Managing Your Forest in a Changing Climate Practical Advice for Renfrew County Woodlot Owners

Managing Your Forest in a Changing Climate Practical Advice for Renfrew County woodlot owners

APRIL Published by the Renfrew County Chapter of the Ontario Woodlot Association 2015 Managing Your Forest in a Changing Climate Practical Advice for Renfrew County woodlot owners

Published by the Renfrew County Chapter of the Ontario Woodlot Association http://www.ont-woodlot-assoc.org/chapt_renfrew.html

The Ontario Woodlot Association (OWA) Renfrew County Chapter

The OWA promotes the sustainable management of Ontario's privately owned forest by providing its members with guidance and advice and by representing their interests through a united provincial voice. OWA members are working to ensure that Ontario’s privately owned forest will always contribute to the health of our society, our environment, and the economy.

The Renfrew County Chapter, one of 20 across southern Ontario and the near North, has an active educational and recreational program focused on good forest management for private woodlot owners. The chapter provides the opportunity to engage with others of similar interests through field trips, seminars, and an annual forest fair while learning about good forest management.

The privately owned forest in Renfrew County is the largest of all counties in the province at 250,000 ha (600,000 acres). This is equal in area to the Crown land forest in the County. Our forests represent huge value to our woodlot owners and our citizens. Privately owned forests provide for recreation, wood for our forest industry, clean air, clean water, and all the trees, plants and animals that make this part of the world special.

Photo credits: All photos are by the authors except photos 6, 7, 16, 25, and 30 (Bob Butler); photo 10 (David Sexsmith), photo 19b and 37 (Don Leckie), Photo12 (Andrea D’Eon) and photo 23a (Linda Touzon). The credit for photo 29 is Sherry Ritten. Managing Your Forest in a Changing Climate

Table of Contents i. Authors’ Note. ii. Introduction. 1. Climate Change is Real. -Projected Climate Change for Renfrew County. -Existing Trends indicative of a Changing Climate. 1.1 Weather Events. -Blowdown. -Drought. -Winter Thaw followed by a Deep Freeze. -Ice Storms. -Spring Frosts. -Winterburn. -Will the occurrence of Insects and Diseases increase under Climate Change? 1.2 Climate Change and Tree/Forest Adaptation. -Why is Climate Change a problem for forests in Renfrew County? -It’s more than just Averages. -Forests are more than Trees. 2. Principles of Forests under Stress. -The Site is the Resource, Trees and Forests are the Crop. -Tipping Points. -Seasonality of the stress is important. -Secondary pests will move in. -Stressed trees might put on a bumper seed crop. -Trees are tough, but stress is cumulative. -No matter what you do, some events are so severe your forest crop will be wiped out. -A Tree’s defence to damage: Compartmentalization. -A Tree’s Recovery from damage: New Growth. -A Forest’s defence: Diversity. -An example of Diversity; how different tree species resist wind. 3. Actions a Woodlot Owner can take to improve the Resilience of their Forest.

3.1 Natural Resilience to Wind in Trees and Forests. -Actions a woodlot owner can take to improve the wind resistance of their forests. -Salvaging blowdown. -Safety. -Choosing to leave blowdown where it is. 3.2 Improving the Resilience of your Forest to Drought. -Actions a woodlot owner can take to reduce the impact of drought. 3.3 Increasing Forest Resilience to all things Climate Change through improved Diversity. -Retaining the existing species. -Adding tree species. -Increasing the genetic diversity of species already growing on your property. 3.4 Roads, Ruts, Logging Damage and Climate Change. 4. Summary and Conclusions.

5. Bibliography. Executive Summary

This publication provides information and advice about climate change that have been tailored for woodlot owners in Renfrew County, Ontario.

First, we summarize the observations of some changes in climate that have already occurred, and make some projections into the future. We can expect that ‘average’ climate will become warmer and drier. We expect that severe weather events such as blowdown, drought, ice storms, and erratic timing of freezing and thawing will become more frequent.

In the second section we describe how individual trees, and the forest as a whole, respond to these events. Trees will become stressed from severe weather events and more vulnerable to damaging agents. Damage from some weather events will be unavoidable.

In the third section we present some actions woodlot owners can take to improve the resilience of their forest against these trends.

The recommended actions can be summed up as: think defensively and avoid treatments in your woodlot that will increase risk; control stand density and structure to keep existing trees healthy; and maintain and possibly increase species and genetic diversity. Authors’ Note

All of the woodlot owners we meet accept the We would like to thank Gary Neilson and two anony mous challenge that they are growing a crop for at reviewers for suggestions that improved the manuscript, least 40 years into the future. During this time Valri Poley of Pembroke for editorial assistance and frame and beyond they know their forests have Doug Connelly of Deep River for laying out the manuscript to survive all the extreme weather events. Climate for publication. change will bring a change in the frequency and extremity of weather events. Woodlot owners The Editorial Committee also know their forests have to grow well during Renfrew County Chapter the expected normal conditions. Climate change Ontario Woodlot Association will bring shifts in what were previously the normal conditions.

Privately managed forests make up a great part of Renfrew County and we have found that owners want to know what they should be doing in the face of uncertainty caused by a changing climate. We have always found private woodlot managers to be passionate about their forests and willing to undertake the necessary actions to keep their forests healthy and productive. Unfortunately we have found guidance from the usual sources lacking on what specific actions a woodlot owner can take to prepare for climate change.

You, the reader, should decide your level of comfort with the actions you have taken or not taken in your woodlot to adjust to a changing climate. Hopefully this report will prove helpful in deciding what, if any, changes you should make to your woodlot.

This report contains much of what can be termed ‘professional speculation’, helped along by local knowledge. Whenever we can we supply a link to easily accessible source documents. Other source literature is listed in the bibliography.

If you find any content of this report beneficial in reviewing or changing your activities in your woodlot, then please share this report with others who you think will find it useful.

i Foreward

If you were to go on a road trip that included North Bay, Nepean, Napanee and Niagara, you couldn’t help but be impressed with the variety of landscapes in Ontario; Boreal to Carolinian, and urban to rural. Spend a little time in different parts of the province, and you’ll begin to appreciate that each has its own strengths, priorities and challenges.

The mandate of the Ontario Woodlot Association is to promote “the wise use of Ontario’s private forests”. One of the ways we do this is by maintaining a network of chapters as the face of the organization or, as I like to think of it, our “boots on the ground”. It shouldn’t be a surprise that these chapters are just as varied as the Ontario landscape.

But there are certain things we all have in common, the main one being a fascination with trees and their role in a healthy society. We also share a concern for the future health of our forests, with climate change arguably becoming the most significant factor. As our climate changes, so does everything else, including seasonal rhythms, weather events and migration of non-native pests and plants.

Woodlot owners tend to be practical people looking for workable solutions, so as I read through this publication, I’m pleased to see that it presents straightforward ways a landowner can try to deal with the anticipated effects of our changing climate. I congratulate the Renfrew County Chapter for producing a timely, clear and understandable document. While its focus is on their part of the province, the message is applicable everywhere.

This publication continues the OWA tradition of providing sound, practical and relevant forest management information to its members and the public.

David Sexsmith President, Ontario Woodlot Association

ii Introduction

Private woodlot owners in Renfrew County are view of the private forest land owner and the well empowered to manage their land as they acceptance that Renfrew County is not immune see fit subject to what they can afford to do, what to climate change means the prudent forest society will allow them to do, and what nature manager might consider taking some actions will accept them doing. These three forces in now to mitigate the expected negative effects balance (economics, societal values, and environment) of climate change. Unfortunately, there are have been the mantra of sustainability. But now few resources providing climate change mitigation a new unknown is in the game; climate change, advice of sufficient detail to be useful to the and it will affect all three forces. private woodlot owner in a localized geographic area such as Renfrew County. This report is an “Climate is what you expect, weather is what attempt to remedy that situation. you get.” This famous quote from Mark Twain succinctly sums up the issue of climate change Chapter 1 consists of a best case/ worst case for woodlot managers in Renfrew County. scenario on changes to the climate that are predicted to occur in Renfrew County. These Climate, as described by long-term normals or are the shifting ‘normals’; the climate. We also averages, is changing. The news is full of daily provide a description and past data on the reports that the climate is changing, it is changing probability of weather events that can cause rapidly, and action needs to be taken to ward damage to trees and forests. This is the variability off significant climatic shifts that will not be in climate change is bringing to our weather. mankind’s best interests. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) issued its fifth Chapter 2 provides insight on recognizing and assessment report in November of 2014 reviewing understanding forests under stress and the the state of the science. It is beyond the scope mechanics and processes our forests use to of this publication to review the literature on cope with stress. climate change. Chapter 3 provides a review of actions a woodlot Weather, the short-term patterns reported as owner can consider taking in his or her forest a segment of the nightly news, is also changing. to better prepare for or endure stressful events. We should expect to see an increase in the collision of cold and warm air masses leading Throughout this report we provide examples, to more severe storms, a movement north of scenarios, and case studies that might be close storm systems that are historically more common to your situation. There are many factors in any to the south, and changes in the location of the forest management decision and this report jet stream and the weather patterns it brings. cannot possibly describe or consider all factors. The shoulders of the growing season should be If you have any doubts about a suggested activity milder with earlier springs and later winter onset then you should seek further advice. You can but variation will be the norm. attend a workshop, join the Ontario Woodlot Association or another forestry based group, search Forest management is a unique endeavour in for additional literature, or have a MFTIP plan that one is always looking towards what others drawn up. All are good choices. Ultimately an consider far into the future. Very few professions on-site consultation with a knowledgeable local take such a long-term view where a 40 year-old forestry professional might well be the best crop is only half way to harvest. This long-term investment you can make in your woodlot.

iii 1. Climate Change is Real

“Ontario’s climate is warming and becoming on how the living world has altered its timing of increasingly variable. It is possible that temperature, events, presumably in response to a changing precipitation, and wind patterns will continue to climate. Again, we include results from data or change for decades, perhaps centuries.” This is observations collected close to or within Renfrew the opening line in A Practitioner’s Guide to Climate County. Other organisms are showing an Change Adaptation in Ontario’s Ecosystems undetectable amount or no change in their (Gleeson et al. 2011). behaviour. None of this evidence is definitive proof the climate has already changed in Renfrew It is unfortunate for forests the earth’s climate is County. Again, it is up to you, the reader, to decide rapidly changing. It is unfortunate for forest your comfort level with managing your forests managers the change is not a scientifically for the future. precise projection into the future. A well defined smooth progression would make it easier to plan An often overlooked but very real issue to the and manage a forest. Climate change is an forest manager in Renfrew County is extreme imprecise, noisy, and messy projection dependent weather events. We describe a few types of upon future actions or inactions by humans. On forest-impacting weather events, their historical top of this, the climate change issue has become frequencies, and their predicted frequency in a muddled political topic debated between the future. Most of these events are infrequent proponents, deniers, vested interest groups, and spatially sporadic in their impact which and about anyone else with a title and a website. makes it difficult to say a particular parcel of land, your parcel of land, will be impacted in the future. We can only provide the evidence In this report we are not going to engage in this and advice on what to do; you need to decide debate. Instead, we provide Renfrew County level your comfort level with the risk associated with projections of a ‘best’ case (a minimum amount extreme weather events. of change) and a ‘worst’ case (a significant amount of change). Admittedly we simplify the We provide our evidence because we feel it is issue by using only two climate change scenarios imperative that you, the reader, engage in the for two time horizons for two parameters. issue before reading the chapter on the advice of what actions to take in your forests. The actions You, the reader, can decide your belief in the we advise fall into the category of ‘best bet, no significance of the projected changes, run other regret’. By ‘no regret’ we mean the suggested models, or use other parameters. We, the authors, actions will improve your forest even if the believe the coming changes will impact forest climate isn’t changing or is changing in a way health and the way we manage forests in Renfrew that wasn’t predicted. Even if you disagree County. with our perspective on climate change for Renfrew County, we think you will find our advice on We also provide evidence that some existing what actions to take quite useful in managing climatic conditions and nature’s response have your forests. already changed. We show long-term instrument data from weather stations close to Renfrew County for a couple of parameters. Other data, that we chose not to include, might show less change or no change at all. We also provide some information

1 1 Projected Climate Change for We used summer precipitation and summer temperature as the parameters to be projected Renfrew County into the future for Renfrew County. These parameters can have a greater influence on What are the projected changes in climate for forest health than the other parameters available. Renfrew County? We used a provincial on-line tool to run two Best Case projections for Renfrew County; a best case using the B2 scenario for 30+ years into the Using the B2 scenario for the years 2041-2070 future and a worst case using the A2 scenario for a slight increase in precipitation is predicted in 60+ years into the future. The tool only the north part of the County and the area around provides projections on the average changes Beachburg. A slight decrease is predicted in and does not provide any information on the precipitation in the Hardwood Lake area in the extremes that may occur. The extremes may be south part of the County. Temperatures increase more damaging to forests than the change in by 1 to 3oC. The following changes are mapped averages. for Renfrew County under this best case scenario The tool is available at: http://www.ontario.ca/ (Figure 1). environment-and-energy/climate-change-regions- and-districts (run on January 22nd, 2015). The A2 and B2 are middle of the range scenarios Worst Case used by the International Panel on Climate Change. These projections indicate a global temperature Using the A2 scenario for the years 2071-2100 increase of 3.5oC toward the end of the century a slight decrease in precipitation is predicted for for the A2 scenario and an increase of 2.5oC the southern half of the County with little change for the B2 scenario. One way to understand in the northern half. Summer temperatures the difference between the two scenarios is to increase by 3 to 5oC. The following changes are visualize the future. mapped for Renfrew County under this worst case scenario: (Figure 2). The following is a description from the UK: In the A2 future with climate change illustrates the consequences of a lack of preparation to cope with climate change effects. E.g. soil erosion, baked-earth, die-back of trees, poor quality stressed vegetation - pretty much the results of a long-drought summer but including flash-flood type damage, and maybe wind damage to trees etc. The B2 future with climate change illustrates summer drought but in a less extreme way as measures would have been put in place to prepare and lessen the impacts of climate change - e.g. water use efficiency measures, changes in farming practice etc. This scenario also includes introduction of new food crops and also industrial crops, biofuels, etc. responding to the need for society to decarbonise. Source: http://www.uea.ac.uk/~e384/scenarios.htm

2 Fig 1: Best case: Left: April to Sept. precipitation. Right: Summer temperature difference

Fig 2: Worst Case: Left: April to Sept. precipitation. Right: Summer temperature difference.

Existing Trends indicative of a Changing Climate

There are signals the climate has already changed. Some are biological responses. For example the spring arrival of the common loon in Algonquin Park is now one week earlier on average than 40 years ago. (Source: http://www.sbaa.ca/projects.asp?cn=303) Other signals come from data collected repeatedly with instruments over time in a standardized fashion. The following are a few trends indicative of a changing climate that have been recorded.

Extreme Cold Temperatures have become Milder

The extreme coldest winter temperature in Ottawa has become 5oC milder.

Fig 3: Source: Environment Canada Past Weather

4 Some Species of Trees are Flushing Earlier in the spring

Some local data indicates red pine and white spruce buds are emerging in the spring five to ten days earlier near Petawawa as measured by the date of peak pollen release from male flowers.

Fig 4: Source: Updated from http://publications.gc.ca/collections/Collection/Fo1-16-2004E1.pdf

Birds are Changing their with most arriving earlier, in conjunction with warming spring temperatures. Behavior • A study of 35 North American warbler species Nature Canada reports: found that the range of occurrence of seven of • North American Tree Swallows are nesting up the species (Prothonotary Warbler, Blue-winged to 9 days earlier than 30 years ago, correspond- Warbler, Golden-winged Warbler, Black throated ing to an increase in average spring temperatures. Gray Warbler, Pine Warbler, Hooded Warbler, and Cape May Warbler) has shifted significantly • Birds are migrating earlier in the spring. A north in the past 24 years, by an average of 65 study of 63 years of data for 96 species of bird miles. None of the birds shifted to the south. migrants in Canada showed that 27 species Source: http://naturecanada.ca/initiatives/bird- have altered their arrival dates significantly, conservation/climate-change-birds/

5 Ice out date for Lake Opeongo in Algonquin Park is earlier

The date when ice has melted off Lake Opeongo in the spring is now 14 days earlier.

Fig. 5: Source: http://www.algonquinpark.on.ca/images/iceoutgraph_2013_w.jpg

6 1.1 Weather Events

Climate aside, weather events can have an even greater and more immediate impact on forests.

Blowdown

Photo 1: Blown down poplar, Wylie Township, 2006.

Wind, strong enough to cause trees to blow Types of wind storms that can down, is a disturbance force historically present in Renfrew’s Forests. In a 1985 survey of 308 cause blowdown maple bush owners in Ontario, wind was the most predominant disturbance factor with 26% Differences in air masses can cause severe of owners reporting wind damage in their storm fronts, squalls, and/or microbursts woodlots followed by ice storms (18%) and that race across the County, usually from the insects/diseases (17%) Source: https://archive. northwest to the southeast. These frontal org/stream/SUMMARYREPORTOFQ00MCLA09220 systems can form rapidly and spread heavy .ome/SUMMARYREPORTOFQ00MCLA09220 rains, lightning, and strong winds. They can _djvu.txt be associated with larger weather events. 7 All of the woodlot owners we meet accept the challenge that they are growing a crop for at least 40 years into the future. During this time frame and beyond they know their forests have to survive all the extreme weather events. Climate change will bring a change in the frequency and extremity of weather events. Woodlot owners also know their forests have to grow well during the expected normal conditions. Climate change will bring shifts in what were previously the normal conditions.

If you find any content of this report beneficial in reviewing or changing your activities in your woodlot, then please share this report with others who you think will find it useful.

Photo 2: Squall moving down the Ottawa River at Pembroke.

Storm fronts causing blowdown quite often time to bend and alter its shape to shed the wind. involve an extremely rapid pulse of very strong wind that overcomes a tree’s defences. The Data from a weather station near Pembroke quick pulse does not allow the tree sufficient demonstrates the nature of this quick pulse of

Hour Peak Wind Speed Direction wind ending at during the hour (km/hr) came from 12:00 14 SW 13:00 14 S 14:00 17 SW 15:00 21 E 16:00 32 SW 17:00 35 W 18:00 85 W 19:00 39 W 20:00 6 S Fig. 6: July 17th, 2006 Peak wind speed. Data curtsey of Michel Huot

8 very strong wind. On July 17th, 2006 a storm rotation within the vertical column of air creates front formed late in the day over the North Bay/ a leading edge downdraft also called a shear zone. Mattawa area and rapidly bore down from the Wind shear can be part of a microburst or a squall. northwest on Renfrew County and Algonquin Park. This storm was mapped as blowing down On July 4th, 1999, severe winds were reported approximately 14,000 ha of forest in the County across the northcentral United States and they and 5,500 ha in Algonquin Park. continued into the next day. On July 5th a peak wind of only 69 km/hr from the west at about A peak wind of 85 km/hr from the west was 5:45 p.m. was recorded at the weather station recorded at just before 6 p.m. (Figure 6). The near Pembroke (Figure 7). Despite the relatively weather station was unable to properly record low recorded speed of the peak gust, trees were the event as the wind accelerated and dissipated observed blowing down in the vicinity of the faster than the 5 second averaging the weather weather station. The weather station was designed station used. The true gust speed was in excess to record wind moving horizontally and was unable of 100 km/hr as evidenced by more accurate to properly record the event as the wind included instruments located elsewhere in the storm path. a major thrust coming down from above.

Trees in the vicinity of the weather station were Trees are not adapted to the downdraft nature observed blowing down. The uniform nature of of these types of winds and, unable to shed the this blowdown event, lined up in the direction excessive forces, bend, snap off or topple over the peak wind struck at, is indicative of a storm (Photo 3). front with strong gusts coming from the west or northwest. This storm front was determined to be part of a wind event known as a Derecho which packed gusts in excess of 140 km/hr.

Wind shear is a type of wind that results from differential wind speeds at different elevations. Wind shear is most famous for causing havoc with the take-off or landing of aircraft as the

Hour Peak Wind Speed Direction wind ending at during the hour (km/hr) came from 12:00 21 NW 13:00 18 N 14:00 17 N 15:00 10 E 16:00 11 N 17:00 7 SE 18:00 69 W 19:00 13 W 20:00 10 W Fig. 7: July 5th, 1999 Peak wind speeds. Data curtsey of Michel Huot 9 9 Photo 3: Bent over and blowdown trees indicative of strong downdrafts.

Tornados are intense low pressure areas that (August 2nd, 2006) causing intensive damage generate a wild twisting wind exhibiting over a relatively small area mapped as 297 ha, unpredictable behaviour when they touch down. and an F1 touched down near Burnstown on Tornados are infrequent in Renfrew County (about August 10th, 2004. Tornado strength is quantified 1 every 10 years on average) and usually cause by the Fujita scale from 1 to 5 with 5 being the localized yet very extensive twisted blowdown. strongest. F3 and stronger tornados have not Two recent tornados in Renfrew County were been recorded in Renfrew County (Figure 8). an F2 that touched down near Combermere

10 Fig. 8: Confirmed and probable tornados 1918-2004. Larger green circles are F2, light blue circles are F1, and pink circles are F0. Circle size is not indicative of the area impacted. Source: http://canadatornado.com/ontario/history/

Derechos are a line of intense wide spread fast northward migration of derechos would increase moving windstorms and associated thunderstorms their frequency in Renfrew County in the future. that move across a great distance. Derechos are They are often associated with other wind events more common in the southern mid-west United such as storm fronts, microbursts, tornados, and States but have been known to occasionally veer wind shear. into Renfrew County. A climate change induced

Fig. 9: The Boundary Waters Canadian Derecho, July 4-5th, 1999. Source: http://www.spc.noaa.gov/misc/AbtDerechos/casepages/jul4-51999page.htm

11 Hurricanes are massive low pressure systems Renfrew County for the four years from 2008 to that rarely impact Renfrew County but can, on 2011, however 1765 ha blew down in the storm occasion, result in heavy rains and strong sustained of July 23rd, 2012 (Figure 10). winds. Most hurricanes have dissipated their Source: https://dr6j45jk9xcmk.cloudfront.net/ strength by the time they cross southern Ontario documents/3251/forest-health-conditions-report- or Lake Ontario on their northeasterly track but 2012-aoda.pdf page 27 can still pack a punch. A previous prominent windstorm on July 17th, September 21, 1938: the New England 2006 was described as blowing down 40,000 ha Hurricane of 1938 tracked into Canada, in total: bringing strong winds to eastern Ontario and southern Quebec. Damage was primarily Another series of thunderstorms began west limited to trees and power lines; structural of Manitoulin Island continued eastwards damage was minimal. This storm, along with south of Sudbury, through North Bay and Hurricane Hazel in 1954, was one of the few Mattawa and then down the Ottawa River hurricanes to cause hurricane-force winds in valley to the Deep River area. This system of Canada's interior. thunderstorms generated microbursts, which Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List caused extensive blowdown totalling almost _of_Canada_hurricanes 40,000 ha. Most of the damage was mapped from North Bay to the Quebec border and through the north end of Algonquin Park and How Frequent are Blowdown along the Ottawa River. Events? Source: http://www.glfc.forestry.ca/VLF/ foresthealth/foresthealth2006e.pdf Blowdown is a difficult element to quantify due See also: http://www.workingforest.com/legacy/ to its sporadic nature and seemingly random area-sawmills-accommodate-blowdown-pine/ distribution. The resilience a forest may or may not offer to strong winds will alter the extent of damage. A five year summary of forest health conditions reported no blowdown damage in

Fig 10: Mapped blowdown from storm of July 23, 2012.

12 Longer term, there is very little Renfrew County forestry data to answer the question of how frequent blowdown events are. We can use some long-term data from the Algonquin Forest Authority (AFA), the forest managers of Algonquin Park. The AFA published the area blown down in their jurisdiction by major wind events Source: AFA Forest Management Plan 2010-2020, page 24:

1964 640 ha (described as a 16 x 0.4 km swath in Portal Lake area in Bishop and Osler township) 1972 1280 ha (stretching from Thomas Lake in Dickson Township to Foys Lake in Guthrie Township) 1973 2000 ha (between Wilkes and Biggar lakes) 1983 8200 ha (Barron, Stratton and part of Guthrie Townships) 1999 6150 ha (storm of July 5th, 1999) Note: Photo 5 indicates 6500 ha blew down 2006 5500 ha (storm of July 17th, 2006)

The basic conclusion we can draw from the AFA dataset is there were at least six significant blowdown events in a 42 year period somewhere in Algonquin Park, an area similar in size and adjacent to Renfrew County. Minor unreported wind events occurred during the period as well.

We can conclude that a similar frequency exists for Renfrew County; one major event every seven years on average somewhere in the County.

Will Climate Change Increase the Frequency of Strong Winds?

With climate change it is believed wind events will increase in frequency and intensity but specific predictions are sparse. The only quantified estimate found was an 8 to 15% increase in severe wind events for Eastern Ontario. Source: http://www.iclr.org/images/Bruce_climate_change_info_march_2011.pdf The season of wind storms and the amount of rain that accompanies the wind is also important. Saturated soils, especially those with a clay component, can rapidly lose their strength and lessen the ability of roots to anchor a tree. If climate change brings more intense rain with wind storms, or spring storms when soils are more likely to be saturated from snow runoff, then an increase in uprooting can be expected (Figure 4).

The potential impact of wind on your woodlot will depend upon local landforms, the size of your forest, and the resilience of your forest to strong winds.

13 Photo 4: Root mass of a white pine that tipped over in strong winds accompanied by heavy rain.

Photo 5: McManus Lake, Algonquin Park. Blow down of July 5th, 1999.

14 Drought

Photo 6: Drought caused dieback, Renfrew County, August 2012.

Spells without rain have frequented Renfrew Within Renfrew County, Wayne Ingram, long-time County in the past and will frequent the County forest health specialist, reported a 2006 drought in the future. Drought, severe enough to cause that impacted 7,000 ha of mature red pine mostly tree mortality in well established healthy forests, north of Black Donald Lake on the Mount St. has not been a common occurrence. The AFA Patrick range. Forest Management Plan lists one previous drought Source: http://www.glfc.forestry.ca/VLF/foresthealth that caused mortality (AFA forest management /foresthealth2006e.pdf plan, 2010-2020, page 28): The recent severe drought of 2012 was reported Spotty mortality occurred in widely scattered and mapped as 18,400 ha of moderate to severe stands as a direct result of the extensive areas damage in Renfrew County (Figure 11). of drought damage in 1997. Mortality showed up on red oak and maple on hill tops in the southeast part of Algonquin Provincial Park and on hills north of Aylen and Round Lakes in Clancy, Guthrie and Master Townships. No actual area figures can be given for drought damage because the damage was widespread and spotty.

15 Fig. 11: Forest damage due to drought, 2012. Source: https://dr6j45jk9xcmk.cloudfront.net/documents/3251/forest-health- conditions-report-2012-aoda.pdf page 37

How Frequent are Severe 1965, the year National Farmers Union members recalled, was part of three consecutive years Droughts? with about 25% less rain than normal at Ottawa.

During the spring and summer drought of 2012, National Farmers Union members said it was the driest since 1965, maybe longer.

Source: http://www.betterfarming.com/online- news/spectre-drought-ontario-motivates-aid- request-5572

Long-term rain gauge data from the Ottawa airport (the closest complete record available) indicated 2012 was the driest May to August period since records began in 1939, 2012 being the only year where less than half the normal rain fell (Figure 12). 1997, the year the AFA reported mortality, saw 21% less rain. 16 Fig 12: Source: Environment Canada, Past Weather.

Will the Occurrence of Drought An Ontario report provides a glimpse of a drier Increase in Renfrew County future: with Climate Change? Ontario’s Climate Change Research Report CCRR-05 states that people in much of southern Ontario, from Bruce Peninsula to No one can yet definitively answer this question. the Ottawa Valley, will experience the types Drought is a period of time when little or no rain of hot summers that presently occur only in falls. Although Climate Change Models can show Windsor and Essex County. And, almost all less rain on average in the future for Renfrew of southern Ontario south of a line from Owen County or more evaporation leading to drier Sound to Pembroke will receive up to 10% soils, changes in the average are not as important less precipitation from April to September as the severity and length of dry periods. Climate between 2011-2040. “Given precipitation is change models are not specific enough to predict not expected to increase significantly; higher future drought periods. summer temperatures will potentially result in moisture stress affecting many aspects of life in Ontario…” Source: http://publications.gc.ca/collections/ collection_2011/ec/En57-41-7-2006-eng.pdf

17 Photo 7: Forest damage from drought. Looking east near Barr Line, August 2012.

18 Winter Thaw followed by a Deep Freeze

Photo 8: Sugar shack, Petawawa Research Forest.

A relatively rare weather event is a mid-winter damaging the roots. First, the event has to occur thaw that melts the snow pack followed by a mid to late winter when trees are willing to break freeze that penetrates deep into the soil. The winter dormancy. The first week of February thaw-freeze combination has caused sugar maple should be the earliest timing in Renfrew County and birch dieback several times in the past in but it is more likely to be a mid to late February eastern North America. thaw. A late March thaw is something that is expected and less likely to cause thaw-freeze The mid-winter thaw tricks the trees into breaking damage. winter dormancy while prematurely melting the insulating snow pack. Then the cold temperatures Second, the thaw has to be significant enough return and deep freezes shallow rooted species to melt the snow cover and expose the forest like sugar maple causing permanent cavitation floor. If a snow pack remains then tree roots in the tree’s root structure. In the following are insulated from the subsequent freezing year or years the trees exhibit crown dieback temperatures. As little as 10 cm of snow pack and even death as they do not have a healthy can provide sufficient insulation. root system to support themselves.

There are several conditions that must be present for a thaw-freeze event to impact forests by 19 And third, the subsequent deep freeze has to be Data from a weather station in eastern Quebec cold enough and last long enough to penetrate near Sutton for a 35 day period starting February the rooting zone and cause permanent freezing 6th 1981, illustrates a thaw-freeze event (Source: damage to the now mistakenly active roots. Note: Environment Canada, Past Weather, Abercorn freezing in this context is not the same as the Station, 1981, daily weather). Note temperatures overnight freeze / daytime thaw cycle which above plus 15oC in the middle of the period maple syrup production relies upon in the spring. followed by an overnight low below minus 20oC towards the end of the period with almost no snow pack.

Fig. 13: Weather data for Abercorn Station (near Sutton, Que.) from Feb. 6th to March 7th, 1981.

How Frequent are Winter stress seed crop, flowering excessively throughout the region. Soon after, reports of maple Thaw-Freeze Events? dieback and mortality led to intensive study of maple decline in the area and across the range Tree damaging thaw-freeze events have been of sugar maple. A 1997 report about a Quebec infrequently documented elsewhere but not in maple syrup producer described the event and Renfrew County. Reports using weather station the recovery: data and birch dieback found events in 1936, 1944, 1945, and 1981 in eastern North America The region’s maples have recovered from a (see Allen 2003, Bourque et al. 2005 for more bad spring in 1981 when a thaw followed by details). a freeze exploded the sap in the cells and caused the bark to shed. Most of the trees The February/March 1981 thaw-freeze impacted that suffered that year have finally stabi- an extensive area of the Eastern Townships in lized. She and many other farmers tried Quebec. Maple syrup producers in this area of fertilizing the trees to help them but it was Quebec recorded a double tapping season, too expensive and yielded no obvious tapping during the thaw as the trees became active results. in mid February and again after the event for the Source: http://www.producer.com/1997/11 normal spring season The following spring (1982) /maple-syrup-flavors-vary-with-soil-how- sugar maple exhibited what is known as a its-boiled Source:http://web.mit.edu/14.33/www/attach/ mapleelnino.pdf

20 Source: http://publications.gc.ca/collections/collection_2011/ec/En57-41-7-2006-eng.pdf

Photo 9: A maple sugarbush in the summer.

Will Climate Change Increase Snow packs respond very dramatically to the Probability of a Winter climate change. One of the most significant Thaw-Freeze? consequences of global change on northern forests may be a reduction in snow cover. Warmer winters result in less snow cover to The future risk in Renfrew County may be insulate the soil from freezing. Lack of accumu- different than our past exemption from winter lated snow or a meltdown of the snow pack in thaw-freeze damage. A 2006 Ontario report winter can result in deep soil frost and root kill. postulated the following with respect to sugar Source: http://publications.gc.ca/collections/ maple and thaw-freeze events in a changing collection_2011/ec/En57-41-7-2006-eng.pdf climate:

21 Ice Storms

Photo 10: Ice accumulation, December 2013.

Freezing rain that results in ice build-up can cause break off the leader in conifers reducing growth physical damage to trees. Gravity will pull off and creating a future deformity in the stem. Ice branches or topple trees over once the weight encrusted trees are also more susceptible to of accumulated ice exceeds the strength of the blowdown. tree. An ice storm resulting in as little as 7-8 mm of Ice storm damage often deforms the crown of ice accumulation can add many tons to the weight hardwood trees. Damage to 75% of a hardwood’s a tree supports. Ice storms that accumulate 30 crown is considered to inevitably lead to the death mm or more of ice are certainly in the damaging of the tree. Damage of 50 to 75% combined category. The great ice storm of 1998 saw build- with an additional stress is considered to put ups of ice in excess of 60 mm in parts of Eastern the tree at risk of dying. Ice accumulation can Ontario (Figure 14).

22 Fig. 14: Ice Storm of 1998. Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_American_Ice_Storm_of_1998

How Frequent are Ice Storms? these events are generally outside our memories but within the lifespan of many trees. The ice Long-term data from the northeastern United storm of 2013 that impacted Toronto accumulated States for the period 1900 to 1960 indicates enough ice to cause significant damage. two to eight events per decade but does not provide data on the severity of the events. For In Eastern Ontario, few people remember an ice storm to be damaging to trees the event Morrisburg weathered a 60 mm ice storm must last long enough to accumulate sufficent Dec. 29-30, 1942. In the great ice storm of ice for the weight of the ice to break branches 1998, Morrisburg received 70 mm of ice; an and trunks. event recent enough many people remember it.

Long-term data for freezing rain events in Toronto Renfrew County has been outside the main track reveals two previous storms of enough ice of previous major ice storms with most passing accumulation to cause damage. One was a to the south. Accumulation of ice in the County storm of over 30 mm in the 1920’s and another has not been as severe as areas directly in the was a 30 mm storm in the late 1960’s. Both of path of an ice storm.

23 Fig. 15: Source: http://www.iclr.org/images/2004_Nov_ICLR_Final_ICE_STORMS.pdf (page 10)

Will Climate Change Increase in the frequency of ice storms that last for six hours or longer. the Frequency of Ice Storms? Source: http://www.iclr.org/images/2004_Nov_ ICLR_Final_ICE_STORMS.pdf page 21 A 2007 study predicted by 2050 a 60% increase For Renfrew County, the move northward of ice in frequency for eastern Ontario for ice storms storm tracks may be blunted by local landforms. in the colder months (December, January, and Alternatively, the northward retreat of arctic February). When the authors ran the model weather may increase our vulnerability. It is further into the future the frequency increased impossible to precisely predict any changes. to almost a doubling (95% increase) by the year 2080. This study reported on the frequency of ice storms but did not include results for the amount of ice accumulation. See Cheng et al. (2007) for the study.

More relevant to forest damage is longer lasting ice storms that cause a build-up of weight on trees. For the Ottawa area a 30% increase is predicted

24 Spring Frosts.

Extensive weather-driven spring frosts occur over broad areas as a result of an overnight cooling that goes below minus 2.5oC after trees have flushed; usually in May. The damage is most obvious on the foliage of newly planted seedlings or young trees. Although rarely lethal, the tree has to expend stored resources to reflush which adds to its stress load.

Within Renfrew County there are micro sites known as frost pockets where late spring frost damage can be a recurring event and can limit forest renewal. Frost pockets, not to be confused with an extensive spring frost weather event, are localized landforms of depressed areas without good air drainage (Photo 12).

Photo 11: Spring frost damage on red oak.

Photo 12: Frost pockets occur where cold air pools and cannot drain away.

25 How Frequent are Spring Frosts? Will Climate Change Increase the Frequency of Spring Frosts? This is a species and weather dependent question. Tree species respond to conditions in the spring Authors have speculated this counter-intuitive differently. Some flush (break bud) earlier than question; a warming climate increases the likelihood others. Some species first flush soft flowering of frost damage? Warming climates should cause parts that can easily be damaged by frost. Buds trees to break bud earlier in the spring. Weather and expanding shoots are less susceptible. Also, variability should bring the possibility the warmer within species there might be individual variability spring temperatures will be replaced by a cold front in the timing of flushing to a warming spring. When bringing a frost. Some scientists, using only climate frost strikes, there are differences in damage at data, have speculated the risk will decrease. Others, the forest edge as compared to the forest interior. using models of plant development in the spring Localized landforms and canopy cover can also coupled with climate data found mixed results. alter the impact. The valid question is will trees alter their spring emergence in response to climate change and The risk is a combination of how different species will that alteration be synchronized to avoid react to the warming spring and the intensity spring frosts? If warming spring temperatures of the frost event. A study using 124 years of consistently trick plants into breaking bud before data in Illinois found that 10 years met the the risk of frost has passed, spring frost damage more restrictive criteria. The authors also will increase. This question remains unanswered. found that 31 years met the less restrictive criteria the authors used for frost damage. Reliable data on the frequency of spring frost damage for Renfrew County was not found.

Will the occurrence of Insects and Diseases increase under Climate Change?

This topic is too complex for a discussion in this report. Exotic and native pests will respond to changing climate conditions. It is feared many southern pests will be able to march north as the climate warms (Photo 14). Monitoring and consultation with forest health experts will be needed to track and evaluate the risk. For a brief discussion on the topic see Dukes et al. 2009.

26 Winterburn (or winter drying)

Photo 13: Winterburn on red pine

Winterburn is the result of plants being unable to susceptible with red spruce being one that can draw needed water from the frozen soil to have significant damage to fully grown trees. replace water lost through pores on their needles. Newly planted conifers of all species can be Winterburn typically occurs above the snow line damaged. and can be more prominent on the south and west side of young conifers. Cold drying winds and sunny conditions exacerbate the problem. Will Climate Change Increase Snow reflects the sun and increases the damage the Frequency of Winterburn? on tissues just above the snow line. The needles dry out but the plant usually recovers through the Speculation is lower snow packs and more budding of fresh foliage in the spring. Severe cases variable weather occurring when the roots are will cause mortality. still frozen will increase the damage caused by winterburn. It is not clear the recent large- How Frequent is Winterburn? scale conifer winter browning events in northern Ontario are the result of climate change (see We could not find any data on the frequency of Man et al. 2009). winterburn. Different conifers are more or less 27 Photo 14: Clockwise from top left: Beech Bark Disease in upstate New York 2010; a Fungal Complex discolouring white pine foliage in Deep River 2012; Diplodia sp. on red pine regeneration near Pembroke 2004; and placing traps to survey for Emerald Ash Borer in Pembroke 2013.

28 1.2 Climate Change and Tree/Forest Adaptation

The general ecological theory is forests have an Why is Climate Change a prob- inherent ability to adjust to a gradually changing climate by adapting where they currently are lem for Forests in Renfrew and/or migrating to different territory. Forests County? have been using these techniques to respond to changing climates throughout time. Climate is often described by averages; average temperature, average precipitation, average Migration growing season. If we just use averages and ignore all the variability obscured by an average, In the past, tree populations have advanced it is probably safe to say Renfrew County will (moved into new territory) or receded (lost be warmer and dryer with a longer growing territory). After the glaciers melted 12,000 season sometime in the future. All this sounds years ago, trees and almost all the other very benign as the climate shifts to a new ‘normal’ organisms that make up forests in Renfrew by the year 2050 or 2080 or whatever future County migrated back from somewhere to the year the climate modellers use. The problem south. from a forest perspective is the climate might Advancing tree migration is generational as be changing at a rate faster than forests can individual trees are rooted in place and cannot adapt to. move; each subsequent generation spreads into territory the previous generation hadn’t occupied. The rapidity of our currently changing climate Migration rates vary by tree species and the vectors indicates migration rates of up 1000 km in 100 used to transport seeds and pollen (wind, insects, years might be needed for existing species to birds, etc.). Post glaciation historical migration move to new areas where suitable climate is rates have been estimated at 10 to 25 km in 100 predicted to be. This is as much as 100 times years. the historical rate.

It is estimated that the climatic range of some In Situ forests species in Ontario will shift hundreds Another adaptation technique is to adjust to of kilometres northward by the end of 2100 changing conditions where you are. In situ is a in a business-as-usual scenario (where Latin term meaning ‘in its original place’. Healthy humans continue to emit the greenhouse forests have an internal elasticity to withstand a gases that we currently emit). Natural migration certain amount of change. In situ forest adaptation will be unable to match these projected rates are determined by the mix of species present, range shifts as the climate changes faster than some species can handle. the breadth of the gene pool within the species present, the rate of gene mutation, and the ability Source: Managing your woodlot in a changing of external species/genes to arrive. Generally in climate, 2014 Managed Forest Approvers Workshop situ adaptation increases with the broadening of any of the above factors.

29 It’s more than just Averages. Some data on precipitation near Cormac in 2012 illustrates the difference between monthly Another problem for forests along the path to this averages and drought periods (Figure 16). new normal climate is forests have to survive all The 2012 monthly averages for June (64 mm) the variability that is hidden by an average. For and July (65 mm) are below normal but not example, an average rise in summer temperatures extreme (normal being approximately 80 mm of 3 to 5oC doesn’t provide any information on per month). The 34 day inter-month period is the hottest day’s temperature each year. If the an extreme drought (6 mm being less than 10% variability is such that the hottest day in a decade of normal) that is obscured if you only use the becomes not survivable, for example 44oC, then June and July monthly averages. the change in the average annual temperature from 10oC to 14oC doesn’t matter.

Another example of averages obscuring a meaningful story is rainfall. If average spring and summer precipitation becomes 10% less but this occurs as a 35 day drought then the rain that falls to bring up the average after trees have been pushed passed their tipping point doesn’t matter. The trees have died from the drought.

Fig 16: It’s not only about averages. Daily rainfall data for Cormac, 2012. The monthly totals for June and July do not illustrate the inter-month period of June 20th to July 22nd where effectively no rain fell. (Data courtesy Frank Ahern).

30 Forests are more than Trees Renfrew County when it starts its journey. Arrive too early and your food sources might not have Forests are more than just trees. Trees being emerged yet. Arrive too late and your food sources the dominant organism garner all the attention, might have come and gone. Climate change but forests are complex living entities. All the may disrupt these complex processes to the other critters and the processes that make forest detriment of some species. interactions possible have to adapt to a changing climate as well. Others have published information on climate change impacts on wildlife and it is beyond the Synchronicity is also important. A bird species scope of this report to review them. For example, that migrates from distant equatorial wintering see Nituch and Bowman (2013) for more information grounds has no information on the weather in on impacts on Ontario’s wildlife.

Photo 15: Forests are more than trees.

31 2. Principles of Forests under Stress

Photo 16: Premature colour change and browning in Renfrew County, August 2012.

Trees and forests usually have to survive many The Site is the Resource, Trees different stressful weather and biological events over their lifetime. We use the term ‘weather and Forests are the Crop. event’ as these are usually short-term weather It is important to remember the site is the resource patterns that quickly pass. Some events, such and the trees/forests are the crop. Although as drought, can cumulatively build over several seemingly catastrophic to the forest, weather months. A stressful weather event is one where events rarely impact the site. The soils and their weather parameters negatively impact a tree inherent processes remain intact ready to provide or a forest’s ability to function in an expected a medium for growth once the weather event manner. passes. The sun remains shining ready to fuel photosynthesis. Add in precipitation, the third Trees and forests have adapted over time to ingredient to the growth engine, and your site is stressful weather events. The cycle of nature is ready to grow another forest or continue growing one of stress, then recovery, followed by good the survivors from your previous forest. growth until the next stress.

Stress is cumulative. While a single stressful event might not be fatal, a succession of stressful events can prove to be beyond a tree’s ability to recover. 32 Tipping Points transpiration the tree reduces its cooling ability as the water flowing up from the roots to the Trees and forests can resist and recover from leaves has been greatly diminished. As the stressful events provided they are not pushed drought continues the leaves may scorch or dry beyond their tipping point. up and shed. If the drought exceeds these and other defence mechanisms then the damage may For example, during a drought many tree species become permanent and the tree, although not will close the stomata on the underside of leaves appearing dead, has been pushed too far and to reduce transpiration. With the shutdown of will not recover.

Photo 17: Red pine on Zion Line in 2012. Left: Aug. 20th, at the end of the drought period, some browning is visible. Right: Nov. 7th, the foliage has completely browned off and the trees are now visibly dead.

Other stressors may accumulate in succession There is no hard rule to judge when a tipping impacting a tree over time. An example is the point will be exceeded. Variables such as soil repeated defoliation by insects. Without foliage type, depth of the rooting zone, aspect (the the tree is unable to capture energy for itself direction a slope faces), tree species, site through photosynthesis. A single defoliation may suitability and management regime all combine be more an annoyance than a death sentence in different ways to alter the situation in each as trees usually have energy reserves to draw specific case. upon and recover. Repeated defoliation can use up the tree’s stored energy reserves to the point Monitoring may be necessary for a few years. where the tree can no longer flush enough foliage to recover.

33 Seasonality of the stress is important

For example, spring and early summer drought will cause more impact on forests and trees than a similar drought in late summer or fall drought. In the spring trees are expecting and demanding water as they elongate shoots and put on fresh foliage. Shoot elongation and foliage budding is pre-programmed and cannot be shut down by the tree as a defence mechanism in the absence of sufficient moisture.

In a late summer drought trees can more easily shut down their moisture demands. Root growth, which continues into the fall, is primarily impacted along with depletion of energy reserves.

Photo 18: Red pine flushing in the spring.

Figure 17: Seasonal development cycle (Source: Trees Ontario).

Secondary pests will move in then jump into your healthy trees. These secondary pests are something you should be aware of, There are many organisms that live off stressed, watch for, and make management decisions to dying, or dead trees. Some of these, such as control. Control might be as simple as lopping blue stain fungi, do not spread into the healthy the slash down to the ground so it gets under the living trees that survive the stress. Blue stain snow and rots faster. Nature will control most of fungi will reduce the lumber value if you salvage these secondary pests once the primary stress has but otherwise is not a forest health issue. Others, been alleviated, but perhaps not until damage such as bark beetles, can expand their population has been done to your forest. in their preferred stressed and dying trees and 34 Photo 19: Secondary pests. White spotted pine sawyer beetle (left) and a pocket of Ips pini pine beetles near Petawawa, 2003 (right).

Stressed trees might put on a bumper seed crop

Some species will alter their allocation of resources to produce extra fruit or cones in response to a stress such as drought. Following the drought of 2012, in the spring of 2013, many tree species in Renfrew County went into full flower, sugar maple being one of the more prominent. In the fall of 2013 a bumper crop of maple keys showered down and in 2014 an abundance of germinated maple seedlings could be found on the forest floor. See http://www.eomf.on.ca/index.php?option= com_k2&view=item&id=579:spring-colours-are -alive-on-the-hills-of-the-ottawa-valley&Itemid= 400 for more information on stress crops.

Photo 20: Spent poplar seed fluff accumulating like snow on a driveway in Pembroke, July 2013. 35 Trees are tough, but stress is No matter what you do, some cumulative events are so severe your Forest Crop will be wiped out A healthy tree growing on a good suitable site can survive and recover from single or even We acknowledge that even the most resilient multiple events. Previously stressed trees, trees forest can suffer a death blow as severe weather growing off-site, or trees in poorly managed events can overcome the capabilities of the forests are more likely to decline and die from strongest, most resistant tree. So be forewarned, stressful weather or changing climate conditions. even doing your best might not be sufficient if Stress is cumulative and trees pushed past their you are unlucky enough to be at the receiving tipping point will not recover. Recognizing end of a wind event, subject to a severe drought, stressful weather events and understanding or are hit by some other extreme weather event. how trees and forests respond to stress are The only solace you can take if this happens is important tools in the knowledgeable woodlot your site remains intact and the processes that owner’s toolbox. grow a forest remain viable.

Photo 21: Red Pine near Henen Road. Left: November 2012. Right: February 2015.

A Tree’s Defence to Damage: Compartmentalization

A tree’s defence to damage is to compartmentalize declining or dying parts - shutting them off from other living parts (Photo 22). In this way the tree limits the damage and attempts to block the invasion of decaying organisms like fungi. The compartmentalization is permanent; dead parts do not come back.

36 A Tree’s Recovery from Damage: a lateral branch takes over the quest for height gain. Quite often the long-term visual impact is New Growth a crook in the stem. Trees will attempt to recover from damage by Some species also have dormant buds waiting having new living tissue grow into the area vacated under the bark for conditions to be right before by damaged parts. This might be branch tips springing forth as a shoot or foliage. Termed expanding into the crown area vacated by dead epicormic branching, this phenomenona was branches, trunk wounds healing by new tissue observed on some very dead looking hardwoods growing around the wound, or roots extending once rain returned in August and September of unseen in the soil. 2012 in southeastern Renfrew County and Lanark County (Photo 23). The most obvious recognition of this healing is the way a conifer recovers from a dead leader;

Photo 22: Drought-damaged branch tips that compartmentalize the damage from spreading into the rest of the tree.

37 Photo 23: Epicormic branching in maple in Lanark County in September 2012 Left: The tree’s branches have died but new growth has emerged from the stem. Right: Bud flushing near Cobden once rain returned in August, 2012. The tree had all its leaves scorched dead. A Forest’s Defence: Diversity for regenerating a species different than those currently growing. Most forested properties are not uniform landscapes The competitive mechanism of nature attempts but a mosaic of micro sites created by landforms, to sort out what should be growing where and soils, and conditions modulated by the existing when in a process that is neither simple nor forest canopy. Within a property, there may be stable over time. As one species wanes another numerous micro sites that alter the suitability takes over. Stress is part of the process and the for one tree species over another. Conditions more diverse a forest is, the more resilient it is under the canopy might prove more suitable to stress.

Photo 24: A diverse understory growing under a red pine plantation (left). A monoculture of even aged red pine with a bare understory (right).

38 Most forested properties in Renfrew County are trees. Forest diversity extends past the property not islands on their own. Many things arrive boundaries of even the largest landowner in Renfrew from neighbouring forests or nearby individual County.

Photo 25: Forest diversity extends past property boundaries.

An Example of Diversity; how different tree species resist wind

Trees have different strategies to resist wind. White pine tends to rotate its canopy and shed branches in strong winds. The rotation dumps wind from the canopy and from a survival perspective, the shedding of branches is preferable to breaking the main stem. After a windstorm there is often a mess of branches and foliage below a white pine but very little below a red pine (Photo 26).

39 Photo 26: Chipping white pine branches after a wind storm.

Red pine’s strategy is to resist wind through the stem (Photo 27). Red pine prefers to grow on superior strength. Red pine’s branches are sandy sites with little clay in the soil. Clay soils, firmly attached and their trunks exhibit greater when saturated, can rapidly lose their strength tensile strength than white pine. Red pine tends lessening the anchoring ability of a tree’s roots to bend in an attempt to shed wind rather than which is part of the reason why not to plant red rotate. Red pine’s be-stronger-than-the-wind pine in soils with a clay component. strategy comes undone if the roots do not anchor

Photo 27: Red pine where the roots failed to anchor the tree. The stem and branches remained intact.

40 Photo 28: Jack pine appears to utilize parts of both strategies; bend/resist and shed branches. Left: Jack pine bending in strong winds. Right: Shedded branches and a tree that broke off.

Hardwood trees have yet another adaptation resilience of your forest to strong winds. Structural mechanism. They can alter the shape of their diversity (having trees of different ages, sizes, leaves to shed wind (streamline) and, once the shapes) can also improve resilience to wind. A wind passes, spring back to their photosynthetic structurally diverse forest will have a better chance open position. of breaking the wind and lessening its power. Trees Another adaptation to strong wind is a of different ages and different sizes will provide flattened petiole, such as that of aspen, that a less uniform target for strong winds. causes the leaves to quake in even the In forests, even-aged stands, especially slightest breeze. In strong wind, the flat monocultures such as red pine plantations, petiole permits the leaves to twist easily and are susceptible to wind damage and could reconfigure, accounting for the resistance of be given lower-bound wind speed esti- aspen and other poplars to wind damage. mates. Source: http://woodlandsteward.squarespace Source: http://www.forestry.umn.edu/prod/ .com/storage/past-issues/windaffe.htm) groups/ cfans /@pub/@cfans/@forestry/docu- See Vogel 2009 for a complete discussion. ments/asset/ cfans_asset_431980.pdf Note: Lower-bound wind speed estimates Species diversity in your forest provides different refers to the minimum wind speed that causes wind resistant strategies which will increase the blowdown.

Photo 29: Poplar leaves altering their shape to streamline in wind.

41 Photo 30: A diverse landscape in Renfrew County with windbreaks, different age classes, and different species.

42 3. Actions a Woodlot Owner can take to improve the Resilience of their Forest

Improving forest resilience can best be described yield which will only be realized if everything as improving the chances of your forest properly goes right. An example would be to choose to responding to a disturbance or changing keep a continuous forest cover on your property environment, resisting damage, and recovering through a series of partial cuts and simultaneous quickly. understory regeneration rather than to clear cut Resilience is the capacity of a forest to with- and re-plant. A further refinement of defensive stand (absorb) external pressures and return, thinking would be to choose a series of lighter over time, to its pre-disturbance state. When thinnings which will slowly alter your stand rather viewed over an appropriate time span, a resilient than a single heavier thinning. forest ecosystem is able to maintain its ‘identity’ in terms of taxonomic composition, structure, Manage the density of your stands. Thin to the correct basal area. Increase the complexity of ecological functions, and process rates. the vertical structure by having trees of different From Thompson et al. 2009, page 7. ages and sizes. Renfrew County woodlot owners can take some actions that will improve the resilience of their Diversify the species and genetics of your forest. woodlot over the next 10 years. Other actions Slowly and thoughtfully introduce new tree are more long-term in nature improving resilience species. Retain the species you already have. over the next 100 years. All of the actions we Expand the gene pool of the tree species you describe are ‘best bets, no regrets’; meaning the are already growing by introducing new seedlots. risk from taking these action is minimal, yet the Introducing new species and expanding the gene benefits may be large. pool of existing species offer long term benefits but should be done cautiously. Our suggestions can be categorized as the three D’s: think Defensively, manage your We describe the application of these three forest for vertical and horizontal Density, and principles in the following sections. The best Diversify. advice we can give is to properly manage your forest. Grow suitable species on suitable sites Thinking defensively can be best described as and keep your stands well managed and healthy. choosing survival over fast growth and maximum This is advice from the past and it applies to the yield. In the long term, it might be wiser to future. All our advice is in addition to properly make decisions that lead to better survival and managing your forest. response to disturbance rather than maximum

3.1 Natural Resilience to Wind in Trees and Forests

From the perspective of wind, trees consist of a defects, decay, or rot in any of these parts can sail that catches the wind (the crown), a mast reduce a tree’s ability to withstand wind. Photo that holds up the sail (the trunk), and an anchor 31 shows some of the defects that diminish that holds the mast upright (the roots). Physical an individual tree’s ability to withstand wind.

43 Photo 31: Some of the defects that make a tree more susceptible to being damaged by wind. Clockwise from top left: an unbalanced crown, a lean of more than 15 degrees, a split fork, an uprooted root system, decay or damage to the main stem.

Persistent wind can shape a tree’s crown giving this streamlining response to the prevailing winds the tree greater resistance to prevailing winds. can even be expressed as oblong tree trunks. Quite often known as a ‘flag’ shape, the wind- Trees grown in the middle of a stand generally swept crowns of some of Ontario’s conifer species do not have this resistant shape and when exposed were made famous by the Group of Seven artists. through harvesting are less wind resistant. In extreme cases, when viewed in cross section, 44 Photo 32: Wind-shaped white pines near Cobden.

Stands, groups of individual trees, will naturally species will occupy stand edges creating a buffer create defensive measures to wind. The natural for interior trees. Also, nature tends to keep gaps edges of stands are quite often tapered and/or in the canopy small limiting the distance of open staggered to deflect and absorb wind. Different area across which wind can accelerate.

Photo 33: Feathered edge of a pine stand that deflects wind.

45 Activities woodlot owners can do Eliminate trees with predisposing defects. to Improve the Wind Resistance Professional tree markers have been trained to of their Forests recognize defects that imperil the longevity of a tree. It is worthwhile to hire a certified Following are some suggestions that you might professional tree marker to assist in identifying find useful, but remember there is no way to trees within your woodlot that should be completely wind-proof a tree or a stand of trees. removed due to defects. Tree markers will identify Our suggestions are best bets - no regrets, but defects that make a tree more susceptible to wind. also no guarantees.

Photo 34: Hardwoods marked for removal by a Certified Professional Tree Marker.

46 Photo 35: A diverse stand with trees of different species, ages and heights and a feathered edge.

To improve your forest’s resistance to wind, think to extend naturally into new territory or supplemental about its vertical and horizontal structure. plant to create a feathered or tapered edge; especially to the west (Photo 36). On the horizontal structure side of the equation, you should avoid making ‘hard’ edges. Avoid Do not create large gaps in your stand which exposing individual or clumps of trees, especially will allow wind to drop down below the canopy. on the western edge. Trees that grew protected In partial harvesting or salvage operations from wind and are suddenly exposed to strong keep gaps to less than a tree height if you can winds will be more susceptible to blowing down (Photo 37). until they get adjusted to their new wind exposure. It is best to leave a row or two of wind-firm trees unthinned on the western edge and start any selective harvesting inside the stand rather than cutting right to the edge. Allow stands 47 Photo 36: A hardwood stand with a tapered western edge. The stand has been extended by planting hardwoods about 20 m all around. Near Foresters Falls.

Photo 37: A cleared area with a hard edge created along the remaining forest line. Note the row of trees remaing along the road to break the wind.

48 Position new roads, openings, and landings with to think about thinning to the higher range of any wind in mind. Think about the fetch (the open recommended density. This will allow some losses area wind can accelerate across). Think about from wind and/or logging damage and remain the direction strong winds blow from and what within the target range. The opposite, thinning these winds will blow into. to the lower end of a recommended density, will provide better yield for that harvest but is not Break the wind from the west with a wind- defensive thinking. break. Planting a windbreak is a long-term investment but one that can pay dividends. Vertically diversify your stand. Have trees of different heights. Expand the number of age Manage for proper horizontal structure. cohorts or alter the species make-up. A uniform Manage for the correct density. This is usually stand of tall lollipop trees with a hard edge and expressed as basal area. Too dense a stand nothing growing underneath will not fare or recover leads to tall thin trees. Too open a stand is not as well as a complex diverse structure with a correct either. There is a lot of information feathered tapered edge. available about target densities. Our advice is

Photo 38: Multiple windbreaks created at the University of Guelph Intercropping Experiment. Usually one or two densely planted rows are sufficient.

49 Photo 39: A view of the same red pine stand. Left: with a complex understory that adds vertical and horizontal structure. Right: with the understory removed leaving only a simplistic structure.

Take down the bent trees or tip-overs that can safely deal with the hang-ups or seek become hung up in order to avoid domino professional help. Smaller light-weight leaning damage. When wind, snow, or some other trees do not represent as much of a domino force dislodges a tree from its upright position, problem. Bent trees that are not hung-up will it might fall onto another tree and get hung-up. generally fall once additional pressure from Leaving large trees hung-up can lead to additional wind or snow is added to them. These should pressures on the trees that are holding up their be removed as well. falling brethren. It is best to remove the dislodged tree before it dislodges other trees in a domino In all cases, advice from a Certified Tree Marker effect. Taking down hung-up trees might be or other forest professional may be of assistance. beyond your skill and tool set so judge if you

Photo 40: Bent over, leaning, and large hung-up trees should be removed to prevent further ‘domino’ damage. Heavy snow can bring down bent over trees leading to more damage in the stand.

50 Photo 41: Chipping blowdown, Petawawa, 2013.

Salvaging Blowdown It is also a good idea to have a working relationship with a local mill. Market conditions are Despite the best preparations in your woodlot constantly changing so it is impossible to provide strong winds can still cause blowdown. To salvage guidance on what the mill will want. The broken the material or not is an individual decision. It pieces may be down-graded to pulp or biomass. is important to keep good access to your woodlot Blue stain can quickly invade your downed pine for many reasons including the salvage of in the summer months and lower its value. The blowdown immediately after it occurs. If the only way to avoid blue stain damage in the blowdown is a small amount and you can use it summer is to salvage blowdown and move the on the farm, there is little downside to salvaging sawlogs to a mill within a few weeks. A large it. Economics comes into play if the blowdown storm will impact other woodlots and the market is an amount beyond your capacity to cut and may become flooded with wood all looking for a haul yourself as you will have to hire a logger. mill to take it. The only sure bet with salvage is A wind salvage operation will yield less value the price will be reduced. Lower your expectations. when compared to a properly planned and executed harvest. The logger will face imped- If you decided not to salvage you might want to iments that will increase his/her costs which slash and lop the blown down material to reduce can only be passed on to you, the owner. You the incidence of secondary pests. This can be may be in a rush to get the job done but the especially important in red pine plantations to logger may have other clients and work to do. avoid pine beetles such as Ips pini. Material These factors will most likely increase the price should be lopped to within a few feet of the you will have to pay to get the salvage work done. ground and then left where it fell or moved into

51 small piles. Windrowing slash into large widely stand then you might consider blading to create spaced piles will improperly move nutrients, plantable spots or sites suitable for natural especially if you blade down into the duff layer. regeneration. It is better to make small disperse If you plan to undertake some renewal of the brush piles regardless of your goals.

Photo 42: Blowdown salvage area, Petawawa, 2014.

Safety If you find yourself and your vehicle blocked by fallen trees and need to cut the road open, Strong winds can be a very disruptive force. proceed with extreme caution. Trees that are When severe winds strike and cause trees to tipped over can be under tremendous mechanical start blowing down, it is important to be safe. stress and can do unexpected things when a When out in the forest keep a watchful eye on chain saw releases the stored energy. That pile the weather and any weather watches issued. of blown over trunks, branches, and foliage may Get to a safe place before the storm strikes. After be a giant mouse trap ready to snap. Be extremely the storm passes be watchful for falling hung-up careful and do not exceed your abilities. It might trees and branches. The Ontario Woodlot be a better idea to walk out and return with Association has some very good information on professional help and equipment. safety in the woods. 52 Choosing to leave blowdown from the soil is the pit and the displaced root ball becomes the mound. The pits hold water where it is in the spring and summer that otherwise would not pool. This provides a microsite for amphibians Nature is fine with leaving the blown down and other organisms. The mound can be a site material where it fell or hung up. Woody for regenerating tree species like yellow birch. debris on the forest floor is important to wildlife Standing snapped-off stems can become nesting and adds structure and diversity to your forest. or escape sites for birds and small mammals. Some tree species, for example eastern hemlock, The material on the forest floor eventually rots use the added moisture in old logs (nurse logs) and recycles the nutrients. But note nature will to successfully germinate. Tipped up root balls also move in with decay fungi and insects that create what is known as pit and mound topology; you may not want spreading into your healthy the hole created where the root ball was pulled forest.

3.2 Improving the Resilience of your Forest to Drought

Forests growing on certain sites will be more than north facing slopes and will dry out quicker prone to drought damage. All of these sites than flat areas. On slopes, water within the need special attention during drought events. soil profile can rapidly drain downward away We will describe these before discussing the from the roots. Slopes usually have thinner soils actions woodlot owners can take to make their than flat lands which further reduces the rooting forests more drought proof. zone and moisture holding capacity.

South facing slopes receive more solar radiation

Photo 43: Premature browning and dieback on a south facing slope near Goshen Line July 2012.

53 Thin-soiled knolls quite often were unsuitable Sandy or gravely soils have diminished water for farming and were left as woodlots in Renfrew holding capacity compared to silts or heavier County. Their thin soil layer on top of bedrock soils. Rapid vertical drainage through the soil can make trees growing on them more susceptible moves water away from the rooting zone more to drought. quickly than on silts or loam soils.

Photo 44: Thin soiled knoll near Zion Line, July 2012. Note there is more moisture on the edge of the knoll and the trees at the extreme left and right of the photo remain green compared to those growing on the knoll.

Photo 45: Mortality in red pine planted on a gravely soil near Eganville.

54 Soils with restricted rooting zones will have trees that have not been able to properly establish their roots leaving them without the robust underground root profile the tree desires. Some species are able to penetrate a hardpan layer better than others so quite often the restriction can be species specific. Compacted soils from improper use of heavy equipment in the woodlot will also restrict rooting.

Newly planted plantations. Trees planted the spring of a drought year are likely to suffer losses, even if properly planted. In the severely impacted drought area of 2012, afforestation planting that spring was generally a complete write-off and had to be replanted. Variables such as the use of bare root or container stock, early or late spring planting, and soil type did not make any difference; all suffered poor survival. Even well- established plantations a few years old were damaged by drought that year.

Photo 46: Planted stock that J-rooted on a hard panned site.

Photo 47: A well-established red pine plantation damaged by drought near Lake Clear. Left: Three years after planting in September 2009. Right: Same location in August 2012 with about 45% mortality.

55 Photo 48: Unthinned red pine plantation, Hunt Club Road, Ottawa.

Poorly managed stands will be more susceptible During drought, the limited root mass cannot to drought. Improper thinning or a complete supply sufficient water upward to support the lack of thinning will lead to overcrowding. Stands moisture demanding foliage and the trees becomes with too high a stem density can have trees with stressed. Proper forest management will control poor root-to-shoot ratios (an insufficient amount tree density to desirable above and below ground of roots trying to support the above ground tree levels and eliminate negative factors that overcrowd- parts such as shoots). ing creates.

56 Previously stressed stands will have weakened cones and seeds rather than roots or shoots. trees that are more susceptible to the additional Stress can also be caused by activities in the stress a drought can bring. Stress is cumulative woodlot such as a recent harvest, altering the and the damage can go unseen below ground. drainage, or improper scarification that damaged Stress can come from natural causes like previous tree roots. As well, improper use of heavy equipment weather, insects, diseases, or last year’s good in the bush will damage tree roots and/or compact seed crop that redirected a tree’s energy into the soil, further restricting moisture uptake.

Photo 49: Scarification too close to a residual tree can damage its roots.

Actions a woodlot owner can along the edges. Don’t do anything that reduces the snow capture or shade in a stand. Do not take to Reduce the Impact of remove understory conifers from a hardwood Drought stand for a few years. Leave the forest floor undisturbed and delay any scarification treatments First, don’t add more stress. That is probably until at least July of the year following a drought the most important advice - but what does it mean? year. It takes time to replenish the soil moisture column and the trees may have suffered root Allow the trees and the soil to recover. During dieback. Give them and the soil time to recover. a drought year or the year following a drought Keep heavy equipment out of the forest until the do not green prune (prune live branches). Do ground is frozen to avoid compacting soils. not do anything that encourages the drying wind Salvage after freeze up if you can. to blow through a stand such as cutting or clearing

57 Watch and monitor declining trees. Mark conifers by snapping off a few lateral buds and with paint or some other method trees or pockets look for the living green tissue within the bud of stressed trees you are monitoring. It might be before mowing the trees over as dead. Start a couple of years before they die or recover so planning to refill young plantations. Planting your identification marks need to last more than stock should be ordered well in advance to secure one season. Do not assume a browned out quality and delivery for next spring. Do not hardwood is dead. It is certainly stressed. It might undertake a fall plant. not reflush until the following spring. Check young

Photo 50: Eastern hemlock is an ideal understory conifer to retain. Hemlock adds winter shade and improves snow capture as well as providing diversity for wildlife.

Photo 51: Buds still alive with green centres (left) and dead with brown centres (right).

58 Consider releasing smaller crop trees (pole want to add excessive amounts of light (which sized) to lessen their below-ground competition. will stimulate foliage growth) on your crop trees Mature, previously healthy, dominant and until their roots have recovered from drought co-dominant trees growing on good ground damage. Be leery of poor logging practices that should recover without release if they have not damage the crowns of crop trees (Photo 52). been pushed past their tipping point. Smaller future crop trees might need a nudge. Identify One might consider supplemental watering pole- sized or future crop trees that will recover special trees during or following a drought. and are crowded by smaller neighbours in poor Direct watering of high value young trees is an health. Mark crop trees that will benefit from extreme measure, but it can be worthwhile if you release. Consider a light release cut in the winter. consider the investment you already have in the This cut might only realize fuelwood and not be trees will be lost. If the cost of keeping them alive very profitable, but your goal is to free up resources, through supplemental watering is less than the especially below ground, for your future crop cost of re-establishing them you might decide to trees. This should be a light free thinning that invest in watering (Photo 53). doesn’t unduly openup the stand. You do not

Photo 52: Poor logging practice that severely damaged pole-sized white pine.

59 Photo 53: Watering planted maple whips during the drought of 2012. All of the maple whips that were not watered on this property near Cobden died.

Treating forest soils with fertilizer is a rare Improperly applied, fertilizer might do more practice in forestry. In the case of trees recovering damage than good so should only be considered from drought, liming (raising the pH) on some with proper advice. acidic soils can increase the available nutrients for the diminished root capacity. The use of a The resource is the site. The best advice for your transplant or bone meal type fertilizer, high in overall approach to recovering from drought is phosphorus, will promote root growth. Fertilizing to think long-term. The resource is the site and with nitrogen, which promotes foliage growth, or the forest is the crop; drought has not impacted with potassium, which promotes flowering, will the long-term capacity of the site. Forests are add stress to drought impacted trees and should resilient and will heal. Do not deviate from your not be added at this time. Fertilizing or liming proper forest management planning and seek should not be undertaken without careful planning professional assistance if merited. and forethought.

3.3 Increasing Forest Resilience to all things related to Climate Change through improved Genetic Diversity

One way to increase resilience is to improve the diversity within the tree species you already have. genetic diversity in your forest. Genetic diversity Increasing the genetic diversity of your woodlot can be thought of at two levels; species diversity might trade-off some current growth for the future (growing more species of trees) and genetic benefit of better adaptation.

60 The lack of precision in climate change models Adding tree species does not allow clear guidance on what species or gene pools to add. We can only suggest you Adding tree species through planting to increase proceed cautiously until better information is diversity is an easy concept to understand and available. You can contribute to solving this implement. For example, if your property consists knowledge gap by keeping good records of what of only a monoculture of red pine plantations species you planted, where the tree seedling with an empty understory, you might want to came from, their survival and performance, underplant some white pine or red oak (Photo 54). and most importantly by sharing your records. Very simply you will have increased your species diversity from one tree species to three.

Retain existing species Nurseries provide a broad range of native species for purchase (Photo 55). Ferguson Forestry Retain some individuals of all the native species Centre in Kemptville lists over 30 tree species. you currently have in your woodlot. Some Some species can sell out quickly so order in the woodlot owners may feel some species are not early fall for delivery the following spring. commercially desirable and want to eliminate Inventory which species are growing on your them to free up space for more desirable species. property and think about what should grow well. However, all native species have ecological value Match ecological conditions with the native and may be needed in the future. Try to keep species you want to introduce. Seedlings can at least a few individuals of all native species be expensive. Try out a small batch and see how you currently have in your woodlot. Certified they work out before delving into a large order. Tree Markers have been trained to retain species You might need to add brush guards or rodent/ for diversity and are well worth their cost if you deer guards which will increase your cost. are unsure how to do this.

Photo 54: Left: White pine planted under red pine, Beachburg. Right: High value hardwood underplanting, Jericho, Vermont.

61 Photo 55: A diversity of species potted and ready for planting.

Planting species not commonly Some tree species are rare in Renfrew County such as red spruce, white oak, black maple, found in Renfrew County black cherry, and bitternut hickory. Most of these are at or near the northern limits of their range. Interested landowners can increase diversity by Red spruce is near its western limit. Species at introducing species less common to Renfrew this northern edge might now be finding climate County to their properties. conditions more favourable and are worthy of planting in small numbers in selected micro- Over time we will lose some tree species in our climates. woodlots. We are already losing trees that are unable to survive attacks of introduced insects, fungi, and other pests. Examples are elms from Dutch elm disease, butternut from butternut canker, and ashes from the currently arriving emerald ash borer. As well, species near the southern limits of their range in Renfrew County may not be able to survive a warming climate. Black spruce and jack pine may fall into this predicament. Replacement species may be sorely needed in the future.

62 Photo 56: Left: Hackberry planted at the Petawawa Research Forest, Right: A field of bitternut hickory planted near Micksburg.

We can also consider planting several species invading areas, and displacing native species. native to more southern parts, such as the Manitoba maple and black locust are good Carolinian zone in southwestern Ontario. A examples. The planting of exotic species is not few species such as shagbark hickory, swamp recommended, especially invasive species like white oak, and hackberry occur in neighbouring Scot’s pine and Norway maple. counties and we could reasonably expect success in planting these. With anticipated warmer and You might have to search further afield for seedlings drier conditions and extreme weather events, the such as from St. Williams Nursery and Ecology strong, long-lived, deep-rooted and drought- Centre in southwestern Ontario. In acquiring resistant oaks and hickories are worthy of thinking seedlings from nurseries be cognizant of good about testing in your woodlot. Try out a small stock handling practices during transportation order and track their success or failure before and planting. Seedlings are perishable items. investing heavily in planting a lot of these species. It must be remembered that recently planted trees, Share your successes or failures so others know especially hardwood species, require extra care what results to expect. and maintenance. Controlling competing Some species from the Carolinian zone have not vegetation (weeding) and protection from rodents been tested locally, or are just being attempted. and deer are critical to success. Consider the light They may not survive here now, or else they might requirements the species prefers. For planting survive but periodically freeze back, grow poorly, native species that are normally found to the and never reach their full potential. Climate south of Renfrew County it is recommended a conditions might actually improve for these in landowner carefully consider the differences in the future. However, attempting to grow some micro-climate across their property as well as of these now is risky. A landowner might try a soils and moisture regimes. Avoid frost prone areas. few out of interest, but probably should not make These southern species might only survive in protected a big investment and plant large quantities at micro-climates in the right soil and the right this time. moisture regime on your property, but it doesn’t mean one shouldn’t attempt to see if they will Foresters and ecologists do warn about introducing grow. Be cognizant your investment might be ‘genetic junk’. We know that some tree species completely lost despite your best efforts. can become problems reproducing abundantly, 63 Researchers have been conducting experiments on transferring major tree species around the province for climate change adaptation. Citizen scientists can contribute data by entering which species grow on their property or have been successfully planted on their property into Canada’s Plant Hardiness Site: http://planthardiness.gc.ca/.

Photo 57: An experiment planted in Renfrew County by Lakehead University to test different gene pools of white spruce for climate change adaptation.

Increasing the genetic diversity of species already growing on your property.

Most of the tree species relevant to Ontario have been around for a very long time and have devel- oped a very robust genetic package. Even red pine, which is often thought of as a species with low genetic diversity, has sub-populations that express themselves in some non-standard looking forms (Photo 58).

64 Photo 58: Genetic diversity in red pine. Foxtail red pine (left) Lombardy red pine (right, background)

Within species diversity is a more difficult concept seedlings grown from seed collected in the same to visualize as genetic differences may be subtle seed zone ensures a decent genetic match to or not even expressed so we can’t see the past local conditions. Renfrew County is mostly difference in genes. Most Renfrew County woodlot seed zone 30 with a bit of seed zone 29 in the owners can expand their ‘within species’ diversity north and in the west (Figure 18). Algonquin by importing genes as seedlings purchased from Park is seed zone 29. Zone 35 is directly south a reputable nursery. Increasing the within species of the County and zone 36 makes up the rest genetic diversity will require a change in the usual of eastern Ontario. The Ontario Tree Seed practice when purchasing seedlings. Plant offers an explanation of seed zones at this website: http://www.ontario.ca/environment-and-energy Ontario has partitioned the province into tree /buy-ontario-tree-seeds-or-cones. seed zones that represent bio-climatic areas where conditions are such that local forests are adapted to these conditions. Reforesting with

65 Fig. 18: A portion of Ontario’s Tree Seed Zone map. The bold pink is Zone 30. Source: http://www.treesontario.ca/files/learn/tree-seed-zone-map.pdf

Seed zone information is available when you purchasing a small percentage from seed zones are purchasing seedlings. Reputable nurseries other than zone 30. It might be harder to find are all aware of and track the seedlings they zone 30 seedlings in nurseries other than the grow by seed zone. Once you have selected Ferguson Forestry Centre in Kemptville but you the tree species you want to plant you can diversify should be able to find zone 35 and 36 or other by purchasing the bulk of your seedlings from zones. An additional diversification would be zone 30 then add in a small amount, 10-20%, to split your planting project over several years. from another seed zone such as zone 35 or zone Three seed zones purchased from three nurseries 36 (the green zone and the brown zone respectively over three years will always have more genetic on the seed zone map). Your cost will increase diversity than a single purchase from one nursery slightly as the nursery has extra costs in putting in one year. Keep zone 30 as the bulk (80-90%) your order together, but you will diversify the of your purchases for tree species commonly genes you are planting. By keeping the importation planted in Renfrew County. Over time you will of non-local genes from neighbouring tree seed increase the within species diversity in your woodlot. zones to a small percentage you are not risking Your expenses will be more than if you bulk a lot. purchased once for zone 30 from one nursery.

A further way to diversify within species genetics is to split your order to different nurseries; again 66 If your woodlot is certified under the Forest diversify the gene pool being grown. Again Stewardship Council program planting non-local keep the bulk of planting to the seed collected seed sources might be problematic for your directly on the property. Add in small percentages certificate. Check with your certifying agency from others. Document the collection so information to see under what conditions they allow planting can be traded along with the seed. Keep track non-local seed sources. of where the seed was collected, when it was collected, the stand the seed was collected from, The above advice applies for species commonly and any information on individual trees the seed planted in Renfrew County. For other native was collected from. species, such as white oak, it is unlikely the nursery will have any zone 30. If you want to add species In all diversity plantings you might want to keep not commonly planted in Renfrew County purchase track of where on your property the imported from the best matched seed zone you can find. material was planted. Track your non zone 30 Track your survival and share the information. plantings as well as any tree species introduced. This will allow you and others to revisit the success Enthusiastic woodlot owners might collect their of the importation and build knowledge about own seed and trade portions with their seed adding in genes and species from outside Renfrew collecting neighbours and others. This will also County.

3.4 Roads, Ruts, Logging Damage and Climate Change

Climate change will bring a shortening of the Discuss when the logs will be moved. If the frozen ground season. Warming temperatures logging site is near the entrance to your property and less snow will result in fewer soil freezing it might be wise to allow a new landing at the days. Once the material on the forest floor or farm gate so the logs can be skidded and loaded a forest road is freed of snow and exposed, the closer to the municipal road rather than have a absorption of the sun’s rays increases its temperature. fully loaded logging truck on your road in the soft A recent study in Wisconsin found the winter season. Each case will be different. Be flexible frozen season has been shortened by two to three to get the best match of achieving what you want weeks since 1948 causing headaches and changes done with what the contractor can reasonably in procedures by loggers (Rittenhouse and do. Remember ruts in the forest are forever and Rissman 2015). preventing ruts requires a reputable contractor using the right equipment at the right time of year Winter work on frozen ground is essential to good (Photo 59). forestry practices on many sites in Renfrew County. A shortening of the frozen winter season will squeeze contractors to get all their winter work done in a shorter time frame. Plan ahead if your site requires work that can only be done when the ground is frozen. Book your contractor early and specify the sites that must be worked on frozen ground. Inquire about their equipment and experience. If you have other sites that do not require frozen ground work, try to include them in the job to provide an option for the contractor to move to during a thaw period. 67 Photo 59: Left: A firm dry site that will not easily rut. The skidder is a Cat 508 without chains. Right: A rutted trail crossing a low wet area on a site with some clay in the soil.

Climate change may also bring extreme pre- a large property with only one road in. Losing cipitation events. What used to be a 1 in 50 that road crossing to a washout will deny access year downpour might now be a 1 in 10 year to the whole property. It might not be worth the downpour. Your road network may involve investment to oversize a culvert at the back of stream or creek crossings and it might be timely your property where the road only accesses a few to evaluate your culvert sizes. Oversizing culverts acres past the water crossing. Evaluate each is an investment that should be considered on a case and the risk/reward to suddenly losing the case-by-case basis. It might be wise to oversize water crossing. the next replacement of a culvert at the front of

Photo 60: A primary forest access road washed out after heavy rains.

68 Photo 61: Severe logging damage to residual white pine in a partial cut.

The season when the bark is not firm on trees in The Ontario Woodlot Association has an excellent the spring and summer will be extended. This guide on logging damage, water crossings, and is the season when logging damage (skinning other operational issues. of the bark) to residual crop trees can easily occur See: http://www.npca.ca/wp-content/uploads/ in partial cuts. The opposite season, when bark Careful-Logging-web.pdf is firm and doesn’t easily damage, will become shorter. It is important to be aware of these changing seasons when contracting work in susceptible stands. A reputable logger with the right equipment working in the right season will minimize damage.

69 4. Summary and Conclusions

Climate change is emerging as a key issue for These recommendations are best bets with ‘no the future health of forests around the world. This regrets’ in the sense that they are good manage- publication provides information and advice about ment practices even if your woodlot is not climate change that has been tailored for woodlot subjected to severe weather events or impacted owners in Renfrew County. by a changing climate. However, they are not guarantees. Some weather events are so severe First, we have summarized some observations of that they will overwhelm all defenses. changes in climate that have already occurred and nature’s response. We provide some local In conclusion, we present these recommendations level projections that show Renfrew County will to the woodlot owners of Renfrew County for become warmer and slightly drier in the future them to consider and act upon those which are with increasing variability in the weather. These most appropriate to their woodlot and their projections lead us to expect more frequent severe individual circumstances. weather events such as blowdown, drought, ice storms, and winter thaws.

In the second section we review how individual trees and the forest as a whole respond to stressful events. Trees and forests are well equipped to defend themselves against most events and a gradually changing climate, but once pushed past their tipping point they do not recover.

In the third section we provide advice on actions a woodlot owner can take to improve the resilience of his/her forest against severe weather events and to prepare for a warmer/drier climate. This advice is entirely consistent with current best management practices, but with additions/- modifications to take future severe weather events and a changing climate into consideration. The rationale behind these recommendations is to think defensively, control density and structure in your woodlot, and increase diversity. These actions will make your woodlot more resilient to extreme weather events and a changing climate.

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