Industry Platforms and Ecosystem Innovation Annabelle Gawer and Michael A
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J PROD INNOV MANAG 2014;31(3):417–433 © 2013 Product Development & Management Association DOI: 10.1111/jpim.12105 Industry Platforms and Ecosystem Innovation Annabelle Gawer and Michael A. Cusumano This paper brings together the recent literature on industry platforms and shows how it relates to managing inno- vation within and outside the firm as well as to dealing with technological and market disruptions and change over time. First, we identify distinct types of platforms. Our analysis of a wide range of industry examples suggests that there are two predominant types of platforms: internal or company-specific platforms, and external or industry-wide platforms. We define internal (company or product) platforms as a set of assets organized in a common structure from which a company can efficiently develop and produce a stream of derivative products. We define external (industry) platforms as products, services, or technologies that act as a foundation upon which external innovators, organized as an innovative business ecosystem, can develop their own complementary products, technologies, or services. Second, we summarize from the literature general propositions on the design, economics, and strategic management of platforms. Third, we review the case of Intel and other examples to illustrate the range of technological, strategic, and business challenges that platform leaders and their competitors face as markets and technologies evolve. Finally, we identify practices associated with effective platform leadership and avenues for future research to deepen our understanding of this important phenomenon and what firms can do to manage platform-related competition and innovation. Introduction Platform Definitions and Distinctions his paper brings together some of the recent lit- What managers and researchers refer to as platforms exist erature on “industry platforms” and shows how in a variety of industries, especially in high-tech busi- T it relates to managing innovation within and nesses driven by information technology. Microsoft, outside the firm as well as to dealing with technological Apple, Google, Intel, Cisco, ARM, Qualcomm, EMC, and market disruptions and change over time. First, we and many other firms, small and large, build hardware define the term “platform” and why this concept seems to and software products for computers, cell phones, and have become increasingly important for researchers and consumer electronics devices that in one form or another managers. Second, we clarify differences in the literature serve as what we can call industry platforms. These firms with regard to how to define different types of platforms and their hundreds if not thousands of partners also and associated economic, managerial, and strategic con- participate in platform-based “ecosystem” innovation cepts. Third, we review the case of Intel and other (Iansiti and Levien, 2004; Moore, 1996). Platforms are examples to illustrate the range of technological, strate- distinct in that they are often associated with “network gic, and business challenges that platform leaders and effects”: that is, the more users who adopt the platform, their competitors face as markets and technologies the more valuable the platform becomes to the owner and evolve. Finally, we identify practices associated with to the users because of growing access to the network of effective platform leadership and avenues for future users and often to a growing set of complementary inno- research to deepen our understanding of this important vations. In other words, there are increasing incentives for phenomenon and what firms can do to manage platform- more firms and users to adopt a platform and join the related competition and innovation. ecosystem as more users and complementors join.1 1 We use the term “complementor” in the sense defined by Brandenburger and Nalebuff (1997), as a shorthand for “the developer of a complementary product” where two products are complements if greater Address correspondence to: Annabelle Gawer, Imperial College Busi- sales of one increase demand for the other. Formally, A and B are comple- ness School, Imperial College London, South Kensington Campus, London ments if the valuation by consumers of A and B together is greater than the SW7 2AZ, UK. E-mail: [email protected]. Tel: +44 207-594-9174. sum of the valuation of A alone and of B alone. 418 J PROD INNOV MANAG A. GAWER AND M. A. CUSUMANO 2014;31(3):417–433 Industry platforms and associated innovations, as well surprisingly, several distinct academic literatures have as platforms on top of or embedded within other plat- studied this phenomenon. The term “platform” has forms have become increasingly pervasive in our every- become nearly ubiquitous, appearing in the new product day lives (for example, microprocessors embedded development and operations management field (Meyer within personal computers or smart phones that access and Lehnerd, 1997; Simpson, Siddique, and Jiao, 2005); the Internet, on top of which search engines such as in technology strategy (Cusumano and Gawer, 2002; Google and social media networks such as Facebook Eisenmann, Parker, and Van Alstyne, 2006; Gawer and exist, and on top of which applications operate, etc.). Not Cusumano, 2002, 2008); and in industrial economics (Armstrong, 2006; Evans, 2003; Rochet and Tirole, 2003). Our analysis of a wide range of industry examples, however, suggests there are two predominant forms of platforms: internal or company-specific platforms, and BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES external or industry-wide platforms. Dr. Annabelle Gawer is assistant professor in strategy and innovation at the Imperial College Business School in London. She specializes in In this paper, we define internal (company or product) strategic management and high-tech business strategy. A thought leader platforms as a set of assets organized in a common struc- in high-tech strategy, she is a pioneering contributor to the field of ture from which a company can efficiently develop and research on technological platforms. She has published two books and a produce a stream of derivative products (Meyer and number of articles in this research area. Her first book, Platform Lead- ership: How Intel, Microsoft, and Cisco Drive Industry Innovation Lehnerd, 1997; Muffatto and Roveda, 2002). We define (Harvard Business School Press, 2002), coauthored with Massachusetts external (industry) platforms as products, services, or Institute of Technology (MIT) Prof. M. Cusumano, has become a ref- technologies that are similar in some ways to the former erence in business and academia. Her latest book, Platforms, Markets but provide the foundation upon which outside firms and Innovation (Edward Elgar, 2009), is an edited volume dedicated to the growing field of platform research. Her research articles have been (organized as a “business ecosystem”) can develop their published in Organization Studies, Journal of Economics and Manage- own complementary products, technologies, or services ment Strategy, MIT Sloan Management Review, European Management (Gawer, 2009; Gawer and Cusumano, 2002). These are Review, Research in the Sociology of Organizations, and Communica- tions and Strategies. Her work has also been published in the Wall Street somewhat high-level definitions, however, and it is Journal and the European Business Review. Her books and articles have instructive to see how researchers have treated the dis- been translated in Japanese and Chinese. She has consulted for a number tinctions between these two types of platforms at a more of international corporations and is a member of the steering committee detailed level. on the future of e-Skills for Europe for the European Commission. Annabelle received a Diplôme d’Ingénieur Civil des Mines from Ecole des Mines de Nancy (France), a Master of Science in Applied Math- ematics from Université Paris 6 (France), a Master of Science in Indus- Research on Internal and trial Engineering from Stanford University, and a PhD in Management 2 from the MIT Sloan School of Management. External Platforms Dr. Michael A. Cusumano is the Sloan Management Review Distin- Internal Platforms guished Professor of Management at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology’s Sloan School of Management, with a joint appointment in the MIT Engineering Systems Division. He specializes in strategy, The first popular usage of the term platform seems to product development, and entrepreneurship in the computer software have been in the context of new product development and business as well as Internet services, consumer electronics, and auto- incremental innovation around reusable components or mobiles. He currently teaches courses on the software business and technologies. We refer to these as internal platforms in digital platforms as well as advanced strategic management. Prof. Cusumano received an A.B. degree from Princeton University and a that a firm, either working by itself or with suppliers, can Ph.D. from Harvard University and completed a postdoctoral fellowship build a family of related products or sets of new features in Production and Operations Management at the Harvard Business by deploying these components. In many ways, this is an School before joining MIT in 1986. He received two Fulbright Fellow- old idea: Brown (1995) indicated in his history of ships and a Japan Foundation Fellowship for studying at Tokyo Univer- sity. He has consulted for more than 90 companies around the world as Baldwin Locomotive Works that as early as 1854, the well as been a director of several public and private companies. He is a U.S. locomotive manufacturer developed a “rigorous former editor-in-chief and chairman of the MIT Sloan Management program to standardize locomotive parts. Now standard Review and was named one of the most influential people in technology and IT by Silicon.com in 2009. He is the author or coauthor of nine components could be used across a number of Baldwin- books on technology strategy and management, including Staying standard engines or even in custom designs” (Brown, Power (2010), The Business of Software (2004), Platform Leadership 1995, p. 21). Product designers and engineers more (2002), Competing on Internet Time (1998), and Microsoft Secrets (1995).