Patricia M. O’Donnell

Learning from World Heritage: Lessons from ‘International Preservation & Stewardship of Cultural & Ecological Landscapes of Global Significance,’ the 7th US/ICOMOS International Symposium

Introduction THE UNITED STATES COMMITTEE of the International Council on Monuments and Sites (US/ICOMOS) hosted its 7th annual symposium, titled “Learning from World Heritage: Lessons from International Preservation & Stewardship of Cultural & Ecological Landscapes of Global Significance,” from 25 to 27 March 2004 in Natchitoches, Louisiana. Gathering professional papers through a widespread call, sixteen presentations addressing a breadth of cultural and natural resources in many nations were selected from the eighty proposals received. The 7th US/ICOMOS Symposium fo- multi-disciplinary group of 123 profession- cused on lessons from the preservation and als from twelve nations met to share experi- conservation of cultural landscapes, pro- ence, draw lessons, and address issues sur- tected areas, heritage areas, biosphere rounding the interface of nature and culture reserves, and mixed resources of national in the landscape. Drawing upon work con- and global significance. The symposium cerning cultural and natural landscapes in sought to explore the challenges of preserv- recent years, and the inscription of 35 cul- ing landscapes of ecological and cultural tural landscapes on the World Heritage List significance, using the framework of World from 1993 to 2003, complex presentations Heritage experience. This is a rapidly and discussions explored a wide range of emerging field that has redefined conceptu- landscape preservation and conservation al as well as managerial approaches and issues. principles in conservation and preservation Opening session papers presented an and has begun to thrust the natural and cul- overview and context for the symposium, tural heritage professions into unprece- including cultural and natural landscape dented cooperation. Thus, for the first time categories and status, current World Heri- in the US/ICOMOS symposium’s history, tage status and progress in heritage land- culture preservationists joined with nature scape protection, and approaches to pro- conservationists in a fruitful discussion. A tection and stewardship from Australia and Volume 21 • Number 3 (2004) 41 . Papers addressing the planning declaration to embrace the combined natu- and development of pilgrims’ paths in ral and cultural resources inherent in the Ireland, history and plans for the Cham- landscape recognizing that either or both paner Pavagadh Sanctuary in , and a may be of outstanding universal value. The recommendation for Iraqi heritage identifi- declaration urges national and local author- cation and preservation presented a range ities, as well as institutions and internation- of issues related to complex landscapes. al organizations, but especially ICOMOS Issues in the designation of worldwide and its partners, the World Conservation inspirational landscapes were explored. Union (IUCN) and the International Chinese World Heritage natural land- Center for Conservation and Restoration of scapes, the Chinese conception of nature, Cultural Property (ICCROM), to press for- and landscape and cross-cultural miscon- ward a series of initiatives around the pro- ceptions leading to unexpected results were tection of heritage landscapes using a holis- presented. The unique character, scenery, tic approach, interdisciplinary collabora- and cultural and biological diversity of pro- tion, response to threats, community ductive lands and challenges facing agricul- engagement, and national and international tural landscapes were highlighted, with cooperation to address the multiple values presentations on the rice terraces of the inherent in heritage landscapes and the Philippine Cordilleras, the Japanese farmer multiple voices to be included in their pro- as gardener, and the multiple resources of tection and management.1 the Agave and Tequila agricultural and pro- duction landscapes of Mexico. Preserving, World Heritage Overview revitalizing, and shaping heritage commu- As background for readers with varying nities into the future was the topic of a USA degrees of familiarity with the UNESCO national heritage areas paper and one (United Nations Educational, Scientific, addressing the rebuilding of tribal lands and Cultural Organization) World Heritage and community at the Blackfeet Indian structure, the Convention Concerning the Land Trust. The range of reciprocal bene- Protection of World Cultural and Natural fits resulting from student service learning Heritage was adopted by the General in Czech Republic heritage landscapes Conference of UNESCO in 1972. The pur- addressed further issues. pose of the convention is to recognize prop- At the closing session the Natchitoches erties of outstanding and universal value. Declaration on Heritage Landscapes, 27 As of 2004 there are 176 states parties March 2004, was ratified by the assembly. adhering to the convention and 134 nations This important declaration states: “There have properties inscribed on the World is a convergence of natural and cultural val- Heritage List. This degree of recognition ues in the landscape, and a growing recog- and cooperation makes the World Heritage nition that the traditional separation of Convention the most universal internation- nature and culture is a hindrance to protec- al legal instrument for global protection of tion and is no longer sustainable. Further cultural and natural heritage. It is an impor- heritage landscape protection is required at tant vehicle for global understanding and the local, national and global levels in order peace. to transmit these universally valuable her- UNESCO consults with three World itage landscapes to future generations.”The Heritage advisory bodies: for natural prop- term “heritage landscapes” was used in this erties, IUCN, based in Gland, ;

42 The George Wright Forum for cultural properties, ICOMOS, based in importance; Paris; and for cultural properties restora- (iv) In situ natural habitats significant for tion and training, ICCROM, based in conservation of biological diversity. Rome. Even the structure of these advisory bodies expresses the traditional separation A cultural property nominated for of nature and culture in the consideration of inclusion in the World Heritage List will be globally important resources. considered to be of “outstanding universal Globally, 788 properties are listed as value” if it meets one or more the following World Heritage sites that have been criteria4 and the test of authenticity. The deemed to be of universal value. Ad- property must: dressing a series of criteria that have evolved over the past 32 years, there are (i) Represent a masterpiece of human cre- 611 properties listed principally for their ative genius; cultural values, 154 natural properties, and (ii) Exhibit an important interchange of 23 mixed or combined natural and cultural human values, over time or within a property listings. In 1973, the first inscrip- cultural area, on developments in tion was of the Galapagos Islands, based on architecture or technology, monumen- natural values. The inclusion of only 23 tal arts, town planning, or landscape mixed sites, embodying both natural and design; cultural values, in 30 years of application (iii) Bear a unique or exceptional testimony indicates that the confluence of natural and to a cultural tradition or to a civiliza- cultural values was not well understood, tion which is living or which has disap- widely accepted, or specifically targeted for peared; inscription under the original criteria. The (iv) Be an outstanding example of a type of densest concentration of inscribed proper- building or architectural or technolog- ties is in the European nations, while ical ensemble or landscape which illus- Central American countries demonstrate a trates (a) significant stage(s) in human significant cluster, as do the African Gold history; Coast nations.2 (v) Be an outstanding example of a tradi- A natural property nominated for inclu- tional human settlement or land use sion in the World Heritage List will be con- which is representative of a culture (or sidered to be of “outstanding universal cultures), especially when it has value” if it meets one or more of the follow- become vulnerable under the impact of ing criteria3 and fulfills the conditions of irreversible change; integrity laid out by the convention. The (vi) Be directly or tangibly associated with property must represent: events or living traditions, ideas or beliefs, or artistic and literary works of (i) Major stages in the earth’s history, outstanding universal significance. record of life, geology, landforms, or physiography; These criteria, or earlier versions of (ii) Ongoing ecological and biological them, have been applied to the analysis of processes in evolution, in either terres- nominations put forward by state parties trial and aquatic communities; for inscription. In 2004, the criteria were (iii) Superlative natural phenomena, substantially revised to address all proper- exceptional natural beauty,or aesthetic ties, both cultural and natural. This is a

Volume 21 • Number 3 (2004) 43 clear expression of the growing integration Peace Park and the Kluane/Wrangell–St. of cultural and natural values in recognizing Elias/Glacier Bay/Tatshenshini–Alsek com- outstanding global resources.5 plex, comprise the natural listings. The eight cultural sites include Mesa Verde World Heritage in the United States National Park, Pueblo de Taos, Chaco In order to shed some light on the pres- Culture National Historical Park, Cahokia ervation construct for World Heritage sites, Mounds State Historic Site (all first peo- the example of the United States may be ples’ sites of prehistoric and archeological helpful. All of us in the preservation field value), the Statue of Liberty, Independence and many owners of antique properties are Hall, La Fortaleza and the fortifications at familiar with the National Register of His- San Juan, and Thomas Jefferson’s Monti- toric Places. National Register listing is the cello and the University of Virginia. These honor roll of properties of local, regional, or properties represent less than 1% of the national significance and contains some National Historic Landmark count of 73,000 listings. By contrast, the designa- approximately 2,300. Hence a pyramid of tion of a National Historic Landmark rec- heritage preservation hierarchy is formed, ognizes nationally significant properties with a broad base of local and regional that are not only historically important to properties of heritage value, 73,000 our country but have a high degree of National Register listings; an elite group of integrity, meaning that they embody the nationally important ones, 2,300 National character and qualities that were present Landmarks; and a small representation of when they acquired historic importance. cultural heritage of global significance, 8 There are some 2,300 National Historic cultural properties inscribed on the World Landmarks, representing a mere 3.2% of Heritage List. the number of National Register listings. In There is a parallel pyramid of protected the United States, conceptualizing heritage areas designated for natural values, ranging at the territorial level has led to the rapid from local and state parks to national parks, growth of heritage areas and corridors as national forests, and nature preserves, and tools for both preservation and community thence to the dozen natural properties development. The relatively new national noted above that are inscribed on the World heritage areas program has designated 24 Heritage List. Many of our local and nation- communities or multiple community areas al parks are also express cultural values. of the nation as embodying heritage values. The recognition of mixed values and the A further narrowing of this type of management for both was a theme through- recognition is seen in the twenty World out the symposium. The U.S. National Heritage sites in the United States, all of Park Service defines cultural landscapes as which have been judged to meet various a geographic area associated with a historic criteria for global universal value by World event, activity, or person, or exhibiting Heritage experts. Olympic, Yellowstone, other cultural or aesthetic values. When Redwoods, Yosemite, Grand Canyon, presenting to the public in our work at Carlsbad Caverns, Mammoth Cave, Great Heritage Landscapes, we indicate that val- Smoky Mountains, Everglades, and Hawaii ued cultural landscapes are places where Volcanoes national parks, along with two nature and culture have interacted to shape USA–Canada transboundary protected a place over time, the results of the interac- areas, Waterton–Glacier International tion have imbued heritage values, and the

44 The George Wright Forum cultural landscape is worthy of our respect World Heritage List. The criteria defined and stewardship to preserve and conserve it three types of cultural landscapes, which into the future. are noted here with the number of times It is curious that there is such a limited each criteria has been applied to the thirty- recognition of World Heritage designation six cultural landscapes listed from 1993 to in the United States. In contrast, consider 2003: Australia. As Jane Lennon indicates in dis- cussing her country, “Today the 15 World • Designed cultural landscape, one creat- Heritage areas in Australia are household ed under a plan at a specific time (8); names, icons of popular heritage and major •Evolved cultural landscape, one which is tourist destinations but only after bitter in either an Evolved Relict form that is contests with a variety of communities and no longer inhabited (3), or in an Evolved commercial interests. World Heritage in Continuing form where inhabitation Australia has been a very political issue.” and the actions of humanity continue to Particularly with the global economic shape the landscape (22); engine of heritage tourism as a growing • Associative cultural landscape, one relat- focus in the initiatives of many nations, ed to spiritual beliefs, art, or literature World Heritage inscription is widely touted (7). elsewhere, but remains unknown to many Americans. The watershed decision to include cul- tural landscapes recognized the inextrica- World Heritage Cultural Landscapes ble links between people and places, cul- Since the adoption of the World ture and nature, the tangible physical Heritage Convention in 1972, a rich inter- aspects of heritage and intangible societal national discussion strongly influenced by traditions and practices. As Mechtild Röss- the heritage policies of its 176 state parties, ler states in her symposium paper: including the United States, have shaped consensus on its criteria and operational In 1992 at Santa Fe, after extensive guidelines. Reciprocally, World Heritage discussions, World Heritage Cultural policies and principles have returned home Landscapes criteria were adopted to to every country to refine and enhance each address the combined works of state party’s ability to address the complex- humanity and nature.... It also provid- ity of its cultural and national heritage. A ed a new focus on the key areas of major influence in this exchange was the tomorrow’s crops. At the same time search in recent decades by preservation innovations were introduced with the and conservation stewardship professionals acceptance of traditional custodian- for methods to protect and interpret areas ship and customary land tenure in whose significance is inextricably bound to World Heritage protection. These both natural and cultural resources. In developments both on the conceptu- 1992, after a decade of extensive debate, the al and operational levels have World Heritage Committee introduced cul- shown the stewardship role of World tural landscapes into the convention’s oper- Heritage conservation with far- ational guidelines with definitions and a reaching impact for other conserva- structure that enables nominations of cul- tion instruments.6 tural landscapes of universal value to the

Volume 21 • Number 3 (2004) 45 The first cultural landscape listing, tems, customary law and long-estab- inscribed in 1993 under the associative cri- lished customary techniques to pro- teria, was Tongariro National Park, New tect the cultural and natural heritage. Zealand, the Maori sacred mountains. Through these protection systems “The [World Heritage] Committee recog- World Heritage sites contribute to nized that these mountains have cultural sustainable local and regional devel- and religious significance for the Maori opment. people and represent the spiritual links between this community and its natural Cultural landscapes are particularly environment. It was the first time that a nat- vulnerable to social, economic and ural World Heritage site received interna- environmental changes. The mainte- tional recognition for its intangible cultural nance of the fabric of societies, tradi- values.”7 In addition, there are several tional knowledge and indigenous World Heritage properties, listed prior to practices are vital to their survival. In 1992, which could be inscribed under cul- many cases, cultural landscapes and tural landscape criteria. For example, sacred natural sites are of vital impor- Lennon indicates that heritage in Australia tance to the protection of intangible has been perceived as nature and values and heritage. World Heri- Aboriginal culture, with misconceptions tage cultural landscapes and sacred arising. She discusses the original nomina- properties can be models in effective tion and listing of Ayers Rock under natural landscape management, excellence criteria, using the European name for this in conservation practices and inno- geological site, with subsequent re-nomina- vation in legislative protection. They tion as Uluru under cultural criteria with are places where we can learn redefined boundaries developed in consul- about the relation between people, tation with the Aboriginal peoples who nature and ecosystems and how this shaped this cultural landscape. Lennon shapes culture, identity and enriches states: “Four of Australia’s World Heritage cultural, and in some cases, biologi- Areas (Kakadu, Uluru, Willandra Lakes cal diversity. and Tasmanian Wilderness) are inscribed as ‘mixed sites’ for their Indigenous cultur- Since 1992 ICOMOS and IUCN have al World Heritage values, in addition to collaborated increasingly on the identifica- their natural values. These mixed site list- tion, designation, and protection of land- ings require the integrated management of scapes embodying both natural and cultur- both the cultural and natural values.” al resource values. Within ICOMOS, the From the perspective of local and territorial concept of cultural itineraries has indigenous peoples, the hands of people on been effectively expanded to address the land and the continued application and assemblies of non-contiguous territories sustainability of traditional practices is also unified by an overarching theme. The effec- a component. As stated by Rössler: tiveness of defragmenting protective mech- anisms through consolidation of valued With the inclusion of cultural land- heritage into broader protected territories scape categories in 1992, the is indicated by the diversity of cultural land- World Heritage Committee recog- scapes and cultural itineraries recently nized traditional management sys- inscribed on the World Heritage List. From

46 The George Wright Forum this milieu, multiple values and voices ful construct that increasingly is being emerge, along with the related challenges of adopted by national governments. “A grow- diverse resources, large-scale distribution, ing number of countries have integrated it changing culture, community character, within their domestic legislation or policy resource protection, and sustainability, relating to conservation and protected among others. areas. Only a few weeks ago, at the Seventh Conference of the Parties to the CBD IUCN, Cultural Landscapes, and [Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, February 2004], Protected Areas this IUCN system was given intergovern- Cultural landscapes often embody both mental support.”10 cultural and natural values. As Adrian The United Nations’ most recent listing Phillips has written, many World Heritage of protected areas, prepared for the World cultural landscapes coincide with protected Parks Congress, Durban, South Africa, areas recognized by IUCN. IUCN has September 2003, records some 102,102 defined protected areas as “areas of land sites covering an area of 18.8 million km2, and/or sea especially dedicated to the pro- designating 11.5% of the earth’s lands and tection and maintenance of biological less than 1% of the marine environments. diversity, and of natural and associated cul- The lack of representation of certain types tural resources, and managed through legal of landscape is a source of concern, with or other effective means.”8 The resources limited savannah, lakes, and temperate conserved in protected areas are valued for forests, for example. Nonetheless, Phillips biodiversity and sustainable development, notes that “this is an impressive achieve- among other environmental values. There ment and represents a major commitment are six IUCN protected area management by countries to protect their natural her- categories:9 itage. It is also a great gift to the new centu- ry, giving peoples and governments devel- • Ia, strict nature reserve, managed for sci- opment and conservation options, which ence; would otherwise have been lost.”11 • Ib, wilderness area, managed for wilder- Phillips has found that many World ness; Heritage cultural landscapes are listed for • II, national park, managed for ecosys- both natural and cultural values, and/or tem protection and recreation; coincide with protected areas of various • III, natural monument, managed for categories, most often with national desig- conservation of specific natural features; nation. He states: •IV, habitat/species management area, managed for conservation through man- In the case of three of these, agement intervention; Tongariro, Uluru and Mt Perdu, natu- •V,protected landscape/seascape, man- ral values are so important that the aged for conservation and recreation; area has been inscribed as a World and Heritage property for these as well • VI, managed resource protected area, as for cultural values. These three managed for sustainable use of natural areas, and another 16 of the 36 ecosystems. sites on the list, are recognized as national parks or designated as Phillips notes that this typology is a use- other kinds of protected areas under

Volume 21 • Number 3 (2004) 47 national legislation. In other words, digms, which Phillips skillfully demonstrat- more than half of all World Heritage ed as being a contrast of considerations Cultural Landscapes currently between past and present (Table 1). The inscribed on the UN List have natural obvious challenge is for IUCN and ICO- values that are considered sufficient- MOS to move forward in collaboration, ly important to merit their designa- seeking to identify and reflect both natural tion, by national or provincial author- and cultural values of not only World ities, as protected areas. Heritage properties but to apply the same constructs to national and regional protect- This assessment solidifies the case for ed areas and cultural landscapes globally. multiple-value consideration of properties with intertwined cultural and natural International Case Studies resources. From another position, there are from the Symposium World Heritage cultural landscapes that Argentina and World Heritage. have natural values that remain unrecog- Presented by Maria Susana Pataro, the case nized and without protected area designa- of Argentina offers a national perspective. A tions, and for which further assessment and country with 23 provinces and a capital city protection are required. A common issue in in a federal district, a land area of properties with multiple values is the ascen- 3,761,274 km2, including an Antarctic dancy of one set of values over another, region and islands, and a population of 36 rather than an appropriate balance of recog- million, Argentina contains a variety of her- nition and protection for all relevant values. itage resources. Adopting the convention in In light of that challenge, IUCN has devel- 1978, it has eight sites, four cultural and oped procedures for identifying natural val- four natural, on the World Heritage List. ues in cultural landscapes, which, in sum- The forming of a national World Heritage mary, attempt to: committee and continuing engagement at national, regional, and international levels • Reflect specific techniques of sustain- has presented organizational challenges. able land use within characteristics and There is a firm basis for addressing heritage limits of the natural environment; preservation. Pataro states that “in 1994 the • Embody a specific spiritual relationship Argentine National Constitution was amen- to nature; ded and the new text included an Article • Maintain or enhance natural values in that clearly recognized the preservation of the landscape; the natural and cultural heritage as a value • Demonstrate traditional forms of land to be promoted.” Argentina has engaged in use supporting the biological diversity the World Heritage dialogue, for example of wild species, domesticated animals, through participation in the debates and and cultivated crops; adoption, in 2002, of the Budapest Dec- • Embody outstanding natural beauty laration, expressing the interrelationships and aesthetic values; and among conservation, sustainability, and •Provide evidence of a unique past rela- development. tionship between humanity and nature. The first cultural landscape listed in South America was the Argentine Que- The conservation and management of brada de , a major trade route protected areas also reflects shifting para- used for over 10,000 years, running from

48 The George Wright Forum Topic As it was: As it is becoming: protected areas were … protected areas are … Objectives • Set aside for conservation • Run also with social and • Established mainly for economic objectives spectacular wildlife and • Often set up for scientific, scenic protection economic, and cultural reasons • Managed mainly for • Managed with local people more visitors and tourists in mind • Valued as wilderness • Valued for the cultural • About protection importance of so-called “wilderness” • Also about restoration and rehabilitation Governance Run by central government Run by many partners Local people • Planned and managed • Run with, for, and, in some against people cases, by local people • Managed without regard • Managed to meet the needs of to local opinions local people Wider • Developed separately • Planned as part of national, context • Managed as ‘islands’ regional, and international systems • Developed as ‘networks’ (strictly protected areas, buffered and linked by green corridors) Perceptions • Viewed primarily as a • Viewed also as a community national asset asset • Viewed only as a national • Viewed also as an international concern concern Management • Managed reactively within • Managed adaptively in long- techniques short timescale term perspective • Managed in a technocratic • Managed with political way considerations Finance Paid for by taxpayer Paid for from many sources Management • Managed by scientists and • Managed by multi-skilled skills natural resource experts individuals • Expert-led • Drawing on local knowledge

Table 1. Shifting paradigms in protected area designation and management: a comparison of the “old” with the “new.” Source: Adrian Phillips, “Turning Ideas on Their Head: The New Paradigm for Protected Areas,” The George Wright Forum vol. 20, no. 2 (2003), p. 20.

Volume 21 • Number 3 (2004) 49 the high Andean land to the plains. It was areas and developed with incompatible and inscribed in 2003 as the culmination of an jarring styles or scale. Success in drawing extensive process involving local communi- visitors can therefore threaten the very ties. A cooperative multinational effort on resources that draw them. the Qhapaq Nan (Inka Trail) Project Australia and World Heritage. As includes Argentina, , , Col- noted previously,there is broad recognition ombia, , and . In the spirit of among the populace of Australia regarding the Budapest Declaration and with a strong World Heritage. This country of coastlines, posture on community involvement, Argen- unique species, and impressive interior tina took an early role in supporting the lands has set aside 4,100 protected areas transboundary Qhapaq Nan Project. The for nature conservation, which is 8% (60 trail crosses through seven provinces in million ha) of its land area. The Register of Argentine territory alone. This large-scale, the National Estate currently lists some linear project is an example of the expand- 13,000 properties for heritage conserva- ed concept of World Heritage that cultural tion. The Burra Charter, other charters and landscape thinking has fostered. advisory tools, and the work of preservation In Argentina as elsewhere, economics professionals in Australia have been for- and tourism play a notable role in heritage ward-thinking and useful as models to preservation. Pataro states: “The dramatic other nations. For example, both natural social and economic situation of the coun- and cultural heritage are addressed in the try, that exploded by the end of December Environment Protection and Biodiversity 2001, led to a chaotic period during which Conservation Act 1999. Lennon indicates several changes occurred within different that “the matters of national environmental areas of the government, creating a time of significance are: World Heritage properties, discontinuity for those involved in heritage Ramsar wetlands of international impor- protection.”12 Following on the political tance, listed threatened species and com- shifts, the economic changes that decreased munities, migratory species protected un- the value of the peso increased tourism in der international agreements, nuclear ac- Argentina. As a result, “In December 2003, tions, and the Commonwealth marine envi- there was a 35% increase in tourism, the ronments.”13 most visited sites being: the A transformation of the preservation Region, with the Glaciar Perito Moreno process has taken place in recent decades and the Peninsula Valdes, the Iguazu Falls from a top-down, government-mandated in Misiones, and the Northwest, with the process to one that engages the populace, to Quebrada de Humahuaca—three of our include the traditional owners, local indige- eight planetary jewels.” Increased tourism, nous people. This involvement is moving while adding economic value, applies toward a community partnership in assess- increased pressure to natural and cultural ing conservation value and formulating her- resources, potentially degrading valued itage management decisions. These prac- sites. These pressures also fuel the need for tices, proving useful for World Heritage contemporary facilities that can be de- sites, are being transferred to protected area signed adjacent to rather than within the conservation and management as well. core resource areas and designed for har- From a national perspective, Lennon mony with the resources and region, but indicates that the natural resources of the which are often placed adjacent to core country and the Aboriginal imprints are

50 The George Wright Forum widely perceived as Australian heritage. tions for the 2004-inscribed cultural land- However, this national focus limits the con- scape of Champaner Pavagadh Cultural sideration of global significance. The move- Sanctuary, Gujarat, India.14 The protected ment to develop a national list of properties area (6 km2) is focused on the volcanic of heritage significance could serve to Pavagadh hill, which rises 830 m over an establish national historical contexts. otherwise flat landscape. An important pil- Progressing from these contexts, the inter- grimage destination for Hindus is the Kali national significance of resources could be temple at the Pavagadh summit. Sacred considered more holistically. For example, sites link the goddess to earth. Jain temples Lennon states: “The Royal Exhibition and a Muslim tomb add religious eclecti- Buildings, Melbourne, [have] been nomi- cism to the site. The multireligious import, nated this year and the nomination of the environmental degradation, remains of Sydney Opera House is still under devel- Champaner (a 15th-century city), needs of opment as is a nomination of places exem- local communities, and an influx of some 2 plifying outstanding values in relation to million pilgrims annually combine in a convict history.” complex milieu requiring a multidimen- In terms of tourism, Australian World sional solution. This project of the Heritage is highlighted through aggressive University of Illinois brought professors, marketing. Early World Heritage designa- students, and local authorities together in a tion battles, amid predictions of economic planning and design process focused on disaster for the logging and mining indus- sustainability and pilgrimage-based her- tries, pitted forces opposing international itage tourism. Diverse heritage resources interference against those for inscription. permeate the area, with the archeological Some twenty years later, attitudes have resources of Champaner and the sacred ele- turned about, with a clamor for more World ments of the hill, including tombs, shrines, Heritage designations. Evidence of in- temples, and water tanks. Farming and creased tourism and economic benefit, with grazing communities inhabit the ruins of an average visitor expenditure of $4,000, Champaner and the plateaus of Pavagadh and 4.93 million visitors in 2000 and some hill. Water is a scarce resource and rainfall 4.74 million visitors in 2003, is fueling this scours unstable areas of the pilgrimage change in attitude. It should also be noted path. Inadequate planning legislation is that terrorism, war, and Asian health threats also a stumbling block. Solutions strive to effected a decline in Australian tourism and respect the historic and traditional charac- were beyond national control. ter of the pilgrimage route, improve local Pilgrimage routes, India and Ireland. communities, and absorb high-visitation Places of pilgrimage are imbued with mean- impacts. In summary, Sinha notes: “We ing and association. The issue of pilgrim- advocate a landscape management solution age, unlike that of heritage tourism, is based that integrates the needs of both the resi- on spiritual beliefs. The act of pilgrimage dent community and transient visitors, the takes a corporeal form in the tangible urban fabric with the complex environmen- world, but the process of pilgrimage is tal ecosystem, and the buildings with the intangible and contributes to salvation equally expressive intervening spaces.” beyond this life. Heritage resources in both This should be coupled with “site-specific India and Ireland were explored. design solutions that promote access to the Amita Sinha explored issues and solu- layered experience of landscape and

Volume 21 • Number 3 (2004) 51 express the identity of the diverse sects and ning process considered authenticity of religions (Hindu, Jain, Muslim) that have alignment along with issues of ecologically historically embellished the area.” sensitive, safe passage along busy roads, The identification, demarcation, man- access over private property, and proximity agement, community engagement, and sus- of services for pilgrim path users, with con- tainability of a network of medieval Chris- temporary routes being adjusted accord- tian pilgrim routes in Ireland was presented ingly. Eventually five paths were developed by Tomas O Caoimh.15 The identification with marking systems and local information and development of a series of recognizable through intensive community involvement. Irish pilgrims’ paths that access a series of Engagement of local communities has sacred sites was the overriding project enhanced pride of place and increased objective. Community development, her- ownership and an understanding of preser- itage tourism, and increased awareness of vation needs of the pilgrims’ paths, thus both cultural and natural resources along achieving the primary goals of the Heritage these routes were sought. The research on Council. In conclusion, O Caoimh states: several pilgrimage routes used in medieval times to sacred sites proceeded with a focus Across our planet there are many on seven paths: landscapes which are sacred to the people who inhabit them, [and] • St. Kevin’s Way, from Hollywood to many of them provide a way for pil- Glendalough in County Wicklow; grims making a journey to a sacred • St. Declan’s Way, from Lismore to site, a journey which is also sacred in Ardmore in County Waterford; itself for those making it. Pilgrimages • Cosán na Naomh or The Saints’ Road, are said to be responsible for the from Ventry to Mount Brandon in largest gatherings of human beings County Kerry; on the planet. Whether it is the haj, a • The Slí Mhór or Great Way, from journey to Benares, walking on the Lemanaghan to Clonmacnois in County Camino to Santiago or on the med- Offaly; ieval pilgrim routes in Ireland, pilgrim- • The Tóchar Phádraig or St. Patrick’s age is an activity very much part of Causeway, from Ballintubber to Croagh the human story. At the Heritage Patrick in County Mayo; Council in Ireland we believe that • Lough Derg, pilgrim path to the shore of we have learned much from this proj- Lough Derg in County Donegal, site of ect, which has had an impact right St. Patrick’s Purgatory; and across our work, and we are very • Turas Cholmcille or Colmcille’s Round, happy, now and for the future, to traditional pilgrim rounds in Glencolm- share what we can of what we have cille, County Donegal. learned.

Research findings indicated some evi- Student learning, Czech Republic. dence of use as early as the sixth and sev- Penn State University’s Department of enth centuries, prior to the establishment of Landscape Architecture sponsors a Czech Christianity in Ireland. Known sacred sites, program of on-site learning partnering with Ordnance Survey maps, and field monu- the Silva Tarouca Research Institute. Brian ments were used to verify routes. The plan- Orland reported on an exchange program

52 The George Wright Forum that had eight students participating in issues. Approaches in landscape and visual studying and problem solving for target character analysis were modeled, address- landscapes within Cesky Raj (Bohemian ing such issues as managing viewsheds, Paradise) region in the northern Czech maintaining traditional village form while Republic (Figure 1).16 This area, a tourist accommodating growth, retaining and destination for two centuries, is of geologi- revealing traces of the local strip field pat- terns, and other relevant issues. For example, at Castle Humprect in Sobotka managers sought a plan for the surrounding forest that would “defuse a conflict of interest between the foresters’ production practices, protection of the historic monument, and conservation of nature and his- toric landscape character.” Orland goes on to state: “The liaison of State agency,communi- ty and University may provide a model for assisting emerging Figure 1. Czech students taking part in field session on countries in their goals for pro- landscape analysis. (photo courtesy of the author) tecting heritage landscapes and at the same time meeting impor- cal interest with sandstone cliffs, caves, tun- tant educational goals.” nels, and rock windows. It was proposed International interest in the heritage for listing as a natural property and is a of Iraq. In his paper addressing the rich Czech Protected Area, but the traditional heritage of Iraq at risk from armed conflict, Bohemian villages, chateaux, castles, ruins, Salim Elwazani stressed the role of the and designed and agricultural landscapes international community in preservation comprise a cultural heritage of import. advocacy and action.17 The ancient Meso- Management practice cannot proceed in potamian landscape, one of the cradles of Czech protected areas until local land use civilization, holds a wealth of incomparable plans are completed and approved, but the and valuable heritage resources that are vul- skills required to produce such plans are nerable. Elwazani reports that “the military lacking at the local level, hence the value of confrontations that have engulfed the a professor and graduate student team in region in the last few decades have acceler- shaping elements of such a plan. The stu- ated the pace of danger not only for the dent team used field study of issues, devel- defenseless ancient sites, heritage areas, and opment of graphics, team problem solving, monuments, but also for the ‘sheltered’ and intensive community workshops to archeological collections.” The develop- address the issues of both cultural and nat- ment of an indicative list of resources and ural resource protection and to provide an movement toward World heritage nomina- example of a targeted planning process that tions were called for. Viable protection systematically collects and applies informa- mechanisms for both environmental and tion to the resolution of management cultural resources at risk are urgently

Volume 21 • Number 3 (2004) 53 needed. Engagement of the international shed protection and building materials community was seen as the solution. In a through traditional tribal practices within late-breaking presentation on the situation each hamlet. Inscribed for cultural values, in Iraq, Alvin Rosenbaum focused on ecological values and the lessons of tradi- potential opportunities for local work pro- tional practices are also inherent in the rice grams that would address heritage preser- terraces of the Philippine Cordilleras. vation, environmental restoration, recovery Phillips enlarges on this by observing: from conflict, and a return to peace. Within “Although the rice terraces are not recog- the complexity of the situation, creative nized under national law as a protected area project development to address all these within the IUCN system, in fact they mani- issues was taking form. fest many of the characteristics of a Cat- Traditional agriculture—Philippine egory V protected area [i.e., protected land- Cordilleras Rice Terraces. The Philippine scape]; indeed they are given as a case Cordilleras Rice Terraces were the first study in IUCN’s published advice on this property inscribed on the World Heritage topic.... Strategies for its future manage- List as an “evolved continuing” cultural ment should draw on experience in the landscape where people live and interact management of many Category V protected daily with heritage resources. These dra- areas elsewhere in the world. Examples are: matic, beautiful compositions of small rice pad- dies framed by low walls on steep slopes (Fig- ure 2) were creat- ed by rice-farm- ing peoples over time and are thought to be some 2,000 years old. This majes- tic agricultural landscape of rice terraces is spread over 20,000 km2, Figure 2. Landscape of rice terraces in the Philippine Cordilleras. (photo or 7% of the Phil- ippine land area, courtesy of the author) in the provinces of Kalinga–Apayao, Abra, Benguet, and integration of rice growing with eco- Ifugao. The conservation, current use (or tourism; the development of new markets lack thereof), and integrity of these terraced for rice and rice wine from the region; and areas vary widely. capacity building among the local commu- The farming and management of the nity based on traditional values.” rice terraces are linked to water supply for With access limited by steep slopes, rice irrigation and forest conservation for water- farming at high altitudes in small paddies is

54 The George Wright Forum a strenuous and difficult work of manual Volcano region of Mexico (Figure 3). In labor. Among the risk factors for conserva- western pre-Hispanic Mexico, two types of tion and sustainability of the resources and alcoholic beverage were prepared, derived their unique character are the breakdown of from agave from fermented juices and tribal practices, out-migration of younger cooked agave hearts. Cooking the tatema- people, and importation of nontraditional do, the center core of the plant, produced a tools and materials. In his presentation, form of sugar. Wells and circular ovens used Augusto Villalón itemized a comprehensive in fermentation are dispersed over the land- planning approach: “Program components scape. In a visually stunning presentation were: (a) natural hazard management, (b) by Ignacio Gómez Arriola and Francisco agricultural management, (c) watershed Javier López Morales, the complex system management, (d) water management and of agave field patterns (Figure 4), tequila irrigation, (e) transport development, (f) plantations, transportation routes, produc- tourism development, (g) socio-cultural tion facilities, and social traditions were enhancement, (h) livelihood development, demonstrated to have developed from (i) institutional development.” It is clear before Spanish contact to the present in that the perpetuation of traditional prac- this evolved continuing landscape.18 The tices unique to this cultural landscape is nomination of the Tequila region cultural required to sustain the resources. However, landscape is in progress. As a context for its management challenges are significant, possible inscription, the medieval vine- with changes in management structure and yards of Wachau in Austria and Hungary, organization since World Heritage status the Loire Valley landscape of , the hindering both continuity and availability Cuban tobacco plantations of the Valley of of resources for conservation. Placed on the Viñales, the Portuguese Alto Douro wine List of World Heritage in Danger in 1999, region, and the Philippine Rice Terraces the Rice Terraces of the Philippine already have been inscribed on the World Cordilleras are truly at risk from multiple Heritage List. The complex system of factors. In closing, Villalón stresses that resources that comprises the Tequila region “unless national authorities see the need to is an example of an agricultural and indus- simultaneously preserve the integrated network of culture, nature, agriculture, and envi- ronment that are the elements to preserving the site, only little gains can be achieved and the cultural landscape will deterio- rate into disrepair.” Traditional agriculture— Mexico Tequila District. The cultivation of blue mezcal, or mezcal azul, in fields, planta- tions, and other early tequila Figure 3. Typical agave field in the Tequila Volcano production sites comprises a Region of Mexico. The plants are a striking shade of sizable agricultural and indus- blue. (photo courtesy of the author) trial system in the Tequila

Volume 21 • Number 3 (2004) 55 forces. Increased devel- opment overtakes farm- lands, while rural revital- ization projects create new patterns and bring nontraditional architec- ture into rural areas. Declining farm incomes and out-migration from rural to urban areas make agriculture less viable. However, the Japanese people value fresh, tasty, farm-grown foods. Some interesting Figure 4. Aerial view shows agave field patterns. (photo courtesy of techniques are being the author) applied to these issues. Modest grassroots ap- trial heritage that is unique and of high her- proaches by rural citizens as well as grander itage value to Mexico and quite possibly to Ministry of Agriculture initiatives are being the world. directed to rural preservation issues. For Traditional agriculture—the Japanese example, rice is a dietary staple, and a pro- farmer as gardener. “The farmer is a good gram providing for rural rice paddy cultiva- gardener for .”19 In Japan the entire tion by city families at an annual fee that is surface of the available land has been culti- less than the cost of the purchase of the rice vated, tended, and shaped into a scenic, has had some success. In addition, as Mary aesthetically pleasing cultural landscape Humstone notes, “Urban–rural exchange (Figure 5). In the spring, rice paddies programs give urban people a chance to reflect the sky as bright green growth experience rural life while also helping to emerges. In each view a landscape of fields, pad- dies, canals, terraces, and mountains is seen. Productivity and rural beauty are the goals of the Japan Ministry of Agriculture, expressed in the motto “Aiming for a stable food supply and a beautiful country.” However, the agricultur- al landscape and the tra- ditional rural culture that supports it are threatened by various Figure 5. Japanese thatch harvest. (photo courtesy of the author)

56 The George Wright Forum preserve some of Japan’s most beautiful includes Historic Sites, Places of Scenic landscapes. With help from the Ministry of Beauty and Natural Monuments.” Agriculture and organizations such as the Programs promoting rural villages rec- Japan National Trust,many rural communi- ognize both the tangible and intangible ties have set up exchanges with urban resi- resources of village beauty and traditions, dents, who volunteer to repair terraces, giving awards “for places that not only look roads and canals, and help with planting beautiful, but also have kept or rekindled and harvest.” community traditions, or that have diversi- Japanese building traditions are based fied and strengthened their agricultural on local climate and materials (Figure 6). base.” Direct marketing programs promote These yield, as Humstone observes, “sig- increasing farm incomes. As always, a con- nificant features of the cultural landscape cern raised is the potential to degrade vil- including rice storage buildings, storehous- lage culture and traditions through these es for household goods (kura), barns and programs. other farm outbuildings, irrigation canals China and cross-cultural miscommu- and ponds built to heat water from the nication in natural area protection. The mountains for irrigating rice fields, rural Chinese view, with its origins in shrines, stone markers, some inscribed with Confucianism and Taoism, includes haiku, and even self-service vegetable humanity and nature. As Feng Han states, stands.” The designation of historic rural “Scenic and Historic Interest Areas are the villages as preservation districts to include places where the natural beauty and cultur- landscape features has made government al elements are at ‘perfect oneness’ and r estoration present the Chi- grants available. nese perceptions of While preserva- Nature, namely, tion and conser- beautiful, peaceful, vation efforts in full of human spiri- Japan have most tuality, and embrac- often focused on ing human beings.” important In China, the nam- shrines, palaces, ing of the national gardens, and sce- park system as sce- nic landscapes in nic and historic the past, recently Figure 6. Traditional Japanese farm. (photo cour- interest areas rather a new direction tesy of the author) than nature reserves was signaled by expresses these val- the designation ues. In opposition of two rice terraces as “Places of Scenic to this harmony of nature and humanity, Beauty.” This action has led to broader Western thinking positions nature as apart consideration of how to identify and pro- from humanity and the wilderness is tect notable agricultural landscapes. revered as a place separate from people. Humstone notes that “the government is Even the term cultural landscape poses a also considering adding a new category, quandary for the Chinese. As Han notes, Cultural Landscapes, to its ‘Historic Sites “The core of the concept of cultural land- and Monuments’ division, which currently scape that is aimed at broadening the view

Volume 21 • Number 3 (2004) 57 of the landscape towards settlement and all natural ecosystem.” Shocked reaction fol- interfaces between humans and Nature and lowed Han’s disclosure of the resistance, beyond the aesthetic, the past, and ‘wilder- confusion, and questions raised by the ness’ in the West, is not widely accepted by mandate to “move [people] out of the land the Chinese because of the lack of theoreti- where they have lived for generations and cal understanding of contemporary cultural why their existence is an ‘ecological and landscape.” visual impact on the nature’. They are also Traditionally, wilderness is not a type of worried about how to survive in a new natural setting or a concept understood or strange world [away from their] mountain valued in China. Nature is aesthetically with limited financial compensation from pleasing and human influenced. Han elec- government.” Similarly, in the Jiuzhaigou trified the symposium audience with her Valley Scenic and Historic Interest Area, statement that “the Chinese believe artistic the 1 million annual visitors prized the col- re-built Nature is more beautiful than the ors of the water and unique natural scenery. original one, based on their tradition of An ecological restoration program that great aesthetic achievements.” However, removed tourist facilities, with reconstruc- with global influences being brought to tion limited to adjacent lands, followed bear on China to a degree, a yearning for degradation and development. Again, a wilderness is now in evidence and a debate costly process was pursued, resulting in over the unity and separation of nature and wrenching changes. Han explains: culture is in play. Added to this friction is the recent The price of the removal of all review of two World Heritage sites desig- tourism facilities and the prohibition nated for natural values where foreign of grazing of the local minorities is review teams found increased development the disappearance of culture. Tradi- as a threat to the natural resources and were tional local life formed ... five thou- critical of the burgeoning growth in the sand years ago has been totally inscribed areas. The Chinese government changed. It was once a living cultur- response to the critique was to pursue al landscape with nine minority vil- removal of development, including tradi- lages living in this valley (the mean- tional villages, at a high cost. In the ing of [the] name of Jiuzhaigou Wulingyuan Scenic and Historic Interest Valley) [with] their own customs, Area, designated in 1992, a 1998 report by grazing and farming generations by UNESCO noted that it was “overrun with generations. Now they still live [on] tourist facilities, having a considerable this site but their existence has impact on the aesthetic qualities of the become a tourist gaze, [and they site”; agriculture and urbanization were have become] the tourists’ image of also cited. In response, “the Central and minorities and herdsmen. They Provincial Governments of China decided stopped their traditional life of living to demolish 340,000 m2 of recently built in Nature, in return for the high eco- facilities and artificial scenic spots to nomic benefits from the local govern- respond to the Committee’s critics in the ment. Tourism has eliminated the five years beginning in 2001; and to remove need for the natural resources or resettle 1,791 people from 546 families ‘exploitation’ that they formerly lived from 2001 to 2003 in order to restore the on.... While the local people are los-

58 The George Wright Forum ing their homeland, we are losing has invested $1.4 billion to help local com- our living culture; we are creating munities support the sustainable manage- ‘dead culture’ (museums) while we ment of Australia’s natural resources are killing living culture. through Landcare, Bushcare, Coastcare, and Rivercare programs.”20 Funding re- These two examples from China are mains a challenge; however, the ability to complex, but clearly they highlight cultural point to comparable funded programs and differences and target the potential missteps a level of international attention to the sub- in application of natural and cultural values ject of cultural and natural resource stew- as judged by those outside of a culture. ardship is an advantage.

Financial Support Conclusions and Declaration While individual project efforts can be The papers presented and extensive dia- cited in the emerging conjunction and/or logue among presenters and attendees at collision of natural and cultural resources the 7th US/ICOMOS Symposium was, as and their identification, documentation, intended, a highly interesting and useful preservation, use, and management, there platform for learning form each other. As a are pervasive limitations of funding at all plethora of issues emerged in a variety of levels. Traditional sources of support in forms, it became clear that a declaration both the public and private sectors respond could be crafted that would aid us all in our to either natural or cultural resources activ- efforts. In closing her paper, Mechtild ities. Rössler recommends support from Rössler brought us this useful quote: donors in exploring the interaction of natu- “Biodiversity should be appreciated in ral and cultural resources and in providing terms of human diversity, since different support for their safeguarding. Pataro cultures and people ... confront and per- noted that it would be desirable to increase ceive biodiversity in different ways. This is awareness about the intertwined relation- due to their distinct heritage and experi- ships between conservation and develop- ences, which are translated into knowledge ment (and, I would add, economic viability systems, cultural expressions and language, and sustainability) among international and which enrich and transform the envi- financial institutions. Donors to the ronment, landscapes and especially biodi- UNESCO World Heritage Fund should versity.”21 Multiple values—cultural and direct funding toward cultural landscape natural, tangible and intangible, historical, programs. Lennon targets the gap between ecological, and social—were stated and private and public with her comment that, explored. It was widely agreed that multiple in Australia, “while much practical conser- voices—traditional, local, regional, nation- vation effort over the last decade has al, international, multicultural, and profes- occurred at whole-farm and water catch- sional, and those of students, politicians, ment levels through the federally funded and citizens—need to be brought to contin- National Heritage Trust identifying and uing exchanges. Identification and docu- protecting remnant vegetation, there has mentation need to be followed by adequate been little effort at regional landscape pro- planning in a holistic approach. Recog- tection and in managing delineated cultural nizing that the quality of life and experience landscapes either on private property or in of places is enriched greatly by the shared public land reserves. Since 1996, the Trust global heritage of cultural and natural land-

Volume 21 • Number 3 (2004) 59 scapes, we affirmed in the Natchitoches 9 IUCN, Guidelines for Protected Area Declaration on Heritage Landscapes, 27 Management Categories (Gland, Switzer- March 2004, that the traditional separation land, and Cambridge, U.K.: IUCN and of cultural and natural resources within our World Conservation Monitoring Centre, shared legacy of heritage landscapes was no 1994). longer sustainable. Within the variety of 10 See the CBD website, www.biodiv.org. cultural frameworks, patience and insight 11 Phillips, “World Heritage Cultural are required in listening, understanding, Landscapes—An Overview of the Natural and acting on the many facets of protection Values.” 12 of heritage landscapes. Maria Susana Pataro, “Implementation of the World Heritage Convention in Endnotes Argentina.” Pataro is with Argentina’s 1A compact disk with the program, declara- Ministry of Foreign Relations, International tion, introductory paper by the author, Trade, and Worship. speaker papers, PowerPoint presentations, 13 Jane L. Lennon, “Paris Down Under— and descriptions of some field sessions is World Heritage Impacts in Australia.” See available from US/ICOMOS (info@usico- also www.environment.gov.au/epbc. mos.org). 14 Gary Kesler, D. Fairchild Ruggles, Amita 2 An interactive world map of sites is at Sinha, and James Wescoat,Jr., “Champaner http://whc.unesco.org/. Pavagadh Cultural Sanctuary, Gujarat, 3 World Heritage natural property criteria India: Challenges and Responses in are excerpted from documents (2003) that Cultural Heritage Planning and Design.” can be found on the World Heritage web- Sinha is a professor in the Department of site (URL above). For the purposes of this Landscape Architecture, University of paper, the author has summarized the crite- Illinois at Urbana–Champaign, USA. ria wording. 15 Tomas O Caoimh, “The Pilgrims’ Path: 4 Cultural property criteria are also drawn Promoting Sustainable Development of from the World Heritage website. For the Walking Routes through Sacred Sites in purposes of this paper, the author has sum- Ireland.” O Caoimh is with the Heritage marized the criteria wording. Council of Ireland. 5 As noted by Mechtild Rössler, chief, 16 Cecelia Rusnak, Brian Orland, and Jan Europe & North America, UNESCO Hendrych, “Reciprocal Benefits of Student World Heritage Centre, in her remarks to Service-Learning in Addressing the Needs the symposium. of Heritage Landscapes.” Orland is head of 6 Mechtild Rössler, “World Heritage— the Department of Landscape Architecture, Linking Cultural and Biological Diversity,” Penn State University. The project was a 7th US/ICOMOS Symposium, 2004. partnership with the Silva Tarouca Hereinafter, all papers cited are from the Research Institute for Landscape and symposium unless noted otherwise. Gardening, Pruhonice, Czech Republic. 7 Ibid. 17 Salim Elwazani, “Identification and 8 Adrian Phillips, “World Heritage Cultural Preservation of the Iraqi Heritage Areas: Landscapes—An Overview of the Natural The International Hand.” Values.” Phillips serves as vice chair for 18 Ignacio Gómez Arriola and Francisco World Heritage of the IUCN World Javier López Morales, “The Agave Commission on Protected Areas (WCPA). Landscape and the Ancient Tequila

60 The George Wright Forum Industrial Installations: A Proposed Humstone is at the University of Wyoming, Mexican Cultural Landscape.” USA. 19 This old saying was used as the title of 20 See www.nht.gov.au/overview.html. Mary Humstone’s paper “‘The Farmer is a 21 Juan Mayr, “Cultural Diversity and the Good Gardener’—Lessons from Japan.” Environment,” unpublished report (2003).

Patricia M. O’Donnell, Preservation Landscape Architects & Planners, 501 Lake Road, Charlotte, Vermont 05445; [email protected]

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