrance Films and TV-series about resistance during World War Two and the construction of Norwegian identity !III © Håvard Rustad Markussen 2017 Ritualistic Remembrance - Films and TV-series about resistance during World War Two and the construction of Norwegian identity Håvard Rustad Markussen http://www.duo.uio.no Trykk: CopyCat !IV Abstract In this thesis, I apply insights from collective memory studies to poststructuralist IR in order to enhance understanding of how popular culture operates in processes of discursive identity construction. More specifically, I rely on Grant David Bollmer’s (2011) argument that repetition is key when attempting to keep certain memories from being forgotten. Using this theoretical framework, I analyze the following four films and TV-series on Norwegian resistance during World War Two as rituals of embodied movement: Operation Swallow: The Battle for Heavy Water (1948), Nine Lives (1957), Max Manus (2008) and The Heavy Water War (2015). The analysis demonstrates how these films and TV-series in large part reproduce and naturalize dominant representations of Norwegian identity by keeping certain memories of World War Two in Norway actualized. They represent wartime resistance and Norwegian identity along four main lines. These are: Norway as important for the outcome of the war, Norway as ‘not’ Germany, Norway as rural in its essence and Norway as cold hardy and beautiful. Interestingly, all four representational themes function to reinforce bedrock assumptions of Norwegian moral superiority, and as such, contribute to the perpetuation of the grand narratives of Norwegian identity. Importantly, arguing that Bollmer’s theory on collective memory and rituals of embodied movement should be used as a criterion for the selection of text when analyzing popular culture as discourse, I join the efforts of poststructuralists who advocate moderate methodological advances for the approach. !V !VI Acknowledgements First of all, a big thank you to my two supervisors, Øivind Bratberg and Benjamin de Carvalho, for valuable feedback and comments along the way. I also owe Sindre Viksand, a nod: thank you for interesting discussions, IR-theory supervision, and for helping me develop the project form beginning to end. Good friends at Blindern - Torbjørn, Dino, Aslak, Alex, Christian, Lars, Endre, Peder, Hilde - also deserve a thank you, for making the process so much more enjoyable. And of course, my parents have helped out with proofreading, proficient comments, and unwavering support. Finally, thank you, Erik and Benedicte, for bearing with me and also for valuable help on the thesis and underway encouragements Håvard Rustad Markussen 23.05.2017 !VII !VIII Table of Contents 1. Introduction ..........................................................................................................................1 2. Theory: collective memory in IR and film and TV-series as rituals of embodied movement ..................................................................................................................................9 2.1. Poststructuralism in IR theory ...........................................................................................11 2.2. The turn to popular culture ...............................................................................................18 2.3. Methodological considerations: the source material challenge ........................................23 2.4. Collective memory studies and poststructuralist IR .........................................................27 2.5. Collective memory and rituals of embodied movement ...................................................30 3. Methodology and research design ....................................................................................35 3.1. Methodological considerations .........................................................................................36 3.2. Research design I: identifying basic discourses ................................................................41 3.3. Research design II: analyzing popular culture as discourse .............................................43 4. On Norwegian state identity: identifying basic discourses ............................................48 4.1. Denmark and Europe as constitutive Others prior to 1814 ...............................................49 4.2. Denmark and Europe as constitutive Others after 1814 ...................................................52 4.3. Independence from Sweden and Norwegian peace nation identity ..................................55 4.4. Norwegian identity in the 20th century ............................................................................58 4.5. Summary: basic discourses on Norwegian identity ..........................................................62 5. Analysis: film and TV-series on resistance during World War Two as ritualistic remembrance ..........................................................................................................................64 5.1. Operation Swallow: The Battle for Heavy Water .............................................................65 5.2. Nine Lives .........................................................................................................................78 5.3. Max Manus .......................................................................................................................91 5.4. The Heavy Water War .....................................................................................................105 6. Conclusion .........................................................................................................................117 Bibliography .........................................................................................................................123 !IX !X 1. Introduction Norway is a nation that thinks very highly of itself. Assumptions of inherent goodness and superiority, moral or otherwise, are pillars of Norwegian identity, and have been for hundreds of years. Although this might be true of any nationalism, Norwegian superiority is arguably of a special brand, both due to its resilience and to its specific content. Going back to the 16th century, even the early indications of Norwegian distinctiveness where relying on the idea that Norway was somehow better than and preferable to other places. These indications primarily had to do with the the moral desirability of an allodial1 system of free farmers (Neumann 2002b: 93-94), but also with the distinctiveness of Norwegian climate and topography (Christensen 1993: 39-41, Neumann 2001c: 46-47). In the 19th century, after Norway had gained independence from Denmark and wanted to take distance from its former suppressor and the continental values it represented, the emphasis was put on the free Norwegian ‘people’ being the bearers of the nation and on the preeminence of down-to-earth modesty as contrasted to highbrow and arrogant decadence (Neumann 2001c: 66-67, Storsveen 1998: 232). The formation of the peace nation identity around the time of the dissolution of the union with Sweden in 1905 saw the moral element in the assumption of superiority gather further momentum (Leira 2004). Moreover, firm commitment to the UN and the peace nation identity-crescendo of the 1990s added a strong concern for human rights and a unique capacity to negotiate peace to the national narrative (Skånland 2010). It is the puzzle of what enables the sustainability and resilience of these assumptions, and accordingly the stubborn stability of Norwegian identity, that is the engine of this study. From the poststructuralist point of view that I employ, this is a puzzle because other basic assumptions and narratives of Norwegianness that are no less real or true, are also highly conceivable and could indeed have come to dominate the storyline instead. For instance, Norway’s recent participation in the wars in Kosovo, Afghanistan, Iraq and Libya could have called the assumption of superiority into question2, and the same goes for Norwegian 1 An allodial system is a system in which a peasant owns land him-/herself, meaning he or she is not part of a feudal structure. 2 See Leira, Borchgrevink, Græger,, Melchior, Stamnes, and Øverland,(2007: 14-15) and Græger (2007: 88-90) for discussions on the tension between peace commitment and militarism in Norwegian identity construction. !1 collaboration with the Nazi regime during World War Two3. These examples are a testament to the fluidity and malleability of knowledge, and to all the stories that are not told and not remembered; to the paths that are not followed and are left unexplored and to the truths that are deemed untruthful. My concern in this thesis is to contribute to the understanding of why one specific path is followed at the cost of others and how come one specific truth is elevated and given status as objective and considered commonsensical. In order to make such a contribution, I will look to World War Two, and more specifically at how Norwegian resistance4 against the Nazi occupation has been represented in order to negotiate memories from the war, and accordingly constitute the collective that is Norway. Furthermore, I will follow the, by now quite extensive5,
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