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Health Psychology Review Publication details, including instructions for authors and subscription information: http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/title~content=t741771149 Health benefits: Meta-analytically determining the impact of well-being on objective health outcomes Ryan T. Howell a; Margaret L. Kern b; Sonja Lyubomirsky b a Department of Psychology, San Francisco State University, San Francisco, CA, USA b Department of Psychology, University of California, Riverside, CA, USA

Online Publication Date: 01 March 2007 To cite this Article: Howell, Ryan T., Kern, Margaret L. and Lyubomirsky, Sonja (2007) 'Health benefits: Meta-analytically determining the impact of well-being on objective health outcomes', Health Psychology Review, 1:1, 83 — 136 To link to this article: DOI: 10.1080/17437190701492486 URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/17437190701492486

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Psychology, 94132, of CA Department Francisco, (e.g., life Ph.D., most Howell, the T. of marriage Ryan multiple One Correspondence: 1989). press), al., across et in Scheier rewards (e.g., Lyubomirsky, coping and and & 1999), Fleming, (Boehm advantages & Marks work numerous but including good, accrue feel domains, people makes them only not helps happiness that suggests evidence Increasing Introduction meta-analysis processes, health affect, Keywords: outcomes. and health objective ambulatory on ( experimental, outcomes well-being health 150 of impacts positively impact well-being from that the demonstrated findings tested Results that integrates studies synthesis longitudinal research This Abstract 2 1 HOWELL T. RYAN outcomes health objective on well-being of the impact determining Meta-analytically benefits: Health en a on ob oiieyrltdt hr-emhat ucms( outcomes health short-term to related ( positively outcomes health be term to found was being oeta ilgclptwy,sc htwl-en a ietybltrimmune bolster directly can well-being stress. that of impact such the to buffer point pathways, and findings salutary similar These functioning significantly reactivity. a biological not physiological at was having and well-being cardiovascular potential ill- well-being whereas in health stronger to tolerance, to increases was pain to due health also and related improving compromised solely response but on well-being system not health, of immune to is impact for on the health healthy Additionally, impact lead on health. to on detrimental well-being impact ill-being lead a subjective of having well-being of effect being of the inductions inductions Thus, magnitudes. that and demonstrated functioning, studies experimental the OJ LYUBOMIRSKY SONJA eateto scooy nvriyo aiona iesd,C,USA CA, Riverside, California, of and USA, University CA, Psychology, Francisco, San of University, Department State Francisco San Psychology, of Department betv elhotoe,pyia ucinn,sbetv elbig positive well-being, subjective functioning, physical outcomes, health Objective r  Á 136 1 .1,addsaeo ypo oto ( control symptom or disease and 0.11), AGRTL KERN L. 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Kozma, are single & constructs a Stones these 2006; yield Although Lyubomirsky, typically & and Sheldon (e.g., constructs, factor correlated higher-order highly yet are ‘‘life affect separable positive alternatively, considered and or, satisfaction, ‘‘well-being’’) life Happiness, simply affect.’’ ‘‘positive or or ‘‘happiness’’ satisfaction’’ for (SWB; term well-being’’ ‘‘subjective technical call the researchers most what comprise meta-analysis well-being. health Defining and well-being measuring and Defining link. health this objective of moderators on the well-being on of the focus effects synthesize a knowledge, to possible with is our status, the meta-analysis our investigates to of that goal not, primary literature the well-being end, have the this To of researchers magnitude. nature However, explore the across health studies periods. explored physical of Longitudinal levels extended outcomes. future predict how health more happiness examine to of levels to relate previous weeks mood whether or daily use days moods in studies several transient changes Ambulatory across experimental negative outcomes. methodology health and sampling Specifically, objective positive experience concurrent influences. induced on of emotions causal effects and long- the disentangle health and determine objective help on studies ambulatory, well-being of can impact experimental, possible the outcomes Fortunately, on focus being health. that and studies happy, itudinal bolster people make can & can healthy happy (Pressman Being complex. negative morbidity undoubtedly is robust and health a affect addition, positive patients In between cancer for found 2000). 2005). life Cohen, been Goodwin, of has & quality better relation Black, of having with levels Markides, higher associated report and are (Ostir, 2005); individuals (Lyubo- affect Spiro, & symptoms positive happy Mroczek physical trait 2006; 2005; unpleasant DiMatteo, example, & Diener, fewer Tkach, For reviews & experiencing mirsky, improved and 2005). literature King, with health (Lyubomirsky, recent Cohen, associated superior morbidity two & is lower Indeed, well-being Pressman and health. increased outcomes is that health explore evidence to summarized domains critical codnl,SBi mlydhr sa vrrhn emta comprises that term overarching an as here employed is SWB Accordingly, and well-being between relation the influences, directional considering in Yet, .T oele al. et Howell T. R. h needn n rdco aibe osdrdi this in considered variables predictor and independent The Á elhln,byn ipyrprigits reporting simply beyond link, health r rm04 o0.66). to 0.48 from s r rm04 o0.72; to 0.44 from s Downloaded By: [CDL Journals Account] At: 06:12 10 July 2008 nojciehat ucms eueteterm well-being the of use effects we the outcomes, on meta-analysis health this objective 1999). in Smith, on & focus Lucas, we Suh, because Diener, 2000; Furthermore, (Diener, satisfaction life of judgments h eerhctdue ait fmaue ftedfeetcmoet of components different well-being. the Measuring of measures of variety a induction). emotion used negative well-being. a cited satisfaction, of research part as life stress, The (e.g., The moods, manipulated negative induction). affect, or (e.g., depression) emotion measured anger, are positive positive that term a constructs the psychological (e.g., of with negative contrasted part then measured is as well-being (e.g., term are manipulated or that optimism) constructs gical aac cl Babr,16) ainso h oiieadNgtv Affect Negative Affect and the Positive as the such of moods, variants and 1969), emotions (Bradburn, Scale of Balance measures self-reported QLQ-30, review included responses a emotional for (e.g., on satisfaction. 2006, not life and Gotay, issues of survival) see judgments to 1993; QOL global medical of al., or types et these and linking Cella FACT, studies of on 1993; problems, primarily al., focus ( et health measures Aaronson correlation these symptoms, as high included, quality- For not non-hedonic very physical 1996). were specific a measures Suh, some (QOL) However, found & of-life happiness. Diener, (2005) and thus, (Lucas, al. optimism and, well-being between affectivity, et for positive Lyubomirsky proxy to related defensible example, Carver, be included a & to as also Scheier found [LOT]; We serves been Test life?’’). Orientation has Life Optimism your as the 1985). such with (e.g., well-being, of optimism you indicators of indirect are measures more employed satisfied single- that various ‘‘How studies and longitudinal (e.g., 1980), of Stones, scales University & Scale Memorial (Kozma item Life the Happiness With 1985), of Griffin, Satisfaction Scale of & Newfoundland the measures Larsen, to, different Emmons, limited Diener, several not (SWLS; but included including, here well-being, physiological described global studies and longitudinal 2001), 2005). Taylor, The Keltner, & Hariri, & non-verbal Dahl, Gonzalez, Harker of Lerner, observations events (e.g., (e.g., negative unobtrusive responses expressions and 1997), positive smiling) Diener, of & (i.e., recall Wyer, 1993), Lepper, Seidlitz, Seidlitz, & (e.g., & Lyubomirsky (e.g., Diener, reports Sandvik, informant 1999; convergence with significant subjective well-being reveals (for are research self-reported variables ‘‘objective’’ example, self-reports of For more 1994). that relatively Diener, to fact see unrelated review, 1995, the are a they Diener, However, that & 1994). mean (Myers not Diener, skin’’ and does also person’s happiness see a of inside 11; employ judge lives p. final ‘‘whoever constructs be the these to allow of satisfaction appropriately the (in which Measures (in well-being methods, moods research). of and self-report levels experimental emotions trait level) and both (state of transient ambulatory and measures research) use longitudinal that the studies included have we h muaoy(n oeeprmna)suisdsrbdhr typically here described studies experimental) some (and ambulatory The self-report. via well-being assess studies ambulatory and longitudinal Typically, ie hsatcesfcso elbigsipc nhealth, on impact well-being’s on focus article’s this Given elbigadhat:Ameta-analysis A health: and Well-being ill-being well-being hc euet ee to refer to use we which , o oiiepsycholo- positive for r  0.60) 85 Downloaded By: [CDL Journals Account] At: 06:12 10 July 2008 86 MEe,19;MEe tla,19) nti eaaayi,w define we decline meta-analysis, physical an framework. this to holistic for In more lead threatened second, 1993). and this is Stellar, to down balance according & break health this McEwen can If 1998; systems autonomic, 2007). (McEwen, these the Berntson, within that period, & balance such extended maintain (Cacioppo Heckhausen, to time, body & together over work the Schultz regulation systems & immune involves 1992; and Staudinger, health Elder, neuroendocrine, Baltes, is, & 2001; that Pavalko, Cupertino, 1996); Clipp, & 1999; Levenson, Lindenberger, Spiro, specific (Aldwin, to in process substances health and ways, overall hormones of of of variety concentrations a bloodstream. judgments (Breslow, as in the such operationalized measurement single-item measures, be of subjective can physiological time Health from the 1991). at Kasl, ranging disability), & health conditions, Idler of care), chronic 1972; medical self-assessments minimal vomiting, with of positive well fever, lack function and of to a be (ability lack function by normal (e.g., can characterized maintaining disease is It or health Accordingly, illness 1997). model. biomedical Gochman, traditional 2003) 2007; 1994, categories Kaplan, distinct 2007; Berntson, two as & conceptualized (Cacioppo classification 1995). Fujita, health. & Smith, Defining Diener, 1984; Emmons, Gardner, & Cacioppo, 1965; Diener Caplovitz, 1999; rooted & Berntson, be (Bradburn & of to systems appear opposite biological across and the distinct relations variables, inverse in not different moderate with happiness, are show correlate affect (e.g., moods sometimes of individuals, positive emotions types Notably, two specific These moods. moods. among negative or arousal) discriminate the or positive not or elation, and do affect for positive music, 2007, and global Allen, induce imagery, & emotions, researchers Coan many films, (see However, others overview). including among an 1968), emotions, (Velten, task transient induction Velten al., induce et to Lyubomirsky used (see well-being approach). long-term those similar to emotions global, a parallel for be of positive 2005, to concomitants moods frequent positive the expected of short-term we for of Hence, experience outcomes 2005). al., health the et physical Lyubomirsky the as 1991; Pavot, & defined Sandvik, (Diener, been health. notably has very on has our it the happiness to in happiness happiness, be long-term long-term date, to interested to shown induced to equivalent researchers been not of investigations is to effects mood no transient available the as Although tested measures studies, have over only experimental affect knowledge, in the in changes affect are small track measuring these to is and purpose to whose Mood time; appropriate studies, are of measures ambulatory Profile Such in the 1995). use Studts, and & 1988), Andrykowski, Tellegen, (Curran, & States Clark, Watson, (PANAS; Schedule ncnrs,svrltersshv ugse hthat edfnda lifelong a as defined be health that suggested have theorists several contrast, In were manipulations of variety a here, reported research experimental the In .T oele al. et Howell T. R. elhi ut-iesoa osrc hteae simple evades that construct multi-dimensional a is Health hallmark Á u suulydfnda tt,etnigfo the from extending state, a as defined usually is but rbsccnttet fhpies Indeed, happiness. of constituent, basic or , Á sasaeo sapoes(Carver, process a as or state a as Downloaded By: [CDL Journals Account] At: 06:12 10 July 2008 r,19;Pceig 99.Ti epnesol hntprbc obaseline to back taper then should Tassin- response & This (Cacioppo 1999). conductance Pickering, skin 1990; and rate, the heart ary, the temperature, in In by increases finger 1995). and evidenced pressure, adrenaline) al., system, cortisol, blood 1993; et (e.g., the hormones activates Linnemeyer, Saleh specific stress of 1999; 1995; release (ANS), Rabin, an Dreher, system 1998; to nervous Lowe, 2004; exposed autonomic & being al., Nelson, after et Sabin, sIgA) Perera, (Dayyani as substance (such immunoglobin invading and cells), interleukin o xml,i h muesse,mreso omlimn responses immune normal of markers (e.g., system, lymphocytes CD8 2004). immune in Miller, the & increases the Segerstrom assess include 1999; in to (Rabin, used level example, are molecular For the functioning at immune stress and of effects responses hormonal of functioning. markers normal of life of Markers years final the by achieved to are 2003). is morbidity Kaplan, measures health compressing 1990; optimal objective be (Fries, while which Additionally, expectancy in may 2005). perspective life health extending Cohen, well-being public (Lyubomirsky & a and constructs from Pressman two valuable health 2005; these between al., of association et strong measures a than for self-reported responsible rather method Shared between outcomes advantages. several physical has variance practice of objective This terms self-reports. in relatively subjective health using operationalize and to 1998; measures opted Singer, we & physiological analysis, present Ryff the 1995; in (Fisher, 1987), Ware, dimensions affective the and despite cognitive, physical, life, (longer morbidities). more survival or increase allergic one (e.g., of a and illness with presence symptoms) individuals of For symptoms asthmatic mortality. decrease reactions, early individuals, of should and well-being risk healthy infections), decrease condition, for and and chronic colds level, functioning, as molar normal (such increase the illness or At maintain recovery 2007). should rapid (Kemeny, and well-being stress levels to the responses baseline at normal Specifically, by to integrate marked functioning. is of to overall health markers level, of is both molecular markers assessing meta-analysis studies and included this functioning we (e.g., physiological of therefore, heart health health; goal overall of (e.g., levels of One activity multiple markers survival). long-term system or fitness, of levels) cardiovascular whether markers cortisol on pressure, short-term depend blood in health optimal rate, of interested between measures continuum are Further, the researchers illness. on illnesses, clinical position and person’s chronic and functioning the operationalized with is on health depends how individuals Accordingly, measured (Westmas, 2007). goals Silver, for preventing important Cohen are & and whereas Gil-Rivas, symptoms controlling functioning goals, and normal well-being For important maintaining of process. state are broader this a disease within maintaining state individuals, individual’s healthy the reflects assessment single health. 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Bunde, health Dubanoski, mortality & positive better decreased Suls and to whereas 1992; relate risk conscientiousness, Williams, 1989), and poor & agreeableness, Pennebaker, Smith, and extraversion, Smith 2006; risk 2004; & Smith, mortality Gallo, 1987; Watson increased & Booth-Kewley, traits, to & Ruiz, negative Friedman Glazer, relate that (e.g., hostility, demonstrated outcomes and has health (Rabin neuroticism which notion nervous activity as research, this for personality system such sympathetic support in sympathetic Empirical the functioning. evident decrease optimal foster is activates promote may and moods stress 1994), trigger al., and et whereas opposite emotions is, an positive system, That can health? outcomes, improved health detrimental health. foster influence functioning. may overall well-being in How and body and the function in of system markers multiple main combining each 1994), considered fashion, within we holistic al., dysregulation meta-analysis, how present more on the et this informative in in be Hence, (Keller health whole. can a which considers as story, functions parallel researcher body a the telling a be may aspects markers multiple constraints physiological participant and what cost Although limit responses. immune specific and natural auayefcs codnl,i diint h vrl eaino elbigto relations. well-being these of of relation moderators overall potential the several to examined we addition health, in Accordingly, effects. salutary also but outcomes, health influences pcfcly rsmnadChn(05 ealdtomdl ikn positive linking models two detailed (2005) Cohen and Pressman Specifically, .T oele al. et Howell T. R. oiieafc a mloaeteefcso tesu events stressful of effects the ameliorate may affect positive , ietefcsmodel effects direct Á W relation SWB ne htconditions what under fsrs n eaieeoin potentially emotions negative and stress If oiieafc a ietyaffect directly may affect positive , elbigmyeetits exert may well-being whether well-being Downloaded By: [CDL Journals Account] At: 06:12 10 July 2008 94.I otat o nelh niiul,tesse sawoeis whole a as system adding the system, al., the individuals, on et stress (Rabin unhealthy further system indicate another values for abnormal in and contrast, fluctuations dysregulated, to In response may normal marker 1994). one a of levels be abnormal seemingly actually thus, stress; transient with moderator. fluctuate a as Smith, health 1991; Baseline (Rosenthal, be sense will practical outcomes a (Hall, long-term in relation on significant 2006). to age, still effects this with although any in occur social weaker, that hence, intercede as changes unreliability; such physiological and natural factors, measurement and moderate psychosocial habits, from can health ranging support, 1994), variables O’Grady, outcomes, its of & long-term For then Anderson, array 1994). recovery), al., et rapid vast response (Rabin more quickly a this a fairly evident interrupts engendering be autonomic or well-being will effects stress the if buffering occurs, activated; negative through stress immediately short-term (either from When is affect system outcomes. system would the long-term nervous well-being than buffer were that more relations to predicted outcomes negative we expected These Furthermore, is progression. outcomes. well-being disease because and response measures predicted symptom conditions, (e.g., temperature), response to chronic finger endocrine (e.g., in negatively response pressure), physiological blood relate cortisol), rate, of to heart contrast, (e.g., In well-being reactivity functioning. system expected immune we improve and cardiovascular and (i.e., functioning), response Cohen respiratory system and nervous positively autonomic relate Pressman improve to tolerance), well-being by expected & We enumerated Segerstrom work. relevant models 1999; to other Rabin, pathway as well (e.g., the as literature (2005), and health 2004) and moderator. stress Miller, the a from as theories outcome was outcomes Health health 12 these of markers. having each specific despite turn, various survival In of (c) conditions. comprised and terminal progression, more disease or such (b) and one conditions asthma), (in disease and control Finally, respiratory allergies longevity. of as cardiovascular measures (d) tolerance. (a) (b) included and pain control outcomes, functioning, symptom (e) health respiratory system and general (c) endocrine (a) response, functioning, included (c) physiological (a) outcomes reactivity, (d) included Long-term response, cardiovascular outcomes and for (b) short-term of functioning response, Specifically, control effects be outcomes. the system symptom examined health can immune and we of categories, health disease groups three how these 12 and Across to samples. outcomes, short- ill status: according chronically health long-term initial outcomes and outcomes, follow-up of health term length both we of on level, broad based types a conceptualized, at Specifically, three health. of markers identified specific and general both using outcomes. health of Categories n increase and elhrltdfntoig(.. ogvt,sria,adpain and survival, longevity, (i.e., functioning health-related is,w obndsot n ogtr outcomes long-term and short- combined we First, o elh niiul,bdl ytm naturally systems bodily individuals, healthy For u oeao rdcin eebsdon based were predictions moderator Our elbigadhat:Ameta-analysis A health: and Well-being n decrease and cardiovascular 91 Downloaded By: [CDL Journals Account] At: 06:12 10 July 2008 92 ogtdnldt) eepce h eainbtenwl-en n objective and state of well-being in function between a manipulated relation as vary the and to in expected measured health studies typically we are transient ambulatory data), well-being (i.e., of longitudinal in levels design trait particular measured whereas research, any experimental typically in are well-being of emotions definition operational the well-being. of samples Operationalizations in unhealthy to for role important effect differential is greater samples. its a healthy health have to for baseline to than Due well-being outcomes, expected 1998). 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.T oele al. et Howell T. R. 98 vn ta.(93 12 1 (1993) al. et Evans ( I. Table lrne l 18)272 2 (1985) al. et Florin lrne l 18)272 2 (1985) al. et Florin otre l 20)323 3 (2003) al. et Foster rze ta.(04 613 .901 elh Experimental Experimental Experimental Healthy Healthy Healthy 0.19 0.08 0.19 0.08 1.37 1.91 0.40 1,178 56 522 2 0.40 1 3.08 6 60 2 (1993) al. et Friedman (2000) al. et Fredricksons (1998) Levenson and Fredricksons (2004) al. et Frazier utra ta.(94 635 .607 elh Experimental Experimental Healthy Healthy 0.76 0.12 0.76 0.12 50 3.57 0.16 16 5 1 1 1 (1990) al. et Gellman (1994) al. et Futterman (1992) al. et Futterman ese l 19)12 .000 .8HatyExperimental Experimental Experimental Experimental Experimental Experimental Experimental Longitudinal Experimental community Healthy Unhealthy Ambulatory Experimental Healthy Healthy Mixed Healthy patients Medical Healthy Healthy 0.16 Experimental Mixed Experimental Healthy Experimental 0.08 0.14 0.37 52 0.11 Healthy 0.08 0.27 0.14 0.44 0.14 0.13 0.08 Healthy 0.40 0.48 0.52 0.27 1 Healthy 0.44 0.23 0.13 27 20 0.08 1.15 0.16 0.52 2.00 1.22 0.60 0.42 0.02 20 0.11 1.20 2.37 24 1 72 3 24 30 58 0.02 3.29 20 1 891 0.12 0.07 2 2 1 1 1 1 42 0.22 0.07 1 0.34 (1993) al. 0.22 et (1991) 0.61 Hubert Jong-Meyer de 2 and (1990) Hubert 0.34 Jong-Meyer 1.69 de 92 and Hubert (2002) al. et 3.70 60 Houghton (1974) Dellinger and Horan (1992) 112 al. 2 et Hess (1994) Hekmat and Hertel 1 (2000) al. et 2 Harrison (1997) al. et Gullette (2005) Gomez (2004) al. et Giltay (2001) al. et Gendolla (2002) Krusken and Gendolla (2001b) Krusken and Gendolla (2001a) Krusken and Gendolla ua ta.(91 119 .603 elh Experimental Ambulatory Experimental patients Medical 0.20 Healthy Healthy 0.20 0.36 0.53 0.36 69 10 0.09 1.96 0.09 31 1 1 0.55 1 43 2 (1999) al. et Jacob (1990) Hyland (1991) al. et Hudak (2000) al. et Hucklebride imt 20)47 .003 .005 ie Experimental Longitudinal Mixed 0.58 0.00 Healthy 0.06 0.32 2.50 20 70 1 0.06 4 2.72 2,274 1 (1992) al. et Knapp Kivima (2004) Kitmata (2002) Doi and Kawamota uznk ta.(02 5 .201 .0HatyLongitudinal Longitudinal patients Medical Healthy 0.16 Longitudinal 0.10 Healthy 0.16 0.10 0.19 2.93 2.22 345 455 1 1 0.19 16.94 7,979 2 (2002) al. et Kubzansky (1997) al. et Krause (2000) al. et Koivumaa-Honkanen ¨ ie l 20)228205 .100 ie Longitudinal Mixed 0.01 0.01 0.53 2,852 2 (2005) al. et ki Continued )

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elbigadhat:Ameta-analysis A health: and Well-being 99 eye l 20)16065 .502 ie Longitudinal Experimental Longitudinal Experimental Ambulatory Mixed patients Medical 0.50 Experimental Experimental Healthy Longitudinal Healthy Ambulatory 0.25 patients Medical Healthy 0.42 0.48 Healthy Healthy Healthy 0.25 0.50 0.08 6.55 0.46 3.14 22 660 0.08 0.23 36 0.46 0.65 0.42 0.40 1 1 5.28 0.48 62 1 2.63 120 1.05 0.40 0.24 38 7 1 2.52 0.23 3 0.24 39 6.79 1 1.01 1 875 20 1 (2003) 1 al. et Liangas (2002) 1 al. et Levy (1988) al. et Levy (1990) al. et Levenson (1990) al. et Lefcourt (1995) Lambert and Lambert (1996) al. et Laidlaw (1994) al. et Laidlaw (1987) Kalveram and Kugler (2001) al. et Kubzansky ( I. Table ae n mt 19)15368 .003 ie Longitudinal Longitudinal Experimental Mixed Mixed Healthy 0.30 0.32 0.44 12 0.30 0.32 0.44 6.87 2.46 1 513 4.66 58 109 1 1 3 (1995) al. et McCraty (1997) Cheriff and McClelland (1999) Smith and Maier (1999) al. et Lutgendorf ege ta.(01 214 .601 elh Experimental Experimental Healthy Healthy 0.16 0.50 0.16 0.50 1.43 1.44 92 371 10 1 4 1 (2004) al. et Meininger (2001) al. et Meagher (1996) al. et McCraty okwt 20)14737 .801 eia ainsLongitudinal Experimental Longitudinal patients Medical Experimental 0.18 patients HIV Healthy Asthmatics 0.06 0.18 0.05 0.33 3.72 0.28 0.05 407 0.20 0.28 1.01 0.92 1 3.10 412 48 42 123 1 1 2 1 (2001) Waldstein and Neumann (2003) Moskowitz (1995) al. et Mittwoch-Jaffe (1997) Wood and Miller (2004) al. et Milam rahne l 19)13 .103 .1HatyExperimental Longitudinal Longitudinal Experimental Longitudinal Longitudinal Ambulatory Healthy Healthy Longitudinal Longitudinal Healthy Healthy Longitudinal Healthy Mixed Experimental Longitudinal Ambulatory community Healthy Unhealthy 0.26 Healthy 0.13 Healthy Healthy 0.31 0.11 0.14 Longitudinal 0.12 0.03 Healthy Healthy 0.31 0.65 0.12 0.10 1.71 0.06 0.07 2.19 0.13 0.65 0.22 31 334 0.05 2.87 0.11 Healthy 0.14 2.71 0.84 0.26 491 2.32 15 2.26 1 1 564 0.10 3.90 421 265 1 0.07 0.06 211 0.10 3.88 1 0.22 0.17 1 3.68 2 1 1,558 0.06 7.83 0.10 1 2,478 1 1,196 0.38 0.53 2 50 33 1 (1999) al. 0.17 et Prkachin (2003) Schwartz 2 and 1 Pollard (2005) 1.87 al. et Polk (2004) al. et 128 Pitkala (1998) al. et Perera (1992) al. et Parker 1 (1969) Palmore (2002) al. et Ostir (2004) al. et Ostir (2001) al. et Ostir (2000) al. et Ostir (2005) Allaire and Ong (1998) Vallerand and O’Connor (1996) al. et Njus Continued )

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100 .T oele al. et Howell T. R. hd ta.(05 834 .006 elh Experimental Experimental Longitudinal Healthy Longitudinal patients Medical 0.26 patients Medical Healthy 0.12 0.16 0.60 0.23 0.60 48 0.21 3.46 5.58 28 2 1,388 0.12 0.23 1 1 1.66 1.44 193 40 1 1 (2000) al. et Ritz (2005) al. et Richman (2005) al. et Rhudy (1981) Nelson and Reynolds (1979) Decarie and Provost ( I. Table ize l 20)240 2 (2001) al. et Ritz oebu 18)24 .503 .2HatyExperimental Healthy 0.07 0.32 0.01 0.32 0.10 1.95 60 40 34 2 2 1 (1986) Bloch and Santibanez (1980) Rosenbaum (2005) al. et Ritz cee ta.(99 117 .502 eia ainsLongitudinal patients Medical 0.25 0.25 1.76 32 51 1 1 (1981) al. et Schwartz (1989) al. et Scheier cwrze l 19)1246 1 (1994) al. et Schwartz hpr ta.(01 0 .100 .0HatyAmbulatory Experimental Healthy Healthy 0.00 0.15 0.00 54 0.01 0.15 203 1.27 1 80 1 2 (1992) al. et Sinha (2001) al. et Shapiro (1977) Barber and Scott trbc 16)11 .000 .0HatyExperimental Ambulatory Healthy Healthy 0.00 0.08 0.00 0.08 0.00 10 0.87 120 14 1 1 2 (1985) Holmes and Steptoe (1962) Sternbach (1998) al. et Smyth tn ta.(97 909 .801 elh Ambulatory Ambulatory Experimental Healthy Longitudinal Mixed Healthy Healthy 0.18 0.05 0.18 0.29 0.05 0.91 0.29 0.46 156 29 96 1.21 0.14 1 20 1 0.14 1 1.74 1 160 1 (1989) al. et Stones (1987) al. et Stone (1994) al. et Stone (1989) al. et Stevens (2005) Wardle and Steptoe zzpnk ta.(97 0 .000 .0HatyAmbulatory Healthy 0.00 6 0.00 0.00 1 101 1 (1992) Uchiyama (1997) al. et Szczepanski o ae ta.(05 700 .000 elh Experimental Ambulatory Experimental Longitudinal Healthy Healthy patients Medical Healthy 0.09 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.30 0.00 0.00 0.09 0.30 27 86 1.71 0.83 354 20 1 10 1 2 1 1 (2004) Dahme and Leupoldt (2005) von al. et Kanel (1996) von al. et Eck van (2001) Domburg van (1990) al. et Uchiyama o epltadDhe(05 128 2 (2005) Dahme and Leupoldt von ilase l 19)18 .300 .6HatyLongitudinal Experimental Experimental Experimental Experimental Healthy Experimental patients Medical 0.59 Healthy Healthy 0.06 Healthy Healthy 0.06 0.25 0.59 0.53 0.24 2.62 0.25 0.19 82 0.21 18 2.34 0.24 0.19 86 1 1.57 0.21 1.02 1 43 1.39 30 1 48 1 1 2 (1993) al. et Williams (1992) al. et Whorwell (1998) al. et Weisenberg (2001) Verbaten and Weid (1994) Zillmann and Weaver (2000) al. et Waldstein Continued )

Downloaded By: [CDL Journals Account] At: 06:12 10 July 2008            0.93 0.65 1.97 0.65 1.19 2.02 0.21 1.49 0.17 0.08 0.92            0.14 0.11 0.34 0.12 0.08 0.39 0.07 0.12 0.10 0.02 0.12       .4HatyExperimental Healthy 0.34 .2HatyExperimental Healthy 0.12 .8HatyAmbulatory Healthy 0.08 0.36 .0HatyExperimental Healthy 0.10 .70.02 0.17     0.13 .8HatyExperimental Healthy 0.18 0.07 .2HatyExperimental Healthy 0.02       .0Asthmatics 0.40 .5MxdExperimental Experimental Mixed Mixed 0.05 0.11 .8Asthmatics 0.08 .2IsiuinlrsdnsLongitudinal residents Institutional 0.12 .3MxdExperimental Mixed 0.03 vs vs

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elbigadhat:Ameta-analysis A health: and Well-being 101 ivitadVaa(95 804 .700 elh Experimental Longitudinal Experimental Healthy Healthy Healthy 0.03 0.07 24 0.38 0.07 0.03 2 0.47 0.38 1.79 48 4,725 3.72 96 1 1 4 (1995) al. et Yogo (1981) Shumate and Worthington (1995) Vrana and Witvliet (1994) al. et Wingard ( I. Table wyre l 20)15 .304 .7HatyExperimental Longitudinal Experimental Experimental Experimental Experimental Experimental Healthy Experimental Healthy Mixed Healthy 0.13 Healthy Mixed Healthy 0.11 Healthy 0.11 0.25 0.15 0.47 0.14 0.47 0.12 9.99 0.41 3.73 0.39 0.12 44,159 0.27 56 0.19 0.41 0.39 212 0.79 0.25 5.20 2.55 0.19 2.53 0.11 43 351 1 0.25 40 41 1.40 size. 0.40 h effect compromised the indicate compute 0.76 values to 57 negative 2 1 used 15 with participants sizes of effect number 2 outcomes; 12 the health 1 to enhanced indicate refers values size positive sample with The 2 listed outcomes. 1 sizes effect Thus, listed. 1 Note Total/average (2004) al. et Zweyer (1984) al. et Zuckerman (1996) al. et Zillmann (1993) al. et Zillmann (1991) al. et Zelman (2001) al. et Zachariae (1991) al. et Zachariae (1996) Yoshino Each : Continued r fetsz ersn h vrg negtdefc iebtenwl-en osrcsadpyia elhotoe ihntecategory the within outcomes health physical and constructs well-being between size effect unweighted average the represent size effect )

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trait coded: gender). age, or were status, state possible (health moderators illness; for characteristics of and/or coded were (health classes criteria characteristics two inclusion the Specifically, met moderators. that samples independent All moderators sample Coding significantly was health and well-being zero. than between different compared stronger relation across instead comparable the not whether from were immune were independent determine sizes but all on effect outcomes, not average were well-being result, health sample) a multiple of As same from other. the generated cardiovascular each effect For on those on (e.g., measured effect used outcomes. the outcomes we its health sizes health than whether effect weaker the different because test or functioning, stronger across not statistically was sizes could functioning effect we not the example, could we compare outcomes, health statistically multiple measured typically samples independent elbigadhat:Ameta-analysis A health: and Well-being stetidga formt-nlsswas meta-analysis our of goal third the As ercre h xc W construct SWB exact the recorded We within ahhat ucm to outcome health each 103 Downloaded By: [CDL Journals Account] At: 06:12 10 July 2008 104 hnctgrclgop eeidpnet n factgrclmoderator categorical a averaging if by (i.e., and sizes effect independent, calculated the in were variance were significant explained groups tendency categorical central When of measures weighted model, effects eeue odtriewehrvrac nteefc ie a xlie ythe by explained was sizes the effect tests When the homogeneity in moderators. models, variance both whether proposed For determine and (1994). to models, used Hedges were effects by In fixed outlined models. hypotheses, steps effects followed null fixed using all estimated moderator cases, be some these However, only models. can effect meta-regressions) we disadvantages, random possible, (e.g., the When tests and from models. results random the and advantages fixed on both focused has using 2005) each al., et (Borenstein As accounted differences. variance and aggregate within-study differences between-study by amount by the for for specify also accounted relatively models variance for effects of allows Random model conclusions. effects population random generalizable the the more of The whereas estimate 1998), advantages. reliable (Cooper, and have size precise meta-analysis effect more a for provides methods model effects effects fixed random and fixed effects Both random vs. Fixed analysis: of Data sample section Method the two the of from recorded Coding gleaned we information respondents). article. on and addition, each male baseline; based (percent In at was age the characteristics composition unhealthy). participant of gender mean or status (a) (b) health (healthy moderators: (b) of sample-level independent baseline and continuous method the longitudinal); (a) at of coded: or sample were ambulatory, characteristics moderators (experiment, by categorical study moderated sample-level be Two samples. would outcomes health characteristics. Sample en.Tenme fidpnetsmlscddprsuyrne rm1t 6, to ill- 1 and from ranged well-being study both per measured coded samples that independent studies between of 79 computed number the were The well- sizes being. from between effect health computed 310 outcome. and were additional health sizes an ill-being health; effect physical physical distinct a and independent 439 or being measured samples, 212 measured 212 and which these studies, construct nations, From Western) these well-being (mostly a From 17 manipulated from criteria. identified, inclusion were samples established the met statistics. Publication included literature the of Description moderator. the by to Results explained used was sizes were effect analyses the in meta-regression variation moderators, whether determine continuous For different. hoc otat eepromdt eemn hc ruswr statistically were groups which determine to performed were contrasts .T oele al. et Howell T. R. r r fetszs(nes ainewihs cosalidpnetsamples. independent all across weights) variance (inverse sizes effect fetszswr optdwith computed were sizes effect u erhtcnqe dniidattlo 5 tde that studies 150 of total a identified techniques search Our epeitdta h fet fwl-en nobjective on well-being of effects the that predicted We r fetszswr grgtduigafixed a using aggregated were sizes effect opeesv eaAayi 2.0 Meta-Analysis Comprehensive p B .5for 0.05 othoc post Q BET comparisons ,then ), post Downloaded By: [CDL Journals Account] At: 06:12 10 July 2008 ( ih7.%o h tde eotn rfwrefc ie.Tetpclstudy typical The sizes. effect ( detailed fewer skewed or positively a were 3 size ( reporting for well- 20 ( studies between respondents to 50 link I 1 the surveyed the from of Table ranged of 70.7% study sizes studies per (see effect with 33 health of physical and number samples and The sample, being study). independent independent each single of two description a reporting using (71.3%) (22.0%) studies 107 with h well-being the eprmna,abltr,adlniuia) vnwt h espowerful ( design designs less study study by the varied three sizes with the effect Even average of the each longitudinal). model, effects for and random separately ambulatory, sizes (experimental, effect average examined k xeietldsgs( designs experimental 0.029, elhrlto a .3 9%CI (95% 0.135 was relation health nlss n .1 rmtefxdefcsaayi.Both analysis. effects fixed the from 0.115 and analysis, en fetsz ob infcn,ngtv,ado prxmtl h same the approximately of and that negative, samples significant, independent be 99 to ( the magnitude size Using on effect health. well-being well-being being of on both effect of ill-being impact the the of compare measured to that was to meta-analysis this health of goal second ( the zero from different significantly effect. eosrtdsbtnilwti-ru aito coste22independent 212 ( the well-being across measured that variation samples within-group substantial demonstrated (see characteristics sample all en nhat a mle o ogtdnldsgs( designs well- of longitudinal effect for average smaller the was model, health effects fixed on the being With studies. experimental 1 needn ape,tema unweighted health? mean on the well-being samples, of independent effect 212 overall the is What were samples the and Meta-analyzing (82.7%), (60.7%), sample sources community (56.7%). government experimental States or or United an student the academic employed in a conducted from (76.0%), either years funding studies 15 included received the last of (59.3%), majority in the a summarizes design during example, II Table For published 56%). characteristics. were least study (at other females several of of detail numbers percentage equal higher a nearly reporting had (45 30.8% females composition, and gender males reported that studies N  h 5 tde erie oa f4,5 epnet.Sm 1 studies 114 Some respondents. 44,159 of total a recruited studies 150 The oal,teaeaewell-being average the Notably,  212] 583 eotdpriiatae( age participant reported 35,863) ns  eotdsgiiatylwrefc ie hnbt ogtdnland longitudinal both than sizes effect lower significantly reported ) 10.50, r random Á elhefc ie,adeprmna rcdrspoieteonly the provide procedures experimental and sizes, effect health p   .0) tde htue muaoypoeue ( procedures ambulatory used that Studies 0.005). r Á fixed 0.155; 5 ae,wt h aoiyo h eane (61.6%) remainder the of majority the with male), 55% Med  M .6) ssuydsg rvdt eamdrtrof moderator a be to proved design study As 0.166). Q  r  fixed vle nTbeII.Onbshmgniytests homogeneity Omnibus III). 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Characteristic included of characteristics General II. Table n hsclhat ucmswti h aeoylisted. category the within outcomes health physical and 106 eosrtdta nrae nwl-en eepstvl soitdwt short- with samples associated 141 ( positively with were outcomes analysis well-being and an term in IV, outcomes, increases Table long-term that in demonstrated shown outcomes, As to (short-term related control). categories was disease/symptom associated ill-being) health (and strongly well-being general most how were our examined outcomes we First, health well-being. which with determine to was outcomes? analysis alone. health studies impact differentially experimental well-being the Does performed with were and analyses combined subsequent designs the study of three many the pathways, with causal of test direct togrfrte13suista sdeprmna ein ( designs experimental used that studies 123 the for stronger 2001 aaa6(.)01 970 956 4,084 1,249 0.16 22,165 0.16 0.07 0.03 (4.0) 6 5,713 (4.0) 0.16 6 8,183 1,620 (8.0) (4.7) 12 7 (9.3) 9,454 14 0.09 (56.7) 0.18 85 0.18 3,162 0.17 2,109 37,158 (4.0) Japan 6 (5.3) 8 Canada 2,348 Netherlands (6.0) 0.15 England 9 37,128 (39.3) 59 Germany 275 4,683 0.25 States (4.0) United 6 0.11 Research Psychosomatic of Journal 0.04 Psychology Biological 0.14 (39.3) Psychophysiology 59 0.16 Medicine Psychosomatic 0.07 (13.3) 20 (43.3) 65 (4.0) Grant 6 institution Academic (15.3) 23 NIH (25.3) 38 NIA (59.3) 89 NIMH (1.3) None 2 Mixed/specialized Children/adolescents Students Community Ambulatory Longitudinal Experimental 1970 Before 1970 1981 1991 Each : Á Á Á Á .T oele al. et Howell T. R. 906(.)02 258 9,310 15,143 19,173 0.27 0.15 0.15 0.11 (4.0) 6 (18.7) 28 (40.7) 61 (35.3) 53 1980 1990 2000 2006 Á te 5(67 .418,050 0.14 (36.7) 55 other r fetsz ersnsteaeaeuwihe fetsz ewe elbigconstructs well-being between size effect unweighted average the represents size effect r random  0.148; p 0(.)01 727 4,891 0.11 0.12 (6.7) 10 (13.3) 20 B 33 .2444 199 0.02 0.14 (3.3) 5 (3.3) 5 .0) oal,ti fetwsslightly was effect this Notably, 0.001). h eodga fti meta- this of goal second The r fetsz Total size Effect    .12,441 0.01 276 0.10 1,730 0.05 r random  0.172, n ie r needn cossuydsg,s xeietl muaoyadlniuia,efc ie a ecmae.Ars h elbigand well-being with the sizes Across effect All compared. experimental). be to can experimental (e.g., sizes made effect be longitudinal, cannot comparisons and so ambulatory independent, experimental, not are so sizes design, effect study sections, ill-being across independent are sizes l-en ,8 99 8,187 Ill-being elbig4,2 1 .3 .1 .1 .6 .9 368903.880 23.688 9.990 0.160 0.110 0.115 0.135 212 42,928 Well-being design Study n ne.Efc ie ihdfeetsbcit nec oundfee infcnl at significantly differed column each in subscripts different with sizes Effect anger. and Note opoie elhoutcomes. health compromised al I.Teefc fwl-en n l-en nhat ucmsb td design. study by outcomes health on ill-being and well-being of effect The III. Table xeietl18268 0.029 1,892 24 Experimental 2,066 Ambulatory xeietl448190.164 139 4,428 Experimental ogtdnl45813 18 4,588 0.128 1,707 49 Longitudinal Ambulatory 36,434 Longitudinal .6aesgiiatat significant are 1.96 elbigicue iestsato,hpies n oiieeoin,weesilbigcmrsssc eaiecntut ssrs,depre stress, as constructs negative such comprises ill-being whereas emotions, positive and happiness, satisfaction, life includes Well-being : apesize Sample nK p B

0.05. Downloaded By: [CDL Journals Account] At: 06:12 10 July 2008 a fetszslse ihpstv ausidct nacdhat ucms fetszswt eaievle indicate values negative with sizes effect outcomes; health enhanced indicate values positive with listed sizes Effect     admFxdLwrUprRno Fixed Random Upper Lower Fixed Random 0.155 0.166 0.133 0.152 r fetsize Effect A A A A B A      a 0.113 0.166 0.099 0.071 0.098 0.159 0.005 B B A B C A      5 Irandom CI 95% 0.113 .9 .6 .5 180356.861 442.475 21.810 11.162 6.556 8.366 0.166 0.202 0.090 0.126 0.044 0.768 0.064 0.107 0.102 0.035 fet model effects     .9 .6 111341.214 11.171 7.166 0.196 .2 .1 .5 58.348 54.315 216.091 4.954 7.277 7.730 2.915 3.368 5.462 0.221 0.238 0.224 p B .5 ihntewl-en n l-en etos effect sections, ill-being and well-being the Within 0.05. Z vleTs fheterogeneity of Test -value  .5 7140.012 47.184 0.256 Q vleSignificance -value B B B B B B B 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 Z

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K .2) whereas 0.127), r  random r h hr goal third The random 15; Á long-term r  random  0.148) 0.112 K 109   otsladepinephrine. and cortisol elhoutcomes health physical of measures Specific tyn lv ept aigoeo oecrncconditions. chronic more or one having despite alive staying p Note ies/ypo control Disease/symptom en opouels adoaclrratvt,btteei o-infcn nrae othe so increase, non-significant a is there but reactivity, cardiovascular less produce to being hr-emoutcomes Short-term erae eeso h elhcategory. health the of levels decreased al .Teefc fwl-en nseichat outcomes. health specific on well-being of effect The V. Table ogtr outcomes Long-term B eprtr ucinn 7 20010.071 16 0.071 353 12 672 conditions Respiratory functioning Respiratory antlrne1063 .2 .2 .5 .8 .6 0554.0 0.243 41.504 10.505 9.467 73.529 0.380 8.110 0.257 6.423 0.320 0.410 0.320 0.228 37 0.224 1,096 0.332 32 1,323 response system Endocrine tolerance Pain response system Immune hsooia epne5718 527 response Physiological ies rgeso ,4 8 1,540 progression Disease eea elh514701000700401525141033.072 4.110 0.003 2.511 0.195 25.445 0.024 7.885 3.706 0.057 0.181 0.110 0.056 7 5,124 0.117 0.119 10 4,332 Longevity health General functioning Cardiovascular reactivity system Cardiovascular Survival 0.05. fetszsfo h aeoiso elhaentidpnetadcno ecmae.Alefc ie with sizes effect All compared. be cannot and independent not are health of categories the from sizes Effect : a e oiievle niaeta elbigpoue nrae eeso h elhctgr;ngtv ausidct htwl-en produces well-being that indicate values negative category; health the of levels increased produces well-being that indicate values Positive e d nldshatrt eciiyadbodpesr responses. pressure blood and reactivity rate heart Includes Downloaded By: [CDL Journals Account] At: 06:12 10 July 2008 c d apesize Sample 4892 .3 .2 .9 .8 .8 045263.246 20.435 5.989 0.181 0.093 0.128 0.137 24 24,869 b Positive ,6 00070030080152344402.3 0.001 28.330 4.420 2.394 0.175 0.018 0.093 0.097 10 2,065 0.018 0.026 60 21 3,181 1,154 nK Z vle niaeta eut eei h xetddrcin.Freape ewudepc well- expect would we example, For directions. expected the in were results that indicate -values admFxdLwrUprRno Fixed Random Upper Lower Fixed Random     r 0.105 0.031 0.101 0.150 fetsize Effect     .2 0.056 0.129 .5 0.098 0.001 0.056 0.090 0.170 a admefcsmodel effects random    .4 0.096 0.045 .0 .4 .0 .0 .2 0.738 7.721 1.907 1.907 0.144 0.002 0.018 5 CI 95% e ogvt eest vrl egho ie uvvlrfr to refers Survival life. of length overall to refers Longevity     Z .6 .8 .4 9610.001 39.671 2.841 1.281 0.262 .5 .7 .4 6560.004 0.004 36.596 40.607 1.343 0.473 2.968 0.156 1.939 0.201 .7 .2 .0 36.137 6.908 2.229 0.276 sangtv value. negative a is  0.710 Z -value  b .4 221.769 1.144 c eest teshroe,sc as such hormones, stress to Refers Z -values Q vleSignificance -value .6aesgiiatat significant are 1.96 heterogeneity etof Test B B B B B

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110 .T oele al. et Howell T. R. Downloaded By: [CDL Journals Account] At: 06:12 10 July 2008 tdnlsuiswr eoe,wt h xetosta h oiieipc of impact positive the that ( exceptions functioning immune the improved with on removed, well-being were studies itudinal oto categories control rmcrnciles( illness chronic from elh( health eprtr ucinn eaewae ( weaker became functioning respiratory en nln-emcrivsua ucinn ( functioning cardiovascular long-term on being oe) h fetsz a ntepeitddrcin( direction predicted the in ( was conditions size effect respiratory the model), reduced to related otnosmdrtr.I ahcs,w nytse o oeaosi the outcomes, if health exact moderators the for For the samples. tested in more only changes or 10 we with in associated case, reported were each was sizes outcome In effect moderators. the continuous whether indicates which vrg g ftesml n b ecn aersodns Continuous ( respondents. slope male the necessarily on percent (a (a) focusing analyses (b) were models), meta-regression and effects using variables sample examined fixed moderator general- we were the more continuous effects Although the of moderator The on moderator. here age models. specified focused average effect we the effects, random of fixed izable and level and random descriptive each both the the reported reported for illustrate we To statistics variables, variable). trait categorical inferential the or these (c) state of system and a effect reactivity), immune (as moderating cardiovascular of well-being in in type of pressure production definition exact blood operational (b) antibody and unhealthy), (a) rate sIgA or heart were (e.g., (healthy response; moderators baseline measured at categorical outcome sample The health the continuous). of status two health and categorical conditions. (three chronic and in survival health, and control general symptom enhanced functioning, (e) and cardiovascular of mortality); promotion (including (c) long-term functioning (d) response; response; healthy endocrine physiological short-term heterogeneity and (a) (b) the reactivity moderators: cardiovascular functioning; and potential system examined reactivity). categories and immune specific cardiovascular groups short-term and specific and five general defined function our we immune statistics, both on as significant based (such more Thus, much outcomes and tolerance) closer other pain as A for (such heterogeneity group. outcomes that example, some indicates each for V) For Table minimal within (see is outcome measured. observed health (see specific was outcomes outcome by health examination heterogeneity of health types significant three age exact all IV), on average sample Table effect the baseline, positive by a at and had moderated sample well-being be although the respondents, of may the status sizes health effect of as aggregate such the characteristics, of level some that the indicated by demonstrated well-being As the of moderators specific Sample l fteaoeresults above the of All oepoewa nele hshtrgniy efcsdo iemoderators five on focused we heterogeneity, this underlies what explore To r random  .8)bt eaesrne,wietepstv mato well- of impact positive the while stronger, became both 0.283) Á r eemnmlyatrdwe h muaoyadlong- and ambulatory the when altered minimally were random Q Á vle nTbe VadV et fheterogeneity of tests V, and IV Tables in -values o h hr-em ogtr,addisease/symptom and long-term, short-term, the for  .9) lhuhwl-en a o significantly not was well-being Although 0.097). elbigadhat:Ameta-analysis A health: and Well-being r Á random elhassociations health p r  random  b .0fo h admeffects random the from 0.20 1 r .1)adnon-significant. and 0.018) ftemt-ersinline, meta-regression the of ) random  r .7)adbte general better and 0.371) random  .1)adlong-term and 0.016)  0.105). 111 Downloaded By: [CDL Journals Account] At: 06:12 10 July 2008  112 n CD16 and increased (e.g., responses immune elh(seilywe teshroe r esrd.Wt epc othe response to endocrine ( group decreased respect sample on healthy With the well-being in measured). of significant not are effect was hormones the compromising variables, stress as categorical when in interpreted typically increase (especially is short-term the affect health because response be on negative functioning, endocrine should from healthy well-being and response It promoting well-being endocrine VII). as of between and interpreted relation effect VI be negative Tables should the a of that section moderated again second noted also the (see sample response endocrine study response. endocrine the short-term of and well-being of Moderators significant was well-being for size in effect sizes average increases ( the effect healthy (e.g., immunity), for average positive improved both with the functioning. short- were associated although were on samples system well-being First, unhealthy of and functioning. immune effect healthy system the short-term moderated immune we sample term study and studies, the independent of well-being characteristics 10 of from Moderators grouped reported. commonly be most outcome not health could exact the sizes documented effect when fetsz o h nelh apegopwsqieabtlre ( larger bit a quite was group sample unhealthy the for size effect mato elbigo hr-emimn ytmfntoigwsstronger was average functioning the system studies, immune these short-term For in on magnified ( production. well-being was well-being of antibody of impact sIgA effect positive measuring this Further, studies VI). Table of section esrdohrsrs omns( hormones stress other measured ue tt elbigvralsrpre ihraeaeefc ie ( sizes effect average higher reported variables well-being state sured epnet eotdlre fetszso average. on sizes effect larger reported respondents p fTbeVI.Tesoeo h eargeso iei eaie( negative is relation line the meta-regression the moderated of section also top slope (see sample The functioning VII). system the Table immune of of short-term and composition well-being between gender the Finally, td ( study ( well-being of measures trait immune using and well-being between functioning relation the system determined that studies than 0.338) h eainbtenwl-en n hr-emedciersos sethe (see response endocrine short-term moderated respondent and the well-being of between age average relation the the nor composition gender sample’s o hs tde,teaeaeipc fwl-en nsottr endocrine short-term on well-being of ( impact stronger average was the response studies, these For h otcmol esrdhroeascae ihstress with assessed associated studies hormone when measured significant) commonly the (and most functioning, strongest the system was immune well-being of and effect well-being negative between relation the in observed r  .4) oee,teuhatysml ru osse fol igesmall single a only of consisted group sample unhealthy the however, 0.343); random .08,wihidctsta ape ihahge rprino female of proportion higher a with samples that indicates which 0.0028), .T oele al. et Howell T. R.  N .7)ta hti tde htmaue te akr fnormal of markers other measured that studies in that than 0.370)   6.Tu,nihro hs fetszswssgiiat swas As significant. was sizes effect these of neither Thus, 26). r random ; r random  .6)btntuhaty( unhealthy not but 0.360)  .5) diinly tde htmnpltdo mea- or manipulated that studies Additionally, 0.257). r random  t elcut nmressc sC4 CD8 CD4, as such markers on counts cell 0.109, r random  p  .4 hnta o tde that studies for that than 0.04) 0.043, r r random random 2   ns .4)smls(e top (see samples 0.147) .Fnly ete the neither Finally, ). eea characteristics Several 0.075, r random Á eeso cortisol. of levels p  b  1 0.164,  .6.The 0.16). r r random random Several 0.267, ns    ). , al I aeoia oeaoso eain ewe elbigadgopdhat outcomes. health grouped and well-being between relations of moderators Categorical VI. Table Moderator Well-being Well-being Moderator Well-being elhstatus Health tt rtatSWB trait or State outcome health Exact elhstatus Health xc elhoutcome health Exact tt rtatSWB trait or State elhstatus Health xc elhoutcome health Exact tt rtatSWB trait or State apehaty752 .6 .3 .6 .5 .9 .4 6430.008 46.483 9.048 6.795 0.451 0.262 0.070 0.335 0.147 0.360 3 27 715 454 unhealthy Sample healthy Sample tt 5 00380310230476628805.3 0.003 0.014 0.001 54.439 8.820 29.439 40.319 6.612 7.646 4.323 0.427 5.792 3.435 0.478 0.391 0.243 0.083 0.252 0.113 0.301 0.164 0.338 0.327 0.153 2 30 0.370 0.257 470 853 16 18 514 853 Trait State other All SigA apehaty11419 1,104 healthy Sample apeuhaty2 1 26 unhealthy Sample otsl2 1,154 21 Cortisol l te 133 4 other All tt 9660 19 State ri 494 2 Trait apehaty3145 .1 0.011 0.014 57 3,124 healthy Sample apeuhaty105 140 unhealthy Sample lo rsue2283 .9 0.064 0.091 32 2,218 pressure Blood er ae1814 .6 0.019 0.060 43 1,841 rate Heart kncnutne361 0.016 16 396 conductance Skin tt ,2 20060.017 0.016 62 3,128 State ri 6 1 160 Trait Á Á Á hr-emimn ytmfunctioning system immune short-term hr-emedcieresponse endocrine short-term adoaclrratvt n hsooia response physiological and reactivity cardiovascular

Downloaded By: [CDL Journals Account] At: 06:12 10 July 2008 apesize Sample nK admFxdLwrUprRno Fixed Random Upper Lower Fixed Random         0.075 0.343 0.109 0.043 0.097 0.131 .1 .1 0.252 0.013 0.011 0.136 r fetsize Effect         a .7 0.030 0.077 .4 0.138 0.343 0.092 .4 0.135 0.043 .5 0.022 0.059 .2 0.114 0.127 0.016 .3 0.019 0.136 5 Irno fet model effects random CI 95%         .1 .9 .9 .7 .2 0.283 2.527 1.470 1.090 0.393 0.117 .1 .2 .3 .9 .4 0.050 3.844 1.797 1.139 0.422 0.119 0.003 .5 0.085 0.058 .0 0.186 0.005 .3 0.154 0.034 .1 0.145 0.114 .5 0.086 0.054         .7 .9 .9 6230.007 36.273 2.493 1.398 0.178 .9 .4 1.716 1.449 0.693 .1 .2 .4 3480.002 43.488 3.044 2.020 0.212 .1 .7 .7 .5 0.813 0.952 0.471 0.471 0.217 .1 .9 .4 9270.003 39.257 1.447 1.593 0.214 .6 .4 .3 .5 0.809 0.058 2.830 1.048 0.361 .7 0.081 0.272 .8 .1 1.717 1.717 0.285      0.373 1.868 1.251 .3 .6 0040.012 30.094 0.368 0.236 0.449 Z -value      b .3 215.567 0.731 .4 .7 0.073 8.575 0.145 .9 156.792 3.597 .8 155.314 0.884 .0 72.342 1.100 Q eto heterogeneity of Test vleSignificance -value ÁÁ Á B B B B

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elbigadhat:Ameta-analysis A health: and Well-being 113 al I ( VI. Table h xetddirections. expected the h elhctgr;ngtv ausidct htwl-en rdcslwrlvl ftehat category. health the of levels lower produces well-being that indicate values negative category; health the elh ucinn,adoesml htmaue nacdsmtmcnrl fetszsfo h aeoiso elhaentidpnetand independent not are health and of optimal categories long-term the measured from that sizes samples Effect control. 12 symptom response, with sizes enhanced endocrine effect measured measured All that that compared. be sample sample cannot one one and functioning, functioning, immune healthy measured that samples two rgyeie eesa ooayrs atr o h upsso hsmdrtrtest. moderator this of purposes the for factors risk coronary as levels triglycerides Note Well-being Well-being elhstatus Health tt rtatSWB trait or State xc et outcome heath Exact elhstatus Health Moderator xc elhoutcome health Exact tt rtatSWB trait or State apehaty2,1 30130140060104671.7 236.784 17.876 4.677 0.160 0.066 0.114 0.113 23 24,315 healthy Sample tt 6 .7 .7 .0 .4 .1 .4 .7 0.415 6.077 320.828 2.043 20.888 39.876 2.014 6.946 5.048 0.147 0.168 3.397 0.179 0.002 0.095 0.075 0.049 0.114 0.075 0.132 0.063 567 32,867 0.114 32 7 4,897 10 Trait State Other apeuhaty9240060.112 0.086 4 942 factors risk Coronary unhealthy Sample apehaty4 .9 0.078 0.095 3 42 healthy Sample apeuhaty3532 .2 .3 .5 .8 .4 .3 93.261 8.633 3.445 0.187 0.052 0.138 0.120 16 29 380 3,543 symptoms Asthma unhealthy Sample eoeyfo ies ,1 00150160030243435502.2 0.003 24.925 5.520 3.463 0.131 0.224 0.109 0.063 19 447 0.126 0.145 10 1,919 State disease from Recovery ri ,7 401401200402337182549.388 8.285 3.721 0.203 0.064 0.142 0.134 14 3,176 Trait h olwn ape eenticue nteaayi fhealthy of analysis the in included not were samples following The : Á Á ogtr elh functioning healthy long-term nacdsmtmcnrladsria uigcrncconditions chronic during survival and control symptom enhanced Continued ) c c ecddcoetrlrto D n D hlseo ee,hpreso,hg n o rqec oe,nnftlMI, non-fatal power, frequency low and high hypertension, level, cholesterol LDL and HDL ratio, cholesterol coded We

Downloaded By: [CDL Journals Account] At: 06:12 10 July 2008 nK apesize Sample 4,480 7 Z -values   admFxdLwrUprRno Fixed Random Upper Lower Fixed Random 0.125 0.077 .6aesgiiatat significant are 1.96 r fetsize Effect   0.059 .2 0.114 0.125 a vs nelh ape eas hycmie elh n nelh samples: unhealthy and healthy combined they because samples unhealthy . 5 Irno fet model effects random CI 95% p     B .3 .9 .9 .2 7130.009 17.113 8.224 3.693 0.190 0.134 .3 .0 .2 .3 .8 0.039 8.387 3.836 1.428 0.203 0.032 .6 .3 .1 .3 .3 0.281 2.538 0.633 0.612 0.432 0.266 .4 .2 .2 .1 49.760 3.118 1.424 0.225 0.041 0.05. a oiievle niaeta elbigpoue ihrlvl of levels higher produces well-being that indicate values Positive  .6 .8 .2 2980.003 52.998 2.725 0.787 0.262 b Positive Z -value Z vle niaeta eut eein were results that indicate -values b Q eto heterogeneity of Test vleSignificance -value B B B B B B

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114 .T oele al. et Howell T. R. Downloaded By: [CDL Journals Account] At: 06:12 10 July 2008 b b b b b b sample the Q of age average Moderator: oeao:aeaeaeo h sample the Q of age average Moderator: b b b aaee Estimate Parameter outcomes. health grouped and well-being between relations of moderators Continuous VII. Table oeao:aeaeaeo h sample the Q of age average Moderator: oeao:pretg fml respondents Q male of percentage Moderator: oeao:pretg fml respondents Q male of percentage Moderator: b sample the Q of age average Moderator: b respondents Q male of percentage Moderator: b respondents Q male of percentage Moderator: b Note sample the Q of age average Moderator: respondents Q male of percentage Moderator: nlddfwrta 0smlswr o xmnduigtemt-ersinanalyses. meta-regression the using examined not were samples 10 than fewer included b b b b b b b 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 Model Model Model Model Model Model Model Model Model Model : Z- (1, (1, (1, (1, (1, (1, (1, (1, (1, (1, Well-being au et h ulhptei htteprmtri eoi h ouain oeaosthat Moderators population. the in zero is parameter the that hypothesis null the tests value k k k k k k k k k k           32) 28) 36) 35) 61) 39) 20) 18) 32) 23) Well-being           Well-being Á 0.803, 2.608, 21.187, 0.450, 3.315, 10.093, 0.556, 0.228, 8.91, 0.738, nacdsmtmcnrladsria uigcrncconditions chronic during survival and control symptom enhanced Well-being Well-being p Á p p p p p p p  p p        adoaclrratvt n hsooia response physiological and reactivity cardiovascular 0.003  B Á 0.370 0.106 0.502 0.068 0.454 0.633 0.390 0.001 001 ogtr rmto fhatyfunctioning healthy of promotion long-term Á hr-emimn ytmfunctioning system immune short-term Á hr-emedcieresponse endocrine short-term         elbigadhat:Ameta-analysis A health: and Well-being .2 .0 1710160.140 0.116 0.671 21.721 0.0003 0.006 0.0002 0.128 0.067 0.122 0.019 0.025 0.748 0.097 0.073 0.513 0.271 0.267 6.345 0.131 0.089 0.392 5.774 0.034 0.199 .7 .3 .8 .0 0.248 0.101 0.154 4.688 0.069 0.037 0.175 1.615 0.104 5.122 0.107 0.001 0.042 0.021 0.002 0.071 0.111 4.603 9.524 0.015 0.009 0.073 0.089 .5 .3 .7 0.021 1.376 0.037 0.050 3.176 0.001 0.005 2.104 0.004 0.056 0.478 0.118 2.152 0.003 0.033 0.001 0.073 0.062 0.267 0.002 0.002 .4 0.053 0.048 EZ SE      vleL UL LL -value 1.82 1.300 2.986 0.859 .9 0.057 0.896           .040.0008 0.0004 0.264 0.118 .0 0.251 0.009 0.062 0.012 .040.0042 0.0004 0.002 0.007 0.006 0.092 0.002 0.006 5 Ifor CI 95%        b 0.122 0.007 0.007 0.229 0.139 0.441 0.153 115 Downloaded By: [CDL Journals Account] At: 06:12 10 July 2008 116 soitdwt ogtr elh ucinn) h vrg fetsize effect average were well-being the and in healthy functioning), increases both ( healthy (e.g., healthy for for long-term positive sizes healthy significant was long-term effect both with on average were well-being associated of the samples effect although unhealthy the moderated First, sample functioning. study functioning. healthy the long-term of and well-being of Moderators response. gical negative eain(e h orhscino al I) h lp ftemeta-regression the of this slope moderate The did VII). Table sample ( of positive a section is line of fourth the composition (see gender relation the moderator, significant elbigdmntae htwl-en a soitdwt marginally a with associated in was increases to well-being of response are in that significant pressure findings demonstrated blood significant measured well-being as that marginally and studies reactivity three interpreted First, cardiovascular interest. However, is healthy increased, response. promoting sample response the with physiological of associated age well-being physiological average was between the well-being as and relation Thus, negative functioning. reactivity healthy a promoting response, cardiovascular as system Again, endocrine response. and physiological of and true reactivity was cardiovascular in decreases with or rate heart sample measured well-being. (b) physiological state unhealthy, regardless manipulated or consistent (c) healthy was or and was association conductance, (a) skin null sample the the cardiovascular of example, whether section For third of VII). the short-term (see and reactivity VI Tables physiological and and cardiovascular on well-being well-being age. reactivity. of and gender across Moderators constant is well-being of in result drop significant a marginally as the that hormones indicates stress This VII). Table of section second adoaclrratvt n hsooia epne hr,temarginally the of Third, levels composition lower gender response. predict examining meta-regression ( to the physiological from these slope found positive and significant and analysis reactivity follow-up cardiovascular a in well-being of oe ( comes htmaue tt elbigrpre oe vrg fetszs( sizes effect average lower reported well-being state measured that emotmladhatyfntoiguigtatmaue fwell-being of measures trait using long- and functioning well-being healthy between relation and ( the optimal examined that term studies than 0.075) ape seTbeV) neetnl,tedfeettpso long-term factors risk of coronary types example, different For widely. the differ Interestingly, not did VI). ( outcomes Table health (see samples b r r random random hs nlssso nyoesgiiatmdrtn hrceitco the of characteristic moderating significant one only show analyses These 1  0.122, .T oele al. et Howell T. R.   Á r eain ewe elbigadcrivsua eciiyadphysiolo- and reactivity cardiovascular and well-being between relations random steaeaeaeo h epnet nrae,wl-en sassociated is well-being increases, respondents the of age average the as .3) ial,atog vrg g ftersodnswsnta not was respondents the of age average although Finally, 0.132). increase ee hrceitc ftesuysml oeae h fetof effect the moderated sample study the of characteristics Fewer .2) ogvt ( longevity 0.125), p   b .7 niae htsmlswt oefmlsrpre stronger reported females more with samples that indicated 0.07) .1)alhdsmlraeaeefc ie.Adtoal,studies Additionally, sizes. effect average similar had all 0.114) 1  nbodpesr.Scn,oesuymaue ri levels trait measured study one Second, pressure. blood in 0.073, p r B random .0) hc ugssta h vrg fetsize effect average the that suggests which 0.001), r random  .1)btntuhaty( unhealthy not but 0.113)  .3) n te eea elhout- health general other and 0.137), eea characteristics Several r random r  random 0.086)  Downloaded By: [CDL Journals Account] At: 06:12 10 July 2008 ypos( symptoms al II,w xettepoaiiyo iiglne nrae y1%for 14% by increases we Also, longer well-being. low living with those of to probability compared well-being the high with expect individuals we VIII), Table with relation stronger a had ( well-being disease example, For from size. recovery effect average the et 357 43 well-being Low 43 57 well-being High Note Death longevity. on well-being Survival of impact average variable the of for Levels display size effect Binomial VIII. 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Further, when directly varied were zero. typically near outcome health and each non-significant were outcomes ensgetdta,a h oeua ee,wl-en a mrv elhmore health has that improve may it well-being effects Further, level, 1994). molecular the al., the moderate et at potentially impact Hall that, suggested 2007; factors been variables (Friedman, complex more outcomes multiple, be intervening health time, may long-term fewer over effects observe; Short-term as researchers tolerance. observable, pain short-term and directly stronger functioning the immune however, and hypothesis; this support well-being short-term long- data impact as strongly The or most states would outcomes. short-term well-being of that terms predicting in processes, effects defined term differential was expected health We whether outcomes. on health depending specific on well-being of impact outcomes. Health 2006). al., be et (Mroczek should relations be long-term should outcomes such and that considering techniques short- health in statistical across used can appropriate and how the outcomes settings and health field determine occasions, and of measurement laboratory measures to statistical across our will extended It future much appropriate still be 2006). how al., the measured, and are et and Mroczek in use conceptualized 2006; researchers al., to important et thus attenuate (Little measures be data that and such well-being analyze hassles) methodology, to best techniques daily ambulatory or the other fewer day, used establishing many by date of have to influenced Alternatively, time health. studies readily and weather, emotions more such the between simply associations as are (such studies variables ambulatory in measured ucmsadol n elhotoe(eprtr iesscniin)was ( diseases/conditions) well-being (respiratory outcome with the health health for associated different single one studies eight a significantly ambulatory only examined on the studies and of focused Ambulatory outcomes sizes all outcomes. effect We studies health the procedures. ambulatory different examining experimental by the or from outcome sig- that longitudinal different health possibility had either significantly used not the procedures were that considered ambulatory which those of used than (most well-being zero) sizes that different effect the studies lower Across nificantly outcomes, 2006). Slegers, long- and more & predictors within Bovaird, embedded (Little, are periods that term manipulations) experimental in 1988). (observed (Nesselroade, are role differences, experimental greater measurement relatively that and studies, a control attributes ambulatory play psychosocial to the and likely as longitudinal being such In likely factors, variables. most other extraneous the over have health, studies on effects biggest hra muaoysuisrpre h aeascaint ena zero near be to association same the reported studies ( ambulatory whereas r random hs tmyb httetaseteoin ndyt-a ieta r typically are that life day-to-day in emotions transient the that be may it Thus, muaoysuisofra neetn rs ewe hr-emprocesses short-term between cross interesting an offer studies Ambulatory  0.021). Á elhrltoswr u osrn soitosbtenwell-being between associations strong to due were relations health n ftemi ol fti eaaayi a oeaiethe examine to was meta-analysis this of goals main the of One elbigadhat:Ameta-analysis A health: and Well-being r random  .6) l te health other All 0.166). r random  0.371), 119 Downloaded By: [CDL Journals Account] At: 06:12 10 July 2008 120 iefrte6 ape htmaue muefntoigadpi oeac was tolerance pain and functioning pain ( immune higher measured that dramatically and system samples 69 effect endocrine the functioning average and The for size response. well-being immune physiological between and sizes reactivity, increased cardiovascular effect response, average and the with well-being tolerance 2006). between system Smith, 2005; the observed Cohen, buffering & and (Pressman response stress of system effects immune negative enhancing from by both directly ihsaemnpltoso elbig hra ogtr elhotoe would outcomes health associated long-term strongly whereas more well-being. well-being, be of of would manipulations measures state outcomes trait with health and short-term state that with expected associated increases We strongly most the were comes than in well-being. smaller result of Operationalizations are do increases emotions these positive emotions. negative pressure, while for Thus, blood observed emotions. in negative increases of presence ytmrsos,crivsua eciiy n hsooia epne( response physiological and reactivity, cardiovascular response, system aadmntae htweesbodpesr nrae sarsl fincreased these marginally of result ( of a a analysis as revealed emotions increased secondary pressure pressure positive blood A blood whereas well-being. that measured demonstrated with that data the are association Further, studies stress). positive norepinephrine, of 32 2004), stress forms significant, and Kemeny, the physical other as epinephrine & of (such triggers as all (Dickerson results of such types hormone triggers in other stress hormones, by emotional activated the drop stress to being a other non-significant cortisol susceptible to whereas produce most a due be emotions is but may that positive effect cortisol, stronger Similarly, strong The a in response. hormones. such exert drop immune emotions but positive this saliva), significant why (through on measured determine is to influence production aim antibody should sIgA work which future at between ease the relation strongest to single the the was example, production For antibody well-being sIgA well-being. and emotions with positive transient associations strongest well- the thus, response; immune processes. increases biological also multiple watching but affect aids ANS, after may only the being levels not of well-being baseline deregulation that the their appears in it to Further, her quickly films. a emotion-inducing (after more and positive activation cardiovascular returns people’s Fredrickson situation) that found of stressful have Branigan, who findings Mancuso, 2000), Fredrickson, Tugade, 1998; the normal & Levenson, interrupt & corroborates Fredrickson than (see 2007), finding colleagues rather Kemeny, cardiovas- activation (e.g., This in stress system to increase functioning. chronic response an counter normal As rapid may a a experienced. is well-being to is activity lead stressor endocrine to and a likely cular after more baseline be may to well-being recovery response, system endocrine and  hshptei a eeaie ycmaigteaeaeefc sizes effect average the comparing by examined be can hypothesis This nadto,sm ftems omnyasse hsooia akr had markers physiological assessed commonly most the of some addition, In .0) hs eut ugs htrte hnbfeigfo cardiovascular from buffering than rather that suggest results These 0.009). .T oele al. et Howell T. R. Á elhefc iei h eaaayi.Ti togrlto a edue be may relation strong This meta-analysis. the in size effect health r r random random   .1)ta h 0suista esrdendocrine measured that studies 80 the than 0.316) .5) lo rsueicesdmr nthe in more increased pressure blood 0.153), utemr,w xmndwihhat out- health which examined we Furthermore, r random  Downloaded By: [CDL Journals Account] At: 06:12 10 July 2008 hog ohdrc n nietptwy Ccop ensn 2007; Berntson, & vulnerabilities other (Cacioppo for compensate pathways may well-being indirect 2005), and Cohen, outcomes. they functioning & as direct long-term Pressman individuals in for both effect 1998) stronger (McEwen, heart-related a Through system showed the to are males on lead Further, strain mechanisms age. indeed from and exact may buffer well-being a the heart that as implies Although act reactivity the decrease 2007). did on well-being Berntson, that strain unclear, & increase (Cacioppo may cardiovascular problems the time on stress over chronic Poon, system Also, Siegler, 2004). 2003; Dilworth-Anderon, Elias, cardiovascular-related & & of Madden, Bosworth, risk (Siegler, the increases age, significantly cardiovascular did individuals incidents and characteristics As well-being reactivity. these between link where physiological disease the note and moderated to Age the interesting difference. is a decrease make it However, and gender. and individuals, age the well individuals. 2005), ill physically Lyubomirsky, physically Peterson, already of (cf. & of ultimately that health progression Park, behaviors those be the Steen, ‘‘upward may daily interventions increase Seligman, triggering psychological specific positive 2005; by for successful of most Schkade, well-being control practice & their symptom the Sheldon, increase demon- have improve through can interventions spirals’’ individuals may happiness 1988), that and (Rowe, that strated functioning Considering individuals, physical individuals. well- better healthy unhealthy promoting from about that for buffer bring suggests may help it especially well-being indeed because may samples, important being is unhealthy molecular This for both decline. impacted at whereas suggests subsequent functioning levels, strongly This enhance long-term may molar survival. more and well-being increasing and samples, short- and well-being healthy disease both for however, controlling that for in samples; impact initial samples healthy For greater unhealthy hypotheses. a in these had for outcomes well-being support & status, (Solomon mixed individuals offered health older typically Results and is individuals 1994). dysregulation unhealthy where Benton, in impact as samples. greater such the evident, a of more have composition to gender well-being and age, expected We status, health initial including istics, general moderators. whereas more specific improving Sample emotions, on focus transient to increasing need well-being. cardio- system of as may assessments on (such immune survival) cognitive outcomes or or health focus outcomes long-term infections vascular modifying to in as interested need (such researchers in may outcomes interested Researchers health response) investigations. future short-term long- to with altering relations informative stronger is have well-being outcomes of term levels trait functioning emotions and immune tolerance) (especially transient pain outcomes and That short-term cardiovascular/ with supported. and relations was stronger response have prediction endocrine this and exception reactivity, the well-being With physiological between well-being. relations of measures the trait of with associated strongly more be otayt u rdcin,teefcso elbigwr arycntn across constant fairly were well-being of effects the predictions, our to Contrary nadto,w xmndseii apecharacter- sample specific examined we addition, In elbigadhat:Ameta-analysis A health: and Well-being 121 Downloaded By: [CDL Journals Account] At: 06:12 10 July 2008 122 ope nerltosbtenwl-en n elh oal,orfindings our Notably, health. also can and well-being well-being but between the investigations, highlight interrelations analyses other our research, complex many earlier extending in Furthermore, well-being, health. established impact impact health been can only Our has on Not well-being. well-being as influences studies. health other of how strong these the on effect complement on or findings the either health focused and examine has ill-being literature between to previous relation the was of meta-analysis Much outcomes. this health of purpose The Conclusions encourage we frequency. greater health, with and statistics participants. well-being descriptive these their between report relations of may to variables the researchers these status of that Given report marital many conducted. not be moderate and not did could studies ethnicity analyses many these Finally, Therefore, the time. and regarding this children for at information health tenuous on be well-being of a would effects adolescents with the about participants conclusions current unhealthy any for health on global physical examining well-being conditions. or on of on hedonic focus responses variety to of focused needs emotional research impact on typically future have the Thus, than have that satisfaction. rather life measures samples of problems life judgments unhealthy health of samples these and quality unhealthy the symptoms for with 2006), survival used of Gotay, predictive see been is patients; life mounting cancer of is quality (e.g., evidence of Although levels sample). higher unhealthy that likely any are for which of outcomes endocrine (all functioning, important reactivity immune physiological and to cardiovascular related and outcomes functioning, health the for true especially the populations on small well-being decreased of relatively on effect the progression. well-being three assessed disease of studies of only eight rate future impact only example, the and First, symptoms, investigated For been allergy reported. have have infrequency. that studies or outcomes relative experimental health measured, specific be with those to manipulated, specific examine studied available to the not research want by may current were limited researchers the is that as meta-analysis good this variables as Thus, only combined. the is meta-analytically understand synthesis research better Any us help Limitations may differences outcomes. gender a health character- play and and these may well-being include well-being linking age should Thus, mechanisms research males. as Future for males. risk istics, for mortality role greater important a more to led have that hr,aoecn ape eesac nterpre eerh n,a result, a as and, research, reported the in scarce were samples adolescent Third, healthy on focused meta-analysis our in included studies the of most Second, .T oele al. et Howell T. R. Á ihrsuet rhatycmuiymmes hswas This members. community healthy or students either Downloaded By: [CDL Journals Account] At: 06:12 10 July 2008 1 o h tde nlddi h eaaayi,eprmna netgtostpclyfloe a followed typically investigations experimental meta-analysis, the in included studies the For [1] O’Brien, Danielle to grateful Notes manuscript. the also preparing this are with of We assistance for drafts Ph.D. Rodzon early Howell, Katrina on and J. edits Perez, Yazmin and Colleen comments by numerous the paper of appreciative are We Acknowledgements from positive extend by of pursued benefits be problem alike. to the psychologists the continue Accordingly, health should that and costs. happiness psychologists sustain care conclude and health increase we society’s to (Friedman, how a well-being?’’ system ‘‘What to question, of care health the address individuals’ health benefits to U.S. This Thus, the 1998). the costs. Singer, are care and & pervades Ryff health that 2003; mortality increases, escalates Kaplan, problem 1991; morbidity turn standpoint, a in As health is which 2003). escalation increases, public Kaplan, utilization 1990; a (Lyubomirsky care (Fries, health well-being from important own Furthermore, are their morbidity 2005). enhance actively al., people emotions. et domains life when promotion positive many health impacted of of for one frequency is only & area the be (Ryff prime may increasing health a history Indeed, and that throughout happiness suggest psychological boosting concern findings and involves our primary medical and a potential 1998), been for Singer, has informative Health is disease interventions. in decline bolster stress.buffer directly of can impact well-being the that buffer such and pathways, functioning immune biological potential to point htwl-en a fetsottr n ogtr elhotoe and outcomes health long-term and short-term affect can well-being That ae lo rsue n kncnutnewr otnal oioe.Cag crsbetween scores Kru a Change & monitored. to (Gendolla continually task assigned were difficult conductance on randomly skin or valance and were easy pressure, picture an students blood to of rate, 54 one-way and effect mood, study, and the positive manipulation, another analyze or the negative In to al., after used markers. et and was neuroendocrine baseline, (Codispoti order. variance several after of counterbalanced moods min analysis in neutral 30 multivariate apart, one baseline, or repeated week in at example, 1 negative, drawn For condition, was positive, used. each depending Blood methods induce experienced study, the by to participants and Ten variation sample, used of 2003). the lot were of Doyle, a size pictures Cohen, is the Polk, study, interest, there of that (e.g., outcome note changes the do person We on between 2005). Kirschbaum, and (e.g., & within scores Skoner, analyze change to using methods or modeling levels baseline Kru for & controlling Gendolla either subjects, between or compared Codispoti variance 2001; of Goodwin, analysis & Iverson, measures compared Clark, 2003). repeated 2003; was al., Thaler, using et condition & level, the Brosschot each baseline own (e.g., and in methods their their similar reactivity to as check, their and acted manipulation condition; subjects conditions experiments, mood across a some each times; In following experiencing more assessed. control, immediately again or were one assessed variables measured or were physiological again mood variables baseline, was physiological at the mood/emotion measured and were manipulated, variables was physiological emotion and Well-being paradigm. similar te tde admyasge atcpnst igemo/mto odto and condition mood/emotion single a to participants assigned randomly studies Other ¨ kn 01,b.Sm ftemr eetsuishv noprtdmulti-level incorporated have studies recent more the of Some b). 2001a, sken, elbigadhat:Ameta-analysis A health: and Well-being Á letaciia one critical a albeit ¨ kn 01) Heart 2001a). sken, Á that 123 Downloaded By: [CDL Journals Account] At: 06:12 10 July 2008 124 aosn .K,Amda,S,Brmn . ulne,M,Cl,A,De,N .e l 19) The (1993). al. et J. 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(gender samples use the the can for predict we in functioning respondents), to male change immune of coefficients unit (percentage VII meta-regression a Table from with the slope size significant first effect the predicted consider the in change oesrnl eae oipoe muefntoigfrfemales. for functioning immune the improved of to strength related the strongly males, We by more 0.125. dominated is more size becomes effect composition predicted is well-being sample the size sample), the effect male as predicted (completely the that 1.00 male), observe is female/half (half proportion 0.50 the is If immune proportion 0.258. improved the and If well-being 0.392. between is size functioning effect predicted the sample), female (completely where follows: as be would equation basic The tables. these from equations regression the out write response. assess physiological to on used were mood post-manipulation of and effect manipulation, the during function, baseline average the 117 , .T oele al. et Howell T. 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