The Sylviculture of Pinus Brutia in Turkey

The sylviculture of Pinus brutia in Turkey

Gezer A.

Le pin d'Alep et le pin brutia dans la sylviculture méditerranéenne

Paris : CIHEAM Options Méditerranéennes : Série Etudes; n. 1986-I

1986 pages 55-66

Article available on line / Article disponible en ligne à l’adresse : ------http://om.ciheam.org/article.php?IDPDF=CI010852 ------

To cite this article / Pour citer cet article ------Gezer A. The sylviculture of Pinus brutia in Turkey. Le pin d'Alep et le pin brutia dans la sylviculture méditerranéenne. Paris : CIHEAM, 1986. p. 55-66 (Options Méditerranéennes : Série Etudes; n. 1986-I) ------

http://www.ciheam.org/ http://om.ciheam.org/ CIHEAM - Options Mediterraneennes

The Sylviculture of Pinus brutia Mr Abdullah Gezer in Turkey General Directorate of Forestry (TURKEY)

Key words : Pinus brutia Henry. Turkey. Sylviculture (Habitat conditions, Seeding habits, Seed production, Nursery works, Artificial and Natural regeneration, Yield, Races and Hybrids).

ABSTRACT

Pinus brutia Henry is an important natural tree speciesof the eastern Mediterranean countries.The largest forest area of this species is inTurkey, with more than 3 million hectares distributed inMediterranean, Ae- gean and Marmara Regions, it constitutes approximately of the total confierous forests area of the country. Besides its good performance on poor sites, as a hardy species, it also has considerably faster growth .rate on good sites (up to 12 CU. meters/ha. per annum) as compared to the other coniferous species in Turkey. In addition to wide-range utilization of its wood in various wood-based industries, P. brutia also provides the total resin production of the country. This paper deals with races and hybrids of thespecies, ecobiological characteristics, seed production, nursery practice,natural .and artificialregeneration, yield, causesand damages of P. brutiain Turkey.

CIHEAM - 86/1 CIHEAM - Options Mediterraneennes

INTRODUCTION OF THE SPECIES the species is in pure stands. However, it grows in mixedstands with Pinus nigraAm. var.pallasiana Pinus brutia Henry. (syn. Pinus halepensis var. brutia Sc hneid., Cedrus libani Richard., Juniperus excelsa "Ten." Henry, Pinus elderica Medwed., Pinus pyreni- Bieb. and less commonly withAbies cilicica Carr. and ca David., Pinus brufia Ten,) is one of the important some commercial broadleaved tree species ( forest trees of the Mediterranean region, reaches its l According to the latest forest surveys, P. brutia forest greatest distribution in southern Turkey where it has covers an area of hectares, which includes become one of Turkey's most valuable commercial of the total area of coniferous forests in Turkey tree (1).

, Pinus brufia is named as "kizilçam" in Turkish corre- sponding to the word "redpine"in English which is be- HABITAT CONDITIONS cause of its reddish young sprouts. The tree is also called Calabrician cluster pine or Pyrenean pine in Climatic Englishand Pin des Pyrénées or Pinnazaron in French The climate throughout the commercial range of P. brutia is predominantly mild with moisture adequate Some. botanists have indicated red pine to be a va- during all seasons. The annual precipitation isalso riety of Aleppo pine ( Pinus halepensis Mill.), but the adequate; but itis poorlydistributed. During the grow- latest research studiesjustify its classification as a se- ing season, long period of drought may occur and the parate species( Pinus brutia is a coastal tree and temperature may be very high. However, as it is indi- is a drought resistant pine that withstands more ari- cated above, since the moisture is adequate, it partly dity and poor soils than most timber species growing compensates the effect of temperature. Frost is rare- in Mediterraneanclimate. Although it requires mild ly seen. The botanical range also takes some cooler winters, some of its provenances can grow success- local areas of. relatively high precipitation in south- fully, out of its natural habitat, on sites ofdrier an westand interior parts of Taurusmountains, in its cooler climate boundaries within the limits of its range, P. brutia is It grows fast in the early ages; under the conditions found in localities which have precipitation as low as of understocked stand or open-grown trees the tree mm. annual average, and only mm. ave- typically develops large spreading branches with dif- rage in its growing-season. Throughout the chief com- fuse crown; but in suitable conditions, it grows ex- mercial range (Mugla and Antalya regions) the ave- ceptionally fast with straight trunk and narrow crown rageannual precipitation is mm. to and it may reach to a height of meters. It is sensi- mm., with mm. to mm. falling during the tive to continuous strong wind; in such a case,it does growing-season. not grow well (5). The average annual temperature in the range of P. P. brutia is a restricted tree species in the eastern Me- , brutia variesfrom 12.5 "C to "C.The average diterranean region. lt is distributed to Italy, Greece, temperature for January varies from "C to "C ; Turkey,Cyprus, Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, Palestine for July from "C to "C. The maximum annual and the many Islands of Aegean and Mediterranean average is "C to "C and the minimum is Sea. The species is also seen in northern Iraq and "C to "C. The growing-season usually begins over the north coast of Black Sea in Crimea (1, 5, at the mid of February and ends at thefirst half of No- vember at elevation of 400 meters. The average annual absolute humidity varies from to percent Thespecies has a wide range in Turkey. It grows mainly in extensive stands in southern and western )* Anatolian and is also foundin the Marmara region(sli- Thegrowing-season period varies from 200 to de-show). It reaches greatest commercial importance days and over; it is obvious that low temperature and in the southern Anatolian region.It also makes limited snow fall are the main ecological factors limiting fi- appearences on the coastal areasof interior Black sea nus brutia from spreading beyond the defined habi- region; in the region, the species occupies the bot- tat ; in its natural habitat, the mean temperature does tom of the drier and warmer valleys. Besides, the tree not go below O "C in January and the falling snow hasa few isolatedpopulations in the region of does not remain on the ground more than 15 days. southeastern Anatolian (Fig. ). Also the mean annual temperature is not less than "C (12). The species grows from sea level to the elevation of 1 meters in south, the upperlimit reaches to some Soil points meters in this region; but it is not common above 900 meters in the west. It appears be- The soil conditionsof natural range or red pine in Tur- tween elevations of meters in north-west of keyhas not been fully studied yet. However, it is Black Sea region. In the indigenous P. brutia forests, known that the species is hardy and highly adaptable

m -CIHEAM - 86/1 CIHEAM - Options Mediterraneennes

Figure 1. The Natural Distribution of Pinus brutia Henry in Turkey

-CIHEAM - 86il CIHEAM - Options Mediterraneennes

\. to various types of soils. The dominant soil types are was belonging to P. brutia forests. Owing to recent red Mediterranean and Calcareous brown forest soils. measures, the amount of burned forests per year has ' It is indicated that the origin of soil does not consider- dropped 1/5 of the 1973-1983 average. ably affect its growth (5). In southern Anatolian, P. In the region, there is heavy and uncontrolled ordina- brutia forests grow on calcareous soils which have ry goat grazing. During the development of red pine sufficient depth and moisture. In addition to this, the stands this grazing has a very detrimental effect. Ac- tree may grow in different types of soils originated cording to the 1983 statistics there are6,959,870 from andesite, sandstone, shist, granite and rarely on sheep and 5,509,518 goats in the range of P. brutia serpentine. It grows in soils with a wide rangein struc- forest regions (15). At least half of this amount, that ture varying from sandy clay, sandyloam to silt loam, is 6,234,695 graze in the P. brutia forests. The da- but it prefers sandy and loamy s.oils for it enables the mage by sheep and goats causes serious loss incre- best development (12). ment to young P. brutia seedlingswhen they are above the ground vegetation but have not gotten high TheUndergrowth Associated With the Species enough for their leading shouts to be out of reach. The leaves and shouts of young seedlings are also In the southern Anatolianforest region, from sea shore eaten by rabbits in addition to sheep and goats. The climbing-up to the southern slopes of Taurus Moun- damage by rabbits is limited mostly to small seedlings tains, P. brutia is the main forest tree species up to or sprouts. 1300 meters. Lower down, along the shore and up to 600-700 meters maquis is dominant; the species oc- There is also some illegal cutting in P, brutia forests casionally occurs to grow in maquis belt in which which creates difficulties in operating amanaged some deciduous and evergreen trees,shrubs such as forest. Q. infectoria subsp. boissieri., Cercis siliquastrum L., Disease and pests are not a major problem forP. bru- Fraxinus ornus subsp. cilicica., Ceratonia siliqua L., tia stands. There -a number of insects and fungi at- Fontanesia phillyreoidesL., Q. cossifera L., Q. collipri- tacking P. brutia; but the important ones do not ex- ninos L.,Pistesia terebintus L., Oleaeuropea var. ceed three, which are mentioned as in the following. oleaster L., Erica verticillate L., CoYinus coggygria L., Spartium junceunL., Vitex agnus-castusL. associate Orthotomicus erosos Woll., whichfeeds on stem, bark with the tree species. It grows in large stands above and cambium,. causes serious damage to plantation 900 meters; above 1 300meters it is replaced by Ce- and natural stands at thinning and thicked stages. drus libani A. Richard. or Pinus nigra Am. var. palla- The insect especially appears in the plantations es- siana Schneid., and less commonly by Abies cilicica tablished on shallowand poor site. Outbreaks charac- carr. (13). P. brutia also appears with Aleppo pine on teristically develop in around felled timber, infested the very local and calcareous hilly sites which take stems and sometimes fire-killed timber. It.can be con- place between Seyhan and Ceyhanrivers near to trolled by using trap trees or chemical trap called Adana city. ' .foremen. The speciesis frequently a dominantforest tree in the Thoumetopoe pityocampa Schiff ., which causes se- Aegean forest region. It forms very large pure forests vere defoliation at all stages of natural stands and ar- after the maquis belt which covers large areas below tificial plantation. This insect can cause the loss of at 400 meters along the coast and in depression places least 60 percent of the annual incrementof pine plan- penetrated deeply inland (13). The leading species tation. It can be controlled by using stomach or con- associated with P. brutiaare Q. infectoria subsp. bois- tact insecticides. sieri., Strax officinelis L., Pistacia lentiscus L., Pyrus One of the most serious fungal disease is; salicifolius L., Arbutusandrache L., Cercissiliqua- Peridermium pini Willd., which causes loss of incre- strum L., Rhuscoriaria L.,Juniperus oxicedrus L., ment ; research studies have been carried out for four Phillyrea lotifoliusL., Cistus creticus L. and Cistus sal- years to find out the ways and means to control the vifolius L. Above the elevation of 800-900 meters fungi. brutia is changed by Pinus nigra Am. var, pallasiana Schneid in this region (13, 14) In favourable conditions the species has a good re- cord of freedom diseases and does not cause soil Causes of Damage deterioration. The factors affecting the management of P. brutia fo- SEEDING HABITS rest are various and extensive in Turkey. The waysOf forest destruction range from illegal cutting to ento- Flowering and Fruiting mological factors, and the role of fire and grazing in diminishingthe forests are extensive. Between From personal observations and inferences from lite- 1973-1983 a total of 168,155 hectares of forest wer? rature (1, 3, 16), vigorousopen-grown of P. brutia burned. The amountof 80 percent of the burned areas seedlings start bearing male and famale flowers when

- T CIHEAM - 86/1 . .. CIHEAM - Options Mediterraneennes

4-5 years old. Male and female flowers are found on closedcones have lower germinative ability than same general branch but usually on different shoots. those cones which open soon (18). There' are some It is possible to observe that somef. brufia trees bear evidences that show those characteristicsto beinhe- only male or famale flowers, The stigmate flowers be- rited characteristics. come visible at the mid of January, as clusters of yel- Among trees on which the cones open soon after ma- lowstamens, set in groups on leafy twigs. Pollen- turing, seed dispersal continues over all yearthe ; but, shedding usually begins at the first half of March and the majority of seed dispersal occurs only between ends at the last half of May, depending on elevation, June-October.Cone production varies greatly with aspect,tree habitat and seasonal' advance (16). size and crown classes; overtopped or subpressed Pistillate flowers can be born at the tip of new shoots treesproduce very few or no cones; intermediate or they can be in lateral position on shoots. After fer- ones usually when they only have the open-crown or tilization, they only develop into small green, nut-like dominant trees are prolific producers. as immature cones, during the first year; during their second year they expand rapidly and reach full size of the average 7.2 cm. (2.2 to 12.5 cm) long and get matured at the end of year. Briefly, the maturity of cones is rezched in March of their third years (16, 17, SEED PRODUCTION AND NURSERY WORKS 18). Seed Production The collection, processing and issue of seeds (and Cone Production also tree improvement activities) are carried out by As it is indicated earlier, open-grown seedlingsof the "The Directorate of ForestTree and Seed Improve- species start bearing cones when they are only 4-5 ment Institute", in Turkey. years old. Thefirst crops of viable seed commonly ap- By the end of 1984, 49 seed stands have been se- pear at 7 to 8 years and production is regular from 10 lected in natural forests of P. brutia and registered in years in plantation and 15-20 years in natural stands. management plans. Besides, in the same period, 19 Some seeds are available every year but good seed seed orchards were established in the different parts crops are produced in 2 year intervals ( 17, 18). The of natural range of the species. The cone haivesting mean weight and size of seeds increase in southern usually starts in March and ends at the last yveek of aspects. The percentage of empty seed is possitively April. The harvest of cones is carried out by Directo- correlated with cone age and altitude (17). In other rate of Silviculture and Reforestation groups depend- words, the percentage of empty seeds in old cones ing on Concervancies (Directorates of Regional Fo- is higher than those of young cones. Theeffect of age rests). Seed extraction is carried out in the open air, of seed tree on the percentageof empty seedis found under sun light, in nurseries. It is very easy to extract insignificant; but the effect of tree age classes on ger- and store the seeds of the species. mination percentage is very clear and forthis reason the trees of 66-80 age are recommended for seedcol- Thereare great variations in germinative power of lection (17). In good seed crops the cone production seeds and growing characteristicsof seedlings are re- per hectare is approximately 6 thousand in number lated to provenances and the trees of stands; more- and 2340 kgs weight, which means 234 kgs of seed over, P. brutia exhibits variations in time of leafing out ( 17-18). in spring, leaf regeneration and tolerance to extreme conditions of soils and climate ( 16, 20, 21 ). There is The optimum germination temperature for red pine is much evidence that the variation is continuous and 25 "C, the seeds are very sensitive to lower tempera- correlatedwith environmental factors. Inthese cir- tures from 15 "C but less sensitive to higher tempe- cumstances, it is very necessaryto regulate the trans- ratures from30"-35"C. The optimum moisture for ger- fer of seed from the stand originto the place of plant- mination is of 70 percent. The effect of the light on ing. For this purpose, not long ago, a simple zoning the germination is very clear, especially in different system was prepared by Atalay (12); and at present temperatures (17, 18). thetranfer ofP. brutia seedshas been control- Seed from 28indigenous P. brutia provenances in Tur- led by this zoning system. The zoning system was . key had 82% (27 to 99)of germination. The seed can prepared by using two criteria; one of this is relative be stored 5-6 yearsat 4 "C and with a moisture of 7-8 humidity of the growing season or vegetation period, percent (19). and the other one is the durationof growing as a day Seeddissemination is variabledepending on the in the year. In addition to this, the features of geo- length of time that cones remain closed after matur- graphy, continentality, exposureand elevation are ing. It is observed that some cones remain closed for taken into consideration. many years, some of them open soon after maturing finus brufia forests are divided into 6 regions and 18 (3, 17, 18). It has been found out that seed from the subregions (Fig. 2). In the seed transfer, main regions

m CIHEAM - 86/1 01 CIHEAM - Options Mediterraneennes

l i

.CIHEAM - 86/1 CIHEAM - Options Mediterraneennes 61

are separated according to relative humidity and sub- obtained by using 25 gr of seeds per sqm., the mix- regions are separated according to duration of the ture of.fine sand and sieved well-rotted manureis growing season. used as a covering material after sowing. As to the distance of seed transfer of P. brutia, hori- The seeds are often treated by using birds repellent zontal seed transfering must not exceed a distance before sowingto discourage birds and mice fromeat- of 150 kms. In this case, the exposure and elevation ing them. For this purpose, aneffective chemical mix- are taken into account. ture is used; the mixture contains two chemical sub- stances named "Pomarsol-forte and alumine dust". In If theseed stands are not existent in sub-regions, common use, for15 kgs of P. brutia seeds, 800 gr Po- then the seed transferis realized within the next sub- marsal-forteand 42 alumine dust (23) is needed. region, or adjoining sub-region; that is, if the seed stand is not existent in one region, seed may be sup- After sowing, until germination of seeds, seedbeds plied to seedtransfer from adjoining sub-region or should be watered for half an hour and once a day, next subregion. late in the morning; after germination is completed the same procedure shouldbe followed, but this time The seed derived from the stands may be transfered once in the early morning or late in the' evening (20). in vertical distance of upwards 150 meters and down- When the seedlings are 2 months old, this time, wa- wards 150 meters at mast. tering is carried out only every other day. Weeding is usually done by hand or machines ; dur- Nursery Works ing the period of the first three months. The weeding There are 60 permanent and 68 temporary state fo- is made oncein three week intervals, then the weed- rest nurseries with a total area of 3,150 ha. and a pro- ing is carried out once fivein weeks intervals. The Tur- duction total capacity of 5 million in Turkey. P. brutia kish foresters are usually not familiar with applying seedlings are produced at least in 30 of these; the chemical herbicidesin forest nurseries. In spite ofthis production capacity is over 100 million per year. For there are some research studies that have been car- thepurpose of producing P. brutia seedlings,the ried out since a few years ago. ground ofnursery is mostlyploughed in 30-35 cm The roots are pruned by traction-drawn blades, cut- depth by 2 or 3 furrow plow (plough) mounted to the ting them at 18-20 cm below ground level, in August medium size (2x4) rubber tyred tractor and then in andonly if necessary, so as to producea limited light compact, the beds are raised by dragging over taproot of 20 cm and a vigorous growth of fibrous side it heavy wooden sledgeor, disc-harrow. After leveling, the beds are preparedby means of abed shaper. Fur- thermore, the heavy soil is deeply cultivated by using Damping-off is the most serious disease foror one 15 sub-soiler (or ripper-tine) for the purpose of airation months old seedlings in nurseries. The best precau- of the soil. Where the soil is very compact, a well- tion against this fungi is early spring and less dense rotted manure ,is advisable. The quantity of well-rot- sowing. Another important point is to keep the soil ted manuer which shouldbe used in varieties from 25 reaction between 7.1to 7.9. For this purpose, the soil to 30 tons per hectare. Unrotted manure is not used, to be sown in nursery must be tested before sowing. for the purpose of preventing the )ioung seedlings If it's not proper, then dressing the soil with sulphur from Damping-off danger. Sometimes, nursecrop like or disinfecting the soil with 40 gr of 2% sulfuric acid sainfoin (Onybrychis sativa) is grown in the rotation gives good results. fields of nurseries to improve the soil. P. brutia is extremely easy to raise in nurseries being PLANTATION ACTIVITIES robust and hardy. Seedbeds are prepared in 1.20 m. width and 20 cm height, with 20 cm space. The seeds Potential Areasfor Planting in the Forest Land of are sown in lines by machines or drills. A seed bed P. brutia consists of 7 sowinglines with distance of 15 cm intervals. As it is indicated earlier, theforest land of P. brutia covers approximately 3.1 million hectares, which com- . The stratification or pretreatment of P. brutia seeds prises about 37% of the total land of coniferous fo- before sowing is not essential, but may promote ra- rests in Turkey. Accordingto the latest forest surveys pid, uniform germination. Seeds are sownin depth of more than half of P. brutia forests are, at present in 1 to 2 cm, and spring up off the soil in 21 to 25 days degraded conditions (the crown density is less than after sowing (22). The sowing in seedbeds contai- 10% of full crown density). This situation is not only ners, in spite of being dependent on local conditions, a reflection of ecological condition but also in several should be completed by the end of March. areas, a result of illegal legal overcutting, uncon- The seedling density at seedbeds should be kept at trolled grazing and forest fires occuring in the course 180-250 individuals for P. brutia; this amount may be of several centuries.

-CIHEAM - 86/1 CIHEAM - Options Mediterraneennes 62

Planting Techniques thods used in planting of P. brutia. in the region. brutia has been planted in'Turkey for at least 40 Dibblirjg:'with this method nake-rooted seedlings of years and during the past 20 years has been widely P. brutia are planted in slits opened in the soil using used in plantation. Between 1960-1983 a total of 279 planting bar; The method' is also called as "slit plant- thousand hectares of unproductive or degraded P. ing method' in forestry literature. The dibbling method brutia forest land wereregenerated artificially. The gives satisfactory results on good soils and ecologi- average amount of plantation is about 13 million hec- cal conditions (25). tares per year today. planting: Depending on size of planthg stock and The plantation activities are carried out by means of opened pits, two types of pit planting are practiced: using mechanizedand manual plantation methods. 1) Planting of small nake-rootedseedlings years The methods can be explained as follows : ' old) in small pits opened by hoe or mattock prior Mechanized plantation method: Mechanized planta- to planting. This method is more suitable for rela- tion techniques were implemented inTurkey after tively much drier sites with stony and poor soil 1965, At the begining, the typical method was clean- conditions. ing the vegetation from the area by using heavy crawl- 2) Planting of containerizedseedlings or tall nake- er tractor with a front mounted cleaning blade and rooted seedlings in large-dimensioned pits, open- rear mounted three (two)-tine ripper and subsequent- ed by spade. ly ripping the area in two directions (at right angles). The biggest- disadvantage of this method was a sig- In the. natural range of P. brutia, plarlting is pos- nificant quantity of topsoil being carried away. How- sible throughout the winter, from the first half of ever, major progress was achieved in testing and de- November to the last half of February. Inprinciple, termining suitable plantation techniques during the 1+0 years old, nake-rootedseedling of P. brufia are last of 10 years. used ¡n'plantation ; but on some sites such as erosion areas,. semi-aridand arid sites, 1+0 years old It has been observed and determined that in several containerized seedlings are planted. areasof brutia plantation, the implementation of . ,$toper mechanized methods provide high quality pre- Tending of Plantation . '! paration and consequently and permit large-scale site Removal and control of competitive weeds and woody preparation within short time. vegetation and cultivation of the soil to prevent mois- In spite of all its advantages, the amount of suitable ture loss are normally carried out during 3-5 years fol- . areas to-use these methods is limited ir; the natural lowing the establishment of the plantations. Basically

(1range of- brutia, in Turkey. manual, techniques are applied. Replacement plant- Manual Plantation Methods: Present manual planta- ings also carried out in this period. Tending ope- tion techniques vary depending on topography, soil rations are applied once a year. vegetationin different parts of the natural range. Ge- nerally, vegetation is cleared by cutting at ground le- Protection of Plantation Areas .vel, either on the whale.area,. on strips spots, and It is normal pratice-to fence all plantation to keep out collecting the cuttings in piles parallel to contour of grazing livestock and to deter villagers fromusing the ground. Subsequently either grodoni or terraces are areas for agricultural purpose. prepared, in areas with gentle slopes where there Compartments in plantation areas are enclosedeither. is no erosion hazard, small interrupted terraces are with naturat, breaks,such as streams ridges, with prepared. Terraces are preferably prepared by incli- cleaned end unplanted breaks broadleaved belts nation of 15 to 25 degrees towards of slope( Fig. 3). against fire hazard and probable outbreaks of insects The terraces are prepared and arranged by spacings attacks or diseases. _- ,' of 3 meters ; the seedlings areplanted, by 1.5 2 me- .. ter intervals on terraces. On the complete an deeply NATURAL REGENERATION OF STANDS AND cultivated areas, spacings are arranged by 3x3 meter . MANAGEMENT intervals. .. It is recommended that both container and nakeroot- ReproductionMethods ed seedlings should be planted closer to hillsides of A nu.mber of silvicultural systems have been used to previously prepared preferably with 6o cm regenerate pure stands of P, brufi8 in Turkey; the width and' 30 cm depth, in the region' By this most consistently successful of these has been "the . seedlings can benefit at highest possible levelfrom Shelterwood u+form Method', In this the ' the soil moisture through the dry summermonths in application area is Over the entire stand, it can also the region (20). be applied in zones. Cutting is done by leavinn- shel-

Dibbling and Pit planting Methods : are the main meter &s.~over the stands o;zones. ' - CIHEAM - Options Mediterraneennes

Area of earth moving

Figure 3. A Profile of a Grodoni Terrace

Two other silvicultural methods which are used with have no effect on the stands of this age. The germi- good success in Turkey are as follows : nation conditions of the soil are favourable. Strip-Shelterwood Method: The application area is a The conditions needed for natural establishement of narrow strip, cut along the edge of old stand. At any seedlings are often well known, but sometimes diffi- given time cutting is concentrated in certain strips cult to create. P. brutia is extremely light demanding and the rest of the standremains temporarily un- tree and in general, successful natural regeneration touched. arises on sites which are openor under a lighttree ca- Strip-Clearcutting Mefhod: The method removes all nopy which has a thin (1-3 cm) litter of needles and the trees on an area with one cutting operation. Na- an adequate seed supply within about 50 m and the tural reproduction is by means of the seeds of trees absence of heavy grazin,g. on adjacent stands.Cutting is done in strips of 20 me- The best seedbed for natural reproduction is a film- ters (20 m. is the longest seeding .range of P. brutia likelayer of forestflqor, while the thicker litter is seeds) in width at the border of a stand. This method unsuitable. In such a case, regeneratingis greatly sti- is not used on areas subject to soil erosion hazard. mulated by partly removing the thick layer and after The number of stands to use this method in the na- that, the ground must be torn by using rake forcreat- tural range of P. brutia are limited. ing favourable germinative conditions (26). Structure of Stands and Regeneration Activities The stands in the first group, can be reproduced by Natural stands of P. brutia can be classified in three using only one seed felling. The seedfelling consists groupsconsidering the regeneration conditions. of the removal of 70 or 75% of the crop and regene- These are : ration of50-60 stems per hectare. Under such circum- a. First group: The density of canopy of the stands stances, the light intensity in the stand is between 75 is more than 40% of the full crown density and under to 80% of the full light. In general, natural regenera- the standcanopy there are only small herbs and tion springs up on abundance in thin litter, following grasses or no weeds. The stands in this group can the seed felling (slide-show). On fertile gaps where be reproducedusing the naturalregeneration me- there is stronger growth ofweeds, and especially thods. In these stands the number of trees is enough grasses, the sparse regeneration and re-stocking by for natural seeding and their distribution is homoge- planting is the best policy. The final felling follows in neous. In such kind of stands subpressed or over- 1 or 2 years when the regeneration is 40 cm high. The topped trees can not be seen. The average age of presence of one ortwo seedlings per sqm.is accept- the trees are.more than 50 years, Tending operations ed as a criteria of success.

CIHEAM - 86/1 CIHEAM - Options Mediterraneennes 64

Thereare very important points to underlinehere, It is necessary to carry out low prunning at height of which affect the natural reproduction of P. brutia 2.5-3 mat early stage, to reduce knots and obtain fire stands. These are : protection. 1) It must be avoided from regenerating the natural Management Method stands on steep slopes with shallow soils. Pinus brutia forests of Turkey had been planned .and 2) Seed fellings must be certainly completed either administered in accordance with "the diameter class- before seed dispersal in May or before the seeds es forest management method'till the years of'1963. germination in November. It will be evident that this method is not appropriate for P. brutia forests if the stand structure of these fo- 3) Before the regeneration activities, close local ob- rests is examined carefully. Besides, the method is servation of the ground and light condition favour- not suitable to reproduce highly intolerant tree spe- ing the generation must be examinedcarefully. cies like P. brutia. Since 1965 "the age classes forest 4) The protection against the damage agents (usual- management method' has been accepted and appli- ly ordinary goats) must be provided at least 10 ed without controversy. Up to 1965, a great part of years after regeneration. the forest of brutia were degraded by crude application of the selection method. So, nowthere are b. Second group;The density of the canopy of stand many stands which act as the subject for inmediate has been much broken and less than 20 percent of regeneration. ' . the full light. There are manykinds of herbs and brush under the canopy of the stands. The natural regene- The age ciasses management method is the most ration of stands is impossible; owing to the number suitable one for P. brutia forests because of biologi- of seed trees is not enough and their distribution is cal and ecological conditions of the species. The age not homogeneous. The stands in this group can only classes method takes10 years for complete re- be regenerated by using artificial methods. In the na- generation. tural range of P, brutia, the amount of degraded fo- The rotation ages of P. brutia forests are 50 years for rest land is more than 1.5 millio? hectares. g,ood sites, 60 years for medium and poor sites. The c. Third group: This group consists of the young na- rotation ages of forest units that are used for turpen- tural stands and plantations of P. brutia. Most of the thing are over 60 years for all site classes. The rota- stands are at the age of thinning or tending stage. tion ages of mineprop plantation are 30 and 40 years They are between 10 to 40 years old. The amount of for good; medium and poor sites respectively. such young stands and plantation covers an area of Rates of Growth and Yield of Produce about 10 percent of the total area of P. brutia forests. The thinning operations in the young stands have The height of matured P. brutia trees in Turkey is been delayed and neglected for many years. How- 15-25 m and rarely 40 meters. The diameters ofup to ever, the experiments related to the thinning opera- 140 cm at 1.3 m above ground level have been re- tions are in progress, and there are some successful corded in the natural P. brutia forests in Turkey. The completed operations in Turkey. maximummean annual increment (yieldclass) is 5.5-7.5 cubic meters per hectare in nature stands. In In thinning, the aim is to produce poles and sawlogs good sites of P. brutia stands, the amount can reach of high quality. Thus, the early thinning which begins up to 10-12 cubic meters year. Thecurrent annual when the crowns of the youngtrees reach one increment will probably increase to 15 cubic meters another,favours straight-stemmed trees with small on using seeds from suitable provenance and apply- branches and removes the crooked-stemmedand ing intensive soil cultivation. large branched trees. The first operation of thining usually begins with young trees, 6 or 7 years old; in The total growing stock of P. brutia forests,is around the plantation this age is between 10 to 12 years ow- 162 million cubic meters in Turkey. 92% of the total ing to spacings used. When the natural prunning be- belongs to productive forests, the remaining 8% is un- gins, the grade of thinning (which is from below i.e. productive. The distribution of P. brutia forests ac- "low" thinning) becomesheavier with intervals be- cording to the sites are : 9% on good site, 45% on me- tween each thinning, which are at least of 5 years. dium and 46% on poor site respectively. In addition The desirable rate of diameter growth is 1-2 growth to this, the distribution of growing stocks in produc- rings per centimeter which gives trees astem diame- tive forests of P. brutia, with respect to their diameter ter of 70 cm at 1.3 meters. classes is as follows : It is preferable to use a combination of selection (bio- classes Diameter Percentage logical) and sistematic tending method during the First class (8-19.9 cm) 1 first treatment, but the consecutive operations must Secondclass (20-34 cm ) 36 be in favour of the crop trees only. Thefirst operation Third class (35-54 cm ) 34 consists in removing a third (1/3) of the trees (28). Fourth class (55 cm and over) 19

- CIHEAM - 86/1 CIHEAM - Options Mediterraneennes

Pinus brutia makes a major economic contribution to RACES AND HYBRIDS the social useof the people, who are employedin the forests and forest Industries in its natural range in In view of the natural distribution of the species, it is Turkey. highly probable climatic-geographicraces to exist. The timber of finus brutia is used in a very wide range Heritable differencesin characteristics of seed germi- from fencing posts through telephone and transmis- nation, developmentof seedlings and formsof crown, sion poles to pit wood, railway sleepers and sawlogs resistance to continental climate fromdifferent origins for box-making, general construction and joinery indus- have been reported (1, 3, 21 ). tries, its wood is also suitable forpulp and board ma- In addition to all, it can be recognized the scattered nufacture (26). One defect which degrades sawlogs pyramidal var. as f. brutia Ten. var. pyramidalis selik is “black or loses knots”, which can be prevented by and compacts variety as f. brutia Ten. var. agrophio- low prunning in early ages. It is also subject to pro- tii Popaionanou, occurring throughout the distributidn duce great amount (around 3 thousand tons) of tur- area (1, 3, 5, 13). pentine each year. In addition to this, its bark is also suitable for adhesive production.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. KAYACIK,H., 1980 ; Orman ve Park Ajraçlarinin Özel Sisternatijri 1. Gynospermae. I.Ü. Or. Fak. yayinlari No. 26421281, Bo- zak Matbaasi, Istanbul, 388 s. 2. GEZER,A., 1984 ; Ormancilikta Önemli Terimler Sõzlü~ü(Glossary for the Important Terms of Forestry). Or. Genl. Müd. Yayin No. 640/53, Ankara 127 s. 3. SELIK, M.,1963 ; Kizilçam (P. brutia Ten.)‘in Botanik Özellikleri Üzerinde Aragtirmalar ve Bunlarin Halepçami(P. halepensis Mill.) Vasiflari ile Mukayesesi.Or. Gnl. Yayin 353136, Ankara, 88 s. 4. GEZER,A. ve S. ASIAN, 1980 ; Güneydoou Anadolu Bölgesinde&i Geligim Gösteren Bazi Ione Yaprakli Ajraç türlerinin Seçi- mi Üzerine Aragtirmalar (Studies on the Selection of Some Best Growing Coniferous Tree Species in the Southeastern Ana- tolian). Or. Arg. Ens. Yayinlari, Teknik Bülten Serisi 103, Ankara, 42 s. 5. SAATCIO~LU,F., 1969 : Silvikültürün Biyolojik Esaslari ve Prensipleri, Silvikültür1. Or. Fak, Yayinlari No. 14291138, Istan- bul, 323 s. 6. GÖKMEN, 1953; Gymonspermler. Or. Gnl. Müd. Yayini, Ankara, 325 s. 7. DAVIS, P.H., 1951 ; The Taurus Revisited 1949. The Journal of Royal Horticultural Society. Vol. WXVII, Part 2. 8. CRITCHFIELD,W.B.; E.L. LITTLE, 1966; Geographic Distribution of Pines of the World. US. Dept. of Agr. Misc. Publ. No: 991, pp. 97. 9. ALEM DA^, $., 1962; Türkiye‘de Kizilçam Ormanlarinin Hasilati ve Amenajman Esaslari (bevelopment Yield and Manage- ment Rules of Red pine ”P. brutia Ten. in Turkey,Or. Arag. Ens. Teknik Bülten Serisi 11, Ankara, 160 s. 10. ORMANGNL. MÜDÜRLÜGÜ,1980; Türkye OrmanEnvanteri (Turkey‘s Forests Survey). Yayin 630113, Ankara. 11. METEOROLOJIGNL. MÜDÜRLÜGÜ,1974; Ortalama ve Extrem Kiymetler Meteoroloji Bülteni (Mean and Extreme Meteorolo- gical Bulletin). Bagbakanlik Basirnevi Ankara. 12. ATALAY;I., 1977 ; Türkye ‘de in Turkey). Orman Agaçlari ve Tohurnlari lslah Enstitüsü, Yayin No l, Ankara, 47 s. 13. YALTIRIK,F., 1973; The Florestic Composition of Major Forests in Turkey.The Forestry Facultyof Istanbul University, publ. 1921209, Istanbul, pp. 179-193. 14. DAVIS, P.H., 1965; Flora of Turkey and the East Aegean Islands, Vo. 1, Edinburgh. 15. 1984; Tarimsal Yapi ve Üretirn 1982 (Agricultural Structure and production). Bagbakanlik Devlet lstatistik Enstitü- Yayin No: 1093, Ankara. 16. ALPACAR,K., 1981 ; Kizilçam (P. brutia Ten.) Fenolojisi ve Bazl Tohum Özelliklerinin Saptanmasi (Determination of Phe- nologicaland Some Seed Characteristics of P. brutia). AWg. Ens. Yayinlari, Teknik Bülten Serisi 105, Ankara. 17. QEFIK, Y.,1965; Kizilçam (P. brutia Ten.) Kozalak ve Tohurnu Uzerine Arastirmalar (Studies on the Cone and Seed of P. brutia Ten.). Or. Gnl. Müdürlü~üYayinlari No 420141, Ankara. 18. SAATÇIO~LU,F., 1971 ; Orman Aaaçlari Tohumlari, 3. Baski (Forest Tree Seed, Third edition). I.Ü. Or. Fak. Yayini 1649/73, Istanbul, 242 s.

CIHEAM - 86/1 OPnONS~ CIHEAM - Options Mediterraneennes

19. ASIAN, S., 1972: Bazi lbreli Agaç, Türlerirnizin Tohumlarinin Saklama Müddetlerinin Tayini Üzerine Aragtirmalar (Studies on Storage Duration of Some Native Coniferous Seeds). Or. Arag. Ens. Yayinlari, Teknik Bülten Serisi No: 50, Ankara, 23 s. 20.. GEZER,A. ve S. ASIAN, 1980: GüneydoQu Anadolu Bölgesinde lyi Geligim Gösteren Bazi Ione Yaprakli Agaç, Türlerinin Seçimi Üzerine Aragtirmalar (Studies on the Selection of Some Best Growing Tree Species in Southeastern Anatolian). Or. Arag. Ens. Yayinlari, Teknik Bülten Serisi No: 103, Ankara, 43 s. 21. ISIK, K., 1980; Kizilçam'da (P, brutia Ten). Fopulasyonlar Arasi ve Populasyonlar /çi Genetik ÇegitliQin Aragtirilmasi, (To- hum ve Fidan Karekterleri). TUBITAK, TOAG/355, Ankara. 22. GEZER,A., 1972; Kizilçam'da (P, brutia Ten.) Ekim DerinliQinin Tesbiti (Determinaiion of Sowing Depth for P. brutia Ten. in Nursery). Arag. Ens. Yayinlari, Teknik Bülten Serisi No: 51, Ankara, 9 s. 23: ;TOLAY,U., 1976; lbreli Tohumlarinin Ekimden Sonra Kug ve Kenliricilere Kargi Korunmasi.Kavak ve Hizli Geligen Yabanci TBr:Orman Agaçlari Arag. Ens. Dergisi No: 1, Izmit. 24. SAATÇIOGLU,F., 1970: Sun'ì Orman Genqlegtirmesi ve AQaçlandirma Teknigi, 3. Bask; (Artificial forestation Techniques, Third Edition). I.Ü. Or. Fak. Yayinlari No: 1532/152, Istanbul, 505 s. 25. ÖZDEMIR,T., 1977; Antalya Bölgesinde Kizilçam (P. brutia Ten.) Ormanlarinh Tabii Gençlegtirme 'Olanaklari Üzerine Aragtirmalar (Studies on the Possibilitiesof Natural Regeneration of Pinus brutia Ten. in Antalya Region). Or. Fak. Dergisi Seri A, Cilt 27, Sayi 2, Istanbul, s. 238-288. 26. BERKEL,A., 1957 a; Kizilçam (P. brutia Ten.)'da Teknolojik Aragtirmalar Technological Studies on P. brutia Ten.) Or. Fak. Dergisi, Seri A, Sayi 7 (1), Istanbul, s. 30-54. 27. ODABASI,T., 1981 ; Korudacj Kizilçam Plantasyonlarinda Megçere Bakimi Üzerine Arastirmalar (Recherches sur les traite- ment de peuplement de la planfation du pin brutia dans la region de Korudacj). Or. Fak. Dergisi, Seri A, Say¡ 1, Istanbul, S. 75-104.

9- ClHEAM - 86/1