CONTENTS Theme: Theology and Church E V

ERT cover 30-1 22/11/05 14:04 Page 1

Editorial – Theology and Church page 3 A N

Enabling Congregations to become G E

Theological Communities L I C

FRANK REES A page 4 L R E

The Rise of the Professional Doctor of Ministry V I E

Degree in the ATS W

DONALD L. TUCKER O

page 13 F T H

Learning from the African Experience: Bediako and E Critical Contexualisation O L ALAN THOMSON O G

page 31 Y V

Biblical Hermeneutics in Relation to Conventions of O Articles and book reviews reflecting L

Language Use in Africa U

M global evangelical theology for the purpose JIM HARRIES E

page 49 3 of discerning the obedience of faith 0 ,

Whither Evangelical Theology? The Work of Veli-Matti N Kärkkäinen as a Case Study of Contemporary Trajectories O 1 MOS ONG , A Y J a n

page 60 u a r

Toward an Ethic of Shared Responsibility in y 2

Galatians 5:13-15 0 0

PETER MAGETO 6 page 86 Book Reviews page 95

Volume 30 No. 1 January 2006

PATERNOSTER PATERNOSTER PERIODICALS PERIODICALS Evangelical Review of Theology

EDITOR: DAVID PARKER

Volume 30 • Number 1 • January 2006 Articles and book reviews reflecting global evangelical theology for the purpose of discerning the obedience of faith Published by

for WORLD EVANGELICAL ALLIANCE Theological Commission

PATERNOSTER PERIODICALS ISSN: 0144-8153 Volume 30 No. 1 January 2006

Editor David Parker

Committee The Executive Committee of the WEA Theological Commission Dr Rolf Hille, Executive Chair

Editorial Policy The articles in the Evangelical Review of Theology reflect the opinions of the authors and reviewers and do not necessarily represent those of the Editor or the Publisher.

Manuscripts, reports and communications should be addressed to the Editor and sent to Dr David Parker, 17 Disraeli St, Indooroopilly, 4068, Qld, Australia

The Editors welcome recommendations of original or published articles or book reviews that relate to forthcoming issues for inclusion in the Review. Please send clear copies of details to the above address.

Email enquiries welcome: [email protected] http://www.worldevangelicalalliance.com/commissions/theological.htm

Typeset by Profile, Culmdale, Rewe, Exeter, Devon EX5 4ES and Printed in Great Britain for Paternoster Periodicals, PO Box 300, Carlisle, Cumbria CA3 0QS by Polestar Wheatons Ltd., Exeter, Devon. ERT (2006) 30:1, 3 Editorial: Theology and Church

IN contrast with some earlier periods, the very words that are used in Scrip- the church continues to be a focus of ture and theology, and how they need evangelical thinking. In this opening to be interpreted sensitively within issue for the new year we present some their culture to avoid impairment of the articles which address the combination communication of the gospel and the of theology and church, a link which is theological basis of the church. sometimes difficult to make. Writing Amos Yong’s extensive survey of out of considerable experience, Frank the work of prominent Finnish scholar, Rees of Melbourne, Australia, reports Veli-Matti Kärkkäinen, broadens the on ways to create and encourage local scope of our thinking even further. churches to become healthy by devel- Yong interprets him as a ‘world theolo- oping their theological and biblical gian’ and in so doing, gives us some maturity. He says, ‘We must… see guidelines for a ‘model’ of evangelical how the very life of every local church theology that is ‘faithful to the biblical itself involves theological tasks—most narrative, ecumenical in scope… [and] fundamentally the challenge of living anticipates the possibility of the with and responding to God.’ Spirit’s speaking through any language’. At the professional level Donald We conclude this issue with a Bible Tucker turns our attention to the study on Galatians chapter 5, by Peter extremely popular DMin degree, which Mageto, emphasizing the necessity of has so strongly affected seminaries, realizing our ethical responsibility churches and personal ministry within the framework of the believing prospects in recent years. He provides community rather than in isolation. a helpful background to this phenome- ‘For Paul, to be in freedom is to be in non which should prove useful in eval- service to and for others’. This uating the potential value of this approach not only calls attention to the course and its graduates in various importance of the church for the indi- contexts around the world. vidual, but also has implications for We then turn to Africa for two arti- institutions like seminaries which cles which emphasize the importance, serve it, and the attitude of the church once again, of context for theological to those its serves in the community. reflection. Alan Thomson investigates Thus not only theology but also ethics the work of an individual, Kwame Bedi- and spirituality are to be integrated ako of Ghana, as he seeks to make the- within the life of God’s people. ology relevant to the church in its culture. Jim Harries of Kenya discusses David Parker, Editor ERT (2006) 30:1, 4-12 Enabling Congregations to Become Theological Communities

Frank Rees

KEY-WORDS: Adult Christian their faith, ranging from the nature of Education, social responsibility, wor- the church through to skills in pastoral ship, fellowship, community, priest- care and evangelism. Edge saw a great hood of all believers, discipleship, need for the church to become a mature narrative, contextualization community, conscious of its identity and purpose: ‘It is imperative that we become a people who understand who Introduction we are, who God is, what God is about in the world and what God is calling us AT the height of the ‘Adult Christian to be about in the world.’2 Outlining the Education’ movement which swept core curriculum of the local church as through churches around the world a theological seminary, Edge identified generation ago, Findley Edge proposed five areas: Bible, theology, church his- the idea that every local church should tory, missions and ethics.3 In fact, how- be a miniature theological seminary.1 ever, most local churches do not see He envisaged a new period of growth in themselves as theological seminaries. faith as a result of all people being On the contrary, there is much to sug- engaged in biblical study and reflection gest that pastors and local church lead- upon many practical implications of ers see theology, church history and

1 Findley B. Edge, The Greening of the 2 Edge, The Greening of the Church, p. 37. Church (Waco: Word Books, 1971). 3 Edge, The Greening of the Church, p. 181.

Frank Rees, TheolM, PhD (Manchester), is the Dean and Professor of Systematic Theology at Whitley College, the Baptist College of Victoria, in Melbourne, Australia. He has pastored local churches in Australia and more recently has served as ‘Theologian in Residence’ at a number of other churches. His research interests include contextual approaches to Christology and Ecclesiology, and he has an interest in developing theological work in cooperation with colleagues in the Asia-Pacific region. He serves on the Doctrine Commission of the Baptist World Alliance and has been President of the Australian and New Zealand Association of Theological Schools. Along with many journal articles, he edited and contributed to Fair Dinkum Ministry: Stories of Authentic Australian Spirituality and Struggle (Spectrum Publications, 1999); his most recent book is Wrestling with Doubt (Liturgical Press, 2001). Enabling Congregations to Become Theological Communities 5 many aspects of biblical studies as of the academy or university, and away irrelevant to their concerns.4 from the life of the people into the for- Stanley Grenz and Roger Olson mal and professional training of pas- challenge the contemporary church tors or ‘ministers’.6 As a result of these with their small book, Who Needs The- changes, theology is seen as some- ology? Their answer is that every thing pastors study prior to or at the Christian needs theology in order to beginning of their life in ministry. Here live as a disciple of Jesus. But this idea the ‘banking’ view of knowledge con- can make sense only when theology tributes to the perception of theology itself is seen as directly related to the as a body of information stored up and living witness of Christians, individu- then used (or ignored) when the person ally and collectively. They begin with a moves on from study to practice, from distinctive description of theology, theory to action. which conveys this purpose and rela- If theology is to make a constructive tionship: and enriching contribution to church Christian theology is reflecting on life generally, and not just to the train- and articulating the God-centred ing of pastors before their life in min- life and beliefs that Christians istry, we must move beyond some of share as followers of Jesus Christ, the negative perceptions and polarisa- tions to see how the very life of every and it is done in order that God may local church itself involves theological be glorified in all Christians are and tasks—most fundamentally the chal- do.5 lenge of living with and responding to Here, theology is seen as enabling God. people to discover and articulate the nature of their shared life and beliefs as followers of Jesus. When seen in this A constructive possibility: a way, it is difficult to imagine why any vision of the church with God Christians might object to theology! Doing theology can assist the local Edward Farley has written exten- church to become a community of bibli- sively on the history of theological cally formed and socially responsive study and has documented the shift of Christians, continually engaged in dis- theology from its natural environment, cerning the presence and call of God to the churches, into the formal contexts them and, both individually and collectively, responding in worship and service. These are the characteristics of a 4 Evidence that theology and biblical stud- healthy church and these should be the ies are considered by some pastors to be objectives of theological work within ‘unhelpful’ in ministry is presented by Gilbert local church communities. Rendle, ‘Reclaiming Professional Jurisdiction: The Re-Emergence of the Theological Task of Ministry’, Theology Today 59.3 (Oct. 2002), pp. 408–420, p. 417. 6 See particularly Edward Farley, Theolo- 5 Stanley J. Grenz and Roger E. Olson, Who gia: the fragmentation and unity of theological Needs Theology? An invitation to the study of education (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, God (Downers Grove: IVP, 1996), p. 49. 1983). 6 Frank Rees

The most crucial ingredient in this It is called to be leaven in the society vision of a church is the notion of being and a light for the world. Christian obe- biblically formed. I have carefully dience is not only to be lived within the avoided the term ‘informed’ here, pre- community of the church but is to be ferring the word ‘formed’. What is cru- practised within the wider society. To cial here is the need to avoid an idea of do so, the church must be socially the Bible as offering us information, aware and responsive. Again this is not which we may seek to discover, learn, just a matter of having information. teach and ‘apply’. The contemporary Rather it is about being constructively paradigm of knowledge as information engaged, responding to a social situa- implies that the person who possesses tion (of need, opportunity or protesting the information is in charge, because of wrongs) in light of the word of Christ. their expertise. Instead, I am drawing These elements, biblical formation upon a New Testament idea of God’s and social responsiveness, presuppose word indwelling each of us and all of a conviction about God. The life of the us. ‘Let the word of Christ dwell in you church indwelt by the word of Christ richly’ (Colossians 3:16). This verse and responding to social situations in has two crucial features. First, it sits the light of that word is a life engaged within Paul’s teaching about a spiri- with God. Here we are speaking of a liv- tual style of living. Clothed with love, ing God who is present and dynamic, a with Christ’s peace dwelling in our God who is active both within and hearts, we are asked to live in compas- beyond the church. The living God of sion and humility. We are also asked to the scriptures is a God who does new allow, to permit, Christ’s word to dwell things and calls on the people to see in us, with all its depth and riches, and these possibilities and to respond in it is thus that the Christian community hope (Isaiah 43:19, for example). will be able to be thankful, to teach one Therefore, to know God requires more another in wisdom—all this is a collec- than the study of the past, whether it is tive life-style, not an individual texts from the past (the Bible) or doc- achievement— and to express this life trinal formulations from the past. in thanks and praise. The element of Those forms of study, rightly under- the passive voice is crucial here; this stood, call forth knowledge of the liv- word of Christ is not something we con- ing God in the present. In this vision of trol or possess. It is the word of Christ, the church the ‘authority’ rests with which is to dwell within us and to do its God in the present, not with what God work within us. A biblically formed has said in the past only. The reason community is, then, one which seeks to we attend to God’s revelation in the be indwelt by Christ’s word and spirit, past is in order to discern God’s pres- its life formed by his will and way. ence and call now. This is where A second vital feature of this com- authority lies: in God’s call to be munity is that it will be socially respon- responsive, faithful, active and hopeful sive. As Jesus himself came to the peo- in the present. In discerning this call, ple and ‘went about doing good’ (Acts the church is guided by the authority of 10:38), so too the Christian community the scripture and its continuing call in is not one which hides in a holy huddle. the present, rather than by the tradi- Enabling Congregations to Become Theological Communities 7 tions and formulations of the church in teria to guide a theologically aware the past. This is not to say that past for- Christian community. The church mulations are negated or unhelpful, should continually be asking itself: but rather that a premium is placed • Where is Christ moving in our situ- upon being responsive to the scripture ation? in the present. This is our authority • What is God saying to us, now? here and now, because God is present • What is the Spirit calling us to take and active, calling us to faith now. notice of, to respond to, to discover As a consequence, in this vision of or do, in conformity with Christ? the church the knowledge of God is the • What then shall we do—individual- privilege and task of all the people. All ly, collectively and cooperatively? the people are invited and enabled by God’s Spirit, given and signified in their baptism, to discern the presence Getting from here to there: and call of God. All the people are to be what we can do. immersed in the life of God, to live their It is vital to recognize that only God baptism as a way of being in the world, can evoke these things. They are the individually and collectively. As such, gifts and fruits of God the Holy Spirit. all the people are called and enabled to But we can allow these things or we see where God is active in their place, can resist them. their relationships and their commu- To begin, we need to recognize that nity. All are called to name God, not all Christians are theologians, though simply to speak about God but to identify God, to say what God is like and not all in the same ways. Some know how God is moving, calling, giving and God more intellectually; some more asking, comforting and redeeming peo- emotionally; some use words; some are ple, sharing in their struggles, provok- not able to articulate their knowing in ing new ventures, and so on. This is words but speak eloquently in deeds of what theology means: to know and service and love. All know God and name God, to discover who God is with show forth the truth and wisdom which and for us, and to see our lives and our has been given to them. All are ‘the- world in that light. ologians’. Some will resist this name; This church and these people will, some are more intentional than others then, live in tune with the Holy Spirit, about trying to understand their faith, whose life in the world is to make others ‘just get on with it’. But all have Christ known and to evoke the life of a insights and contributions to make to a community in which Christ dwells as community which is biblically formed word of life. A people alive to the Spirit and socially aware, in its response to will live, at least partially, in confor- the living God. mity with Christ. His word and way will To unpack this shift from the ‘pro- bear fruit here, as the harvest of the fessional’ view of theology to the vision Spirit. of all people as theologians, several We can bring these tasks of the other elements are crucial. First is a re- church into focus by suggesting sev- discovery of the priesthood of all Chris- eral questions which can serve as cri- tians as central to the character of the 8 Frank Rees church. While we regularly affirm this church sees all the people as being the idea, we do not seem very clear about church wherever they are, not only what it really means. The central idea when we are gathered ‘at church’. is drawn from the teaching of 1 Peter I find it helpful then to speak of the 2:5–9. It offers a vision of the whole life of the church as an ebb and flow church, collectively, as a priesthood. between the gathered church and the The entire Christian community is ‘a dispersed church. Neither on its own is royal priesthood’. This is a collective ‘the real church’. The church is and image and draws upon ideas of the must be both. The church gathers for nation of Israel as a priestly kingdom worship, for fellowship and support, (see particularly Exodus 19:5, 6). The teaching, fun, fund-raising, collective new people, the royal priesthood, are service and mission activities, and so to act out their faith, to show forth the forth. The dispersed church includes ways of God. This is a priesthood of all those other things we have men- overt, social and communal life-style. tioned already: home life; neighbour- The Protestant Reformation intro- hood; local, national and international duced a renewed focus on the idea of citizenship; recreation; work; com- ‘the priesthood of all the faithful’. For merce; education; leisure, and more. In these activities, we act as individuals Luther, every Christian has an equal and we participate in many other com- part in the priesthood of the church and munities and sub-cultures. Here too we thus all have a part in the church’s cru- are ‘the church’. And in both dimen- cial activities, preaching and teaching, sions, gathered and scattered, we are baptizing and sharing communion, 7 seeking and serving God, knowing God praying and growing in faith. Further- and contributing to the continuing the- more, all have a vocation, a calling. All ology of the church. are to offer their lives, no matter what It is crucial to this vision of the work they do, as parts of the collective church, then, to say that God is not priesthood of the church. Not all are known only in the gathered life of the called to be pastors in the church, but church. God is present and may be all are called to lives of ministry as the known in many places and forms, and church. This ministry may be worked thus it is the task of the whole church out at the office or school, shop or to discern this presence and to name sportsground, as much as the work of God, to know what God is doing and to a pastor or preacher. In all these voca- ask the critical theological, ethical and tions, we are to exercise the priesthood churchly question: what therefore is of the whole church. This vision of the God calling us to be and to do, in response to God’s presence and way in our situation? One consequence of this collective 7 Luther expressed this idea in a number of priesthood is that we can see the gath- places, but most explicitly in The Babylonian ered life of the church as a continuing Captivity of the Church (1520). See Luther’s Works, Volume 36, edited by Abdel R. Wentz conversation, in which all the people (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1959), espe- can be engaged. From their daily lives cially pp. 138–141. of activity and spiritual discernment, Enabling Congregations to Become Theological Communities 9 the people come to worship and to The central task: Reading the share the needs and concerns of their Bible together lives. But here they also encounter the Evangelical Christians seek to be peo- word of God preached and shared in the ple who read the Bible together, in common life and story of the church order to be formed by it as followers of and together, through preaching, Christ. That is to say, they seek to be prayer and discussion these many sto- people in whom the word of Christ ries of God are woven into one conver- dwells, in whom the Spirit is evoking sation and one discovery of God’s pres- conformity to Christ and in whose ence and way in the present time and lives, individually and collectively, the situation. This conversation is the the- way and purposes of God are para- ological life of the local church. mount. It is important to recognize that we To fulfil this fundamental purpose are not here advocating a church life of knowing and responding to God, it is which ignores the past and abandons essential that we re-discover the Bible the historic wisdom and formulations and its place in the life of the church, of the churches in earlier times. To do not just in individual Christian lives. so would be foolish and would produce The Bible does not primarily offer us a repetition of so many of the mistakes we imagined we could avoid by ignor- information, even information about ing that history. What is necessary the life and words of Jesus (though of here is the theological freedom to course it does this!). Gaining ‘Bible receive the wisdom of the past without knowledge’, in the sense of informa- being bound to fixed forms or struction is not the central purpose here. tures. Indeed, one of the great gifts of Rather, what we are seeking is the discipline of theology is precisely to encounter with God, in a way that preserve that wisdom and to pass it on, shapes and directs our lives, individu- ideally in ways which do not seek to ally and corporately. bind the church to the past but rather Markus Bockmuehl has written of the biblical texts as having ‘an implied use that wisdom to inspire and guide 8 the church to be free for God in the pre- reader’, who is always a disciple. The sent. The church’s tradition can be Bible implies readers who are seeking seen in terms of fixed formulae and a God and seeking to live in response to fossilised faith. When it is, it is rarely a God. God has so guided the authors of help and if this is what theology sees as the Bible that the focus is always upon central then most people will find no what is ahead of us: the text is calling value in it. But if the history of our faith us, the readers, forward. James is seen as the story of a living tradition McClendon has articulated a similar of people like ourselves learning from God and offering their wisdom to us in our own journey, it may be a rich 8 Markus Bockmuehl, ‘Reason, wisdom resource of inspiration and guidance. and the implied disciple of scripture’, in David Ford and Graham Stanton (eds), Reading Texts, Seeking Wisdom (London: SCM Press, 2003), pp. 53–68. 10 Frank Rees view, in summarizing what he sees as to participate in this way of life, a life the distinctively ‘baptist’ style of being with God. the church, which he distinguishes To become a theologically aware from the ‘catholic’ and ‘protestant’ community is to engage, centrally, in styles.9 McClendon proposes a the kind of biblical reading which not hermeneutical principle which encap- only ‘studies’ the text but allows the sulates the baptist stance: ‘the present text to speak to us and direct us Christian community is the primitive towards what it promises. This allows community and the eschatological the word of the Scriptures to have community’.10 In this view, a contem- active authority in our lives and com- porary group of disciples is in effec- munities. It sets our priorities and tively the same situation as the first direction. To discern this, we will need hearers of the gospel. They are equally more than textual study. We need also competent to receive and respond to the guidance of the Spirit and thus the the biblical call and invitation, allow- collective sharing and decision of the ing themselves to be directed by the community. The authority of the Bible text and by the Spirit towards God’s is exercised through our reading and promised future. studying, praying and discussing Discipleship, then, is the critical together, and through this process factor in our reading and this is what coming to a decision. This affirmation must characterise our communities of of God’s word and calling to a commu- faith. Becoming theologically aware is nity, in their situation and time, is what really the same thing as becoming com- it really means to speak of the ‘author- munities of disciples who read the ity’ of the Bible. Here the word of God Bible together and seek to respond to is really directing and forming our life God’s presence and call. Disciples together, our life with God. It is important to recognize that always are learners. We are always in reading the Bible together in this way the situation of seeking guidance, wis- will give rise to some difficult ques- dom, insight. To seek God through the tions. It is crucial that pastors and study of scripture is also to be directed leaders have an appropriate sense of to the world, to our situation: it is to the role of theology as a critical disci- see that God is present not only in the pline and are able to ensure that the past but is active, inviting, healing, negative connotations of such ‘criti- challenging, enabling, in the present. cism’ are avoided or overcome. What is The Bible points us forward to what called for is a constructive exploration God is doing in the world and calls us of the situation of the community, not in terms of a negative critique. Though there will be a need for prophetic 9 McClendon purposely uses lower-case let- protest in some situations, maybe all ters to distinguish his styles of church com- situations, the primary focus must be munity from the names of specific denomina- upon the positive invitation of God, the tions. 10 James W. McClendon, Systematic Theol- good news which calls us forward. In ogy, Vol 1, Ethics, (Nashville: Abingdon Press, this sense, reading the Bible together 1986), p. 31. calls for a critique of our situation and Enabling Congregations to Become Theological Communities 11 of our own response to that situation pants to see themselves as engaged in and to the promise and call inherent in a living theology. Faith and life, theol- the word of God. We must consider ogy and practice, thus come together what we are called to do and to become and affirm one another. and thus what we are called to change, 2. Church life as story-telling: A vital to leave behind or to challenge, in order expression of a theologically aware to go with the way of God. and responsive community is the sharing of stories about God and God’s presence. Here are a few possibilities: Some examples of what • ‘Insights’ segment in services: very might be done to become short talks by people, sharing theologically responsive where God is present, what God is like, in their daily lives, at work, communities home, neighbourhood. History seg- Here I would like to identify and ments which relate the story of this explain briefly a number of possible church, this place, these people; activities which, in various situations, • Church reports written and told as might be used to encourage and nur- the story of theological response: ture the kinds of biblical responsive- that is, the story of the church year ness described above. In no sense is told as a story of people with God; this an exhaustive list and always • The history of each church written these activities need to be adapted to a as the story of theological local situation. Most I have seen to be response; very helpful in a variety of situations. • Similarly, new proposals for mis- 1. Preaching, teaching and small sion activities, church programs group studies should all be directed and other developments in the local toward the overall purposes we have community can be presented in described. This requires planning, pur- terms of the continuing story of the pose and leadership, to encourage church’s engagement with and appropriate emphases. Here the cen- response to God. tral purposes and themes must be: 3. Specific activities encouraging spir- • Christian life as discipleship; itual awareness: • Church understood as discerning •Workshops responding to God’s community; presence in our daily experience; • Priesthood of all believers affirmed • Taking an ‘exegetical walk’ around as the collective responsibility; the local church’s neighbourhood: • The mission of the dispersed discovering who is here and what is church seen as theologically signif- happening, and relating these icant. activities to theological themes, The crucial factor here is seeing the biblical stories; text as a living word in the present and • Some introductory classes in bibli- seeing the present alive with the same cal imagination: reading the Bible reality, the same God who is revealed in ways that connect stories with in the text. As a result, pastors and our living experience now: where is teachers will encourage all partici- God, who is God, what is God like 12 Frank Rees

in this passage? Where is God, who spirituality, etc. etc. is God, what is God like in our situ- In addition, many of these same ation now? What guidance does activities may be used in encouraging a this reflection offer for our living? deeper social awareness. Here too a 4. Providing specific opportunities for wide range of resources, speakers and theological study, in a wide range of activ- materials may be judiciously used to ities and levels: stimulate and encourage responsive- • For Deacons, Elders or other lead- ness. Not least of all these resources ers: a workshop describing the will be the daily experiences, at work priesthood of this local church, and and at home, of the people themselves. exploring how the gathered life can When they discover that their experi- contribute to the dispersed and ences are welcomed as contributions total priesthood, and how the dis- to the spiritual life and discernment of persed life can be expressed in the the church, they will become very pos- gathered life; itive and pro-active agents in this • Some classes, forums, films, work- process. It will no longer be necessary shops on specific and theological for pastors to ‘push’ the issues or try to ideas: what does it mean to be a stimulate awareness. disciple? what is the church? living Unlike Findley Edge’s proposals, I with questions; living with differ- have not suggested a ‘curriculum’ as ence; such for the local church and its devel- • Making available short papers on oping theological awareness. Rather, I specific topics, and encouraging see it as the task of the leadership people to read them; within each local community to discern • Identify some internet resources, together those things which will nur- such as transcripts of radio talks, ture that community’s life with and in or short papers, appropriate for responsiveness to God and its mission people to read; in that context. There are many • Establish an on-line forum for dis- resources and many supportive guides cussion and response to studies, for those who seek them. What I do not sermons, etc.; recommend is that pastors and leaders • Invite a college teacher to be a adopt a program or pre-packaged scholar in residence for a month— course of studies from any other place and perhaps do this every year, and use it without first relating it to with a variety of contributions; their own people and situation. To do • Hold one weekend per year which that is to avoid the responsibility of is a ‘teaching’ weekend; leadership and the great excitement of •Encourage those interested and working together as a theological com- capable to engage in tertiary study munity. It may seem easier, but in of the Bible and theology; effect it impoverishes the church. The • Invite a theological college to con- challenge, then, is for pastors and lead- duct a diploma or degree class on ers to become facilitators of the life of site at your church, in an area of the church as a biblically formed, interest, such as biblical studies, socially aware and theologically pastoral care, mission, theology, responsive community. ERT (2006) 30:1, 13-30 The Rise of the Professional Doctor of Ministry Degree in the Association of Theological Schools

Donald L. Tucker

KEYWORDS: Clergy education, doc- excellence’.1 But what degree should torate, Doctor of Ministry, profes- be given to those demonstrating acad- sional degrees, seminaries, theological emic and professional competence as education practitioners? What about the legitimacy of professional degrees not intended for pure research or teaching? A Brief Review of John L. Chase, from the United Professional Doctorates States Office of Education, in a summary of doctoral degrees awarded by THE question about the appropriate- United States institutions, reports ness of the PhD for advanced study thirty-four different doctoral degrees focusing on applied skill and learning besides the PhD and EdD conferred in rather than pure research has existed 1961-1962. And in the decade from since the beginnings of the PhD in Ger- 1990 to 1999, professional doctorates many. British universities long in at least twenty-five fields were iden- resisted the PhD at least partly because of its limited scope and narrow focus on research at the expense of teaching and other scholarship. By 1 Roger L. Geiger, To Advance Knowledge: 1900, the PhD in the United States was The Growth of American Research Universities, 1900-1940 (New York: Oxford University recognized as the standard degree for Press, 1986), p. 210. For the United Kingdom, academics. It meant ‘prolonged, spe- see the recent Professional Doctorates, UK cialized, and abstract training, par Council for Graduate Education, 2002.

Dr. Donald L. Tucker, an ordained minister of the Assemblies of God, is Associate Dean of Academics at the School of Divinity of Regent University (Virginia Beach, Virginia, USA). He has also served at the Assemblies of God Theological Seminary (Pennsylvania campus), and Valley Forge Christian College (Phoenixville, Pennsylvania) Dr. Tucker holds the Master of Theology (Princeton Theological Seminary) and a doctorate in higher education administration (University of Pennsylvania). He has published articles and reviews on Pentecostal theology, practical ministry, and higher education. 14 Donald L. Tucker tified in the United Kingdom.2 Chase clear. But challenges to their appropri- and others question the proliferation of ateness remain. The distinctions doctorates and express concern that between applied and traditional additional doctoral degrees might research are unclear. At their sessions dilute the value of the PhD. At its 1964 in 1980, the Council again confronted annual meeting, the Council of Gradu- concerns about professional degrees. ate Schools reviewed twenty-four dif- Robert Amme of the University of Den- ferently titled doctor’s degrees in ‘pro- ver observed the clear trend that the fessional’ fields.3 Discussions centred differences between PhD and profes- around the needs and definitions of the sional doctorates ‘have become rather doctorate. A host of questions arise: blurred’. Daniel Zaffarano from Iowa Can the degree be justified? What are State University concurred. He states the qualifications? Who should review unequivocally, ‘there is no real differ- the degree? Where is the responsibility ence between the professional doctor- for the standards? Are professional ate and the research doctorate’. F. N. associations influencing degree Andrews of Purdue University con- requirements? Is there too much spe- cluded that, ‘it appears that more and cialization? Is the PhD too rigid? What more professionals want to be called about admissions criteria? How do doctor [italics in original]’. Finally, at these fit the interests of the university? the same meeting, Paul Albrecht from In the ensuing decades, profes- the Claremont Graduate School sum- sional doctorates in the United States marised with these comments: ‘A continued to flourish. In the USA, dif- sharp distinction between academic ferences between degrees are often and professional graduate programs is muddled. Some even suggest that the becoming more and more inappropriate PhD itself has become a professional and anachronistic; academic programs degree.4 The Council of Graduate flirt with applied components, profes- Schools recognizes the place of the sional programs emulate academic val- 5 professional doctorate, insisting that ues and methods.’ admissions and completion criteria be In clergy education, one of the more extraordinary developments in North America has been the explosive rise of the professional Doctor of Ministry degree. Debates within the Association 2 Tom Bourner, Rachel Bowden and Stuart of Theological Schools and Seminaries Laing, ‘Professional Doctorates in England’, Studies in Higher Education 26 (1), pp. 65-83. 3 Robert A. Alberty, ‘The Doctoral Degrees,’ Council of Graduate Schools, Pro- ceedings 4 (December 1964), p. 105. 4 Stephen H. Spurr, Academic Degree Struc- tures: Innovative Approaches. Principles of 5 Council of Graduate Schools, ‘The Profes- Reform in Degree Structures in the United States sional Doctorate’, Proceedings 20 (December (New York: The Carnegie Commission on 1980), pp. 31-46. See also Council of Graduate Higher Education and McGraw-Hill Book Schools, Proceedings 22 (December 1982), p. Company, 1970), pp. 149-150. 80. The Rise of the Professional Doctor of Ministry Degree 15 in the United States and Canada (ATS)6 and early 1990s) although higher doc- concerning the need for a professional torates based upon recognition of pub- doctorate for ministry began as early lished works or distinguished contri- as 1932 when ATS first adopted state- butions to a field of study had been ments regarding the nature and offered since 1882.9 Recent concerns requirements for doctoral degrees.7 in Europe regarding the place of the The fascinating history of the debates professional doctorate echo senti- is covered adequately by Marvin J. Tay- ments found in the United States.10 The lor, former Associate Director of ATS, debate continues. What is the need? and will not be covered here.8 This How do we balance the demands of the review will concentrate on major marketplace and the desires of the trends giving initial and continued individual student? What is its pur- impetus to this phenomenon. pose? How should we articulate the distinction between the professional doctorate and the traditional PhD? Defining the Professional What educational process should be Doctorate followed to complete the degree? Who The use of professional doctorates in should take the degree? What are the the United Kingdom is a rather recent factors for assessing competence and phenomenon (the first professional validity? What about the perceived doctorates were given in the late 1980s value and legitimacy of the finished product? Stephen Hoddell of the University of the West of England explores the sim- 6 Throughout this essay, the abbreviation ilarities and dissimilarities between ATS will represent the Association of Theo- ‘professional’ doctorates and the tradi- logical Schools in United States and Canada. 11 Prior to 1974, ATS was known as the Ameri- tional PhD in the United Kingdom. can Association of Theological Schools in the United States and Canada (AATS). Initially, from 1936-1940, ATS was known as the Con- ference of Theological Seminaries and Col- 9 See Professional Doctorates, UK Council leges in the United States and Canada. See for Graduate Education, 2002 and J. McGin- Jesse H. Ziegler, ‘Developing Standards for nety and R. McDougall, The Professional Doc- the Professional Doctorate’ in ATS Through torate: An Old Qualification in a New University Two Decades: Reflections on Theological Educa- (University of East London), p. 16. tion 1960-1980 (Vandalia, Ohio: Association of 10 For an excellent summary of develop- Theological Schools in the United States and ments see the recently published work by Canada, 1984), pp. 62-63. David Scott, Andrew Brown, Ingrid Lunt and 7 Conference of Theological Seminaries and Lucy Thorne, Professional Doctorates: Integrat- Colleges in the United States and Canada, Bul- ing Professional and Academic Knowledge (Soci- letin 8 (July 1932), p. 15. ety for Research into Higher Education and 8 See Marvin J. Taylor, ‘The Doctor of Min- Open University Press, 2004). istry: History and Typology,’ in G. Douglass 11 ‘The Professional Doctorate and the Lewis, ed., Papers from the National Symposium PhD—Converging or Diverging Lines’, by on Issues and Models of Doctor of Ministry Pro- Stephen Hoddell; presentation to the annual grams (Hartford, Connecticut: Hartford Semi- conference of SRHE, University of Leicester, nary Foundation, 1980), pp. 1-26. 21 December 2000. 16 Donald L. Tucker

Hoddell wrestles first with the defini- Peter D. Syverson of the Doctorate tion of professional doctorate and iden- Records Project, National Research tifies three distinctive characteristics. Council, in a definition of the research Firstly, the doctorate has the subject doctorate reveals the ambiguity of within the title of the degree (such as such a task. For example, in early days, Doctor of Engineering or Doctor of the Doctor of Ministry was considered Business Administration). Second, the by some institutions to be a research subject area is professional, rather degree (Catholic University, University than academic, in its focus. Third, of Chicago, Midwestern Baptist, New much of the programme is completed Orleans Baptist, Southwestern Bap- through taking courses rather than tist, Western Conservative Baptist), through independent research. And but by others to be a professional although Hodden attempts to outline degree (Andrews, Aquinas, Biola, the differences and similarities Boston, Drew, Princeton Theological between professional doctorates and Seminary, Southern Baptist, Texas the traditional PhD in England, the Christian, Union Seminary in Virginia). comparative factors have so many Another degree oriented toward exceptions that a definitive distinction practical ministry, the Doctor of Missi- cannot be maintained. Another ology (DMiss), suffers from the same attempt to clarify differences is pre- confusion. Syverson concludes that the sented by Rachel Bowden, Tom Doctor of Missiology is ‘of a profes- Bourner and Stuart Laing. They iden- sional nature’ and should not be tify twenty differences between profes- included in the definition of research sional doctorates and traditional doctorate. Ironically, the two largest PhDs.12 They conclude that differences schools offering the DMiss initially between doctorates are sometimes placed them in different categories. In harder to identify but that professional 1993, Trinity Evangelical Divinity doctorates in England and Australia School in Illinois listed the DMiss are different from PhDs. Others sug- under the catalog section, ‘Academic gest difficulty in identifying any rigid Doctoral Level Programs’, and the distinctions. But despite these Doctor of Ministry under ‘Professional attempts at differentiation, current Doctoral Level Program’. Fuller Theo- trends in processes, requirements, and logical Seminary in California offers final product tend to overlap.13 the DMiss (‘the highest level of professional certification in missiology’) through the School of World Missions,

12 ‘Professional Doctorates in England and Australia: Not a World of Difference’, Higher Education Review 35, no. 1 (2002), pp. 3-23. Europe is given based mostly upon research 13 See UK Council for Graduate Education, leading to the dissertation with little class- ‘Quality Standards of Postgraduate Research room teaching activity. For concerns about the Degrees’, 1996 and R. H. Spark, ‘Professional place of the PhD in preparation for profes- Doctorates: A Discussion Paper’, Occasional sional work, see Jules B. LaPidus, ‘Doctoral Paper GS 97/3, Australian National Univer- Education: Preparing for the Future’, Council sity, The Graduate School, 1997. The PhD in of Graduate Schools, 1997. The Rise of the Professional Doctor of Ministry Degree 17 but the Doctor of Ministry (‘a profes- to work within a professional context’. sional degree’), through the Continu- In a similar vein, the Association of ing and Extended Education division.14 Theological Schools categorizes the The U.S. Department of Education Doctor of Ministry under ‘Advanced includes the Doctor of Ministry in its Programs Oriented toward Ministerial annual list of earned doctorates (along Leadership’. with PhD, EdD, DMA, and others), but The primary goal of the DMin is the excludes MD, DDS, JD and others as enhancement of professional compe- ‘professional’ degrees. tence within the ministerial ranks. It In 1991, ATS reorganized its cate- requires not only periods of study on gories for doctoral degrees into ‘pro- the main campus of the institution fessional doctoral programs’ and offering the degree, but active connec- ‘advanced research and academic tion with the ‘ministerial context as a degree programs’. In current ATS learning environment’. Specifically, reports, professional doctorates the degree standards emphasize an include the Doctor of Ministry (DMin), advanced understanding of the nature Doctor of Missiology (DMiss), Doctor and purpose of ministry, enhanced of Education (EdD), Doctor of Sacred competencies in pastoral analysis and Music (SMD), Doctor of Musical Arts ministerial skills, the integration of (DMA), and Doctor of Church Music these dimensions into the theologically (DCM). Advanced research and acade- reflective practice of ministry, new mic doctorates include Doctor of The- knowledge about the practice of min- ology (ThD), Doctor of Sacred Theol- istry, and continued growth in spiritual ogy (STD), and Doctor of Philosophy maturity. (PhD) degrees. Reflecting the advanced nature of the degree and its focus on professionalism, entrance requirements include A Professional Doctorate for not only the Master of Divinity (the Clergy first professional degree for clergy) or As defined by the UK Council of Gradu- its equivalency, but at least three years ate Studies, ‘a professional doctorate of experience in ministry since earning is a programme of advanced study and the first degree. The DMin should research which, whilst satisfying the focus on advanced understanding, University criteria for the award of a interdisciplinary competence, compre- doctorate, is designed to meet the spe- hensiveness, integration, and critical cific needs of a professional group understanding, demonstrating ‘pas- external to the University, and which toral leadership at its most mature and develops the capability of individuals effective level’.15

14 See catalogs of Trinity Evangelical Divinity 15 See ATS Accreditation Standards, specifi- School, 1993-1994, pp. 120, 137 and Fuller cally Section F: Doctor of Ministry. Available Theological Seminary 1992, pp. 57, 103. online at 18 Donald L. Tucker

Figure 1. Doctoral Graduates in ATS Schools

Rise of the Doctor of ber of Doctor of Ministry students, the Ministry in North America average number at each institution would be more than 220 graduates Officially approved by the Association each year! When examined closely, of Theological Schools in 1970 as a this calculation is even more remark- degree program for advanced minister- able. Nearly forty percent of all Doctor ial leadership, the Doctor of Ministry of Ministry students in 1994 were (DMin) is now recognized as the stan- enrolled in only seven theological sem- dard terminal professional degree for inaries (Columbia, Fuller, McCormick, practising clergy. In the decades of the Reformed, San Francisco, Trinity 1980s and 1990s, between eight hun- Evangelical, and United). By 1995, dred and twelve hundred Doctor of headcount enrolment in the Doctor of Ministry degrees were conferred each Ministry at these seven schools ranged year. From 1970 through 1995, more from 260 to nearly 750 students. Only than 20,000 professional doctoral fourteen other ATS institutions enrol degrees for ministry were granted. See more than one hundred Doctor of Min- Figure 1 above. istry students each year. Given the fact that prior to 1990 This staggering rise in ‘profes- less than ninety schools were approved sional’ doctoral degrees in comparison to offer the program, this is an astound- with traditional ‘research’ degrees is ing number. If all approved seminaries evident in the numbers. In 1969, seven offering the terminal professional min- schools enrolled 201 students in the istry degree graduated an equal num- Doctor of Ministry (or its precursor, The Rise of the Professional Doctor of Ministry Degree 19 the related Doctor of Religion) pro- (those intended for researchers and gram. At the same time, 1,466 were teachers) include Doctor of Theology enrolled in the more traditional PhD (ThD), Doctor of Sacred Theology (and the related ThD and STD) pro- (STD) and Doctor of Philosophy (PhD). grams within the seminaries and grad- See Figure 2 below. uate schools of ATS. Within four years Officially, the American Association of its approval, the number of Doctor of of Theological Schools did not approve Ministry students surpassed the total the Doctor of Ministry degree until its number of traditional doctoral stu- biennial meeting in 1970. Prior to this, dents and by 1977 the ratio of Doctor seven schools offered theological doc- of Ministry students doubled that of torates of a professional nature which those in traditional research doctor- subsequently became Doctor of Min- ates. istry programs. By 1979, enrolment in ATS defines terminal ‘professional Doctor of Ministry programs increased doctoral programs’ (those intended for exponentially to 5,327 students in 84 practitioners) as Doctor of Ministry different institutions accredited by (DMin), Doctor of Missiology (DMiss), ATS. At the same time, enrolment in Doctor of Education (EdD), Doctor of traditional PhD programs offered in Scared Music (SMD), Doctor of Musi- ATS schools remained relatively con- cal Arts (DMA), and Doctor of Church stant. Through the decade of the 1980s Music (DCM). In contrast, ‘advanced enrolment growth in Doctor of Ministry research and academic degree pro- programs was less rapid but still grams’ at the terminal degree level steady. By 1989, enrolment reached

Figure 2. Headcount Enrolment—Doctoral Programs 20 Donald L. Tucker

6,459 in 87 different institutions.16 number. Between 1993 and 1997 Doc- Besides the more than 20,000 Doc- tor of Ministry programs showed an tor of Ministry graduates of programs aggregate increase of 4.7 percent. In established since 1970, nearly 8000 this same time period, Doctor of Edu- additional students were in process of cation enrollments declined by 61.8 completion in 1995 within the 100 percent, Doctor of Missiology enroll- accredited institutions offering pro- ment decreased by 44.3 percent, and grams.17 Enrolment in the Doctor of Doctor of Musical Arts by 45.5 percent. Ministry remained relatively stable Doctor of Missiology headcount enroll- supplanting enrolments in other ‘pro- ment was 296. Doctor of Education/ fessional’ (as defined by ATS) degree Doctor of Religious Education head- categories of Doctor of Education, Doc- count is 326. Doctor of Musical tor of Missiology, and Doctor of Musi- Arts/Doctor of Sacred Music head- 18 cal Arts which report steep enrollment count enrollment was 54. declines. For example, 1990 headcount Offered in two different formats, the enrolment in Doctor of Ministry pro- Doctor of Ministry ‘in-sequence’ model adds a fourth year to the traditional grams was 6,738. Headcount enrol- three-year Master of Divinity degree ment in ‘academic and research’ doc- sequence. The Master of Divinity (the torates (PhD, ThD, and STD programs) first professional degree for ministry) reached 2,267, but still less than half is typically required prior to obtaining the enrolment in Doctor of Ministry ordination. This in-sequence format, degree programs. first introduced in the 1960s, provides Enrolment in other ‘professional’ impetus for the gradual development doctorates (Doctor of Missiology, Doc- and formal acceptance of the Doctor of tor of Education and the similar Doctor Ministry by ATS. The second option, of Religious Education, and Doctor of the ‘in-ministry’ track, is designed for Musical Arts or Doctor of Sacred those already holding the Master of Music) was less than one-tenth of this Divinity degree and engaged in full- time ministry. These in-ministry students typically complete additional part-time study toward the advanced 16 See yearly editions of the Fact Book on degree over a period of two to four Theological Education. See also Marvin J. Tay- years. lor (Associate Director of ATS), ‘The Doctor of In the early stages of the develop- Ministry: History and Typology’, in Papers from the National Symposium on Issues and ment of the Doctor of Ministry, the in- Models of Doctor of Ministry Programs, (Hart- sequence model was the preferred pat- ford, Connecticut March 6-8, 1980), edited by tern, particularly by women students. C. Douglass Lewis, pp. 6-7. By the mid-1980s, the in-sequence 17 See Association of Theological Schools in the United States and Canada (ATS), Bulletin 40 (1992-93), Part 4, Directory, for a list of accredited schools. In 1993, there were a total 18 Jonathan Strom and Daniel Aleshire, eds. of 187 accredited schools, 25 associate Fact Book on Theological Education (Pitts- schools, and 7 candidates for ATS accredita- burgh, PA: The Association of Theological tion. Schools, 1997-98), p. 23. The Rise of the Professional Doctor of Ministry Degree 21 model declined drastically and the in- 1. Demographic Shifts ministry model became the standard During the twenty-five years between practice. By 1984, only ten institutions 1927 and 1952, United States church continued to offer the in-sequence membership increased by nearly sixty degree track with a total enrolment of percent while the overall general pop- only 254 students (less than four per- ulation increased only twenty-eight cent of the total of Doctor of Ministry percent. Much of this growth occurred students in ATS schools). In contrast, during the four years following World eighty-eight institutions offered the in- War II. The church growth trend con- ministry degree sequence with a total tinued well into the 1950s and 1960s. enrolment of 6,467 students. By 1987, According to historian, Sydney the in-ministry model was clearly pre- Ahlstrom, several factors contributed dominant with less than one percent to this growth including the economic (only fifty-one students in nine institu- upheaval from the crash of 1929, fear tions) choosing the in-sequence degree of Russia and Communism, an upsurge track.19 in civil religion and American patrio- tism, neo-orthodoxy, and evangelical Factors Influencing the revivalism. The growth in church mem- Doctor of Ministry bership and church construction along with rapid sales of Bibles and religious It seems evident that at least four books is well documented.20 Clergy are major forces provide a foundation in in demand. To meet the demand for this time frame for the establishment clergy and other church leaders, enrol- and continued development of the Doc- ments in North American graduate the- tor of Ministry degree: (1) demographic ological schools rose rapidly. Seminary shifts, including an influx of women enrolment from 1960 to 1990 into the seminaries and the rise of increased a phenomenal 300 percent, evangelicals; (2) the increasing plural- from 18,000 students to nearly 60,000 ism and secularization of the university students. and associated divinity schools; (3) The growth of evangelical seminar- clergy status and reputation, particu- ies is especially noteworthy and reac- larly public perceptions of the profes- tion to ‘secularism’ drove increasing sion; and (4) the ongoing academic enrolment in conservative institutions. debate (within both theological education and the larger field of graduate education) between ‘professional’ and ‘academic’ degrees compounded by 20 See Louis Gasper, The Fundamentalist uncertainty over standards and qual- Movement 1930-1956 (Grand Rapids: Baker ity. Book House, 1963), p. 127; Fred D. Layman, ‘Contemporary Issues in Theological Educa- tion,’ The Asbury Theological Journal 41 (Spring 1986), pp. 106-108 and George M. 19 William Baumgartner, ed. Fact Book on Marsden, Fundamentalism and American Cul- Theological Education (Vandalia, OH: The ture: The Shaping of Twentieth-Century Evangel- Association of Theological Schools in the icalism 1870-1925 (New York: Oxford Univer- United States and Canada, 1984-85), pp. 5-6. sity Press, 1980). 22 Donald L. Tucker

Of nineteen seminaries enrolling 100 the debate is beyond the scope of this or more Doctor of Ministry students in report. Statistically, the continued 1991 at least twelve of these are com- acceptance and ordination of women monly identified as evangelical and clergy was clearly evident. conservative. The nineteen schools In 1974, women constituted 14.3 with 100 or more Doctor of Ministry percent of total seminary enrolment. students were Andover Newton, By 1979 this rose to 21.1 percent of Boston University School of Theology, total seminary enrolment. By 1984 Columbia Theological Seminary, Drew women comprised twenty-five percent University, Fuller Theological Semi- of total seminary enrolments but thirty nary, Garrett-Evangelical Seminary, percent of ‘in-sequence’ Doctor of Min- McCormick Theological Seminary, istry students, choosing to remain in Midwestern Baptist, New York Theo- seminary for further study rather than logical Seminary, Pittsburgh Theologi- enter the ministry immediately after cal Seminary, Princeton Theological completion of the Master of Divinity. Seminary, Reformed Theological Sem- Enrolment of women increased to inary, San Francisco Theological Sem- slightly more than thirty percent of inary, Southern Baptist Theological total seminary enrolment by 1991. And Seminary, Southwestern Baptist, Tal- by this same year, one-third of overall bot School of Theology, Trinity Evan- enrolment in ATS schools were gelical Divinity School, United Theo- women. More specifically, women stu- logical Seminary (Ohio), and Westmin- dents in the seminary doctoral pro- ster Theological Seminary. This does grams alone in 1995 made up more not include Dallas Theological Semi- than thirty-three percent of ThD/STD nary which enrolled 623 PhD students, enrolments, roughly thirty percent of but only 74 Doctor of Ministry students PhD enrollment, and approximately in 1991. Of special note is the fact that thirteen percent of Doctor of Ministry seven schools (Fuller, McCormick, San enrolment.22 Francisco, Trinity Evangelical, Compared to two decades earlier, Reformed Theological, Columbia, and women comprised a solid force in sem- Southern Baptist) enrolled over one- inary enrollment and in seminary doc- half of all Doctor of Ministry students toral studies. Those who opted for doc- in 1991.21 toral studies at this juncture seemed A second demographic factor affect- more inclined to enter ‘academic’ ing seminary growth was the increase degrees intended for teaching and in the number of women students. The research positions. It is likely that this decade of the 1970s shows considerable theological and sociological debate regarding the ordination and position of women clergy. The extent of 22 Fact Book, 1991-1992, Table 2.20A, pp. 34-35. See also Martin E. Marty, ‘Trends in Seminary Enrollments’, The Christian Century 102 (Feb. 6-13, 1985): 116-117. Compare 21 Gail King, ed., Fact Book on Theological Daniel Aleshire and Jonathan Strom, eds., Fact Education (Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania: Associa- Book on Theological Education, 1995-1996, p. tion of Theological Schools, 1991-92). 37 and Table 2.13 and Table 2.14, pp. 40-49. The Rise of the Professional Doctor of Ministry Degree 23 percentage of women earning the Doc- professional degree would dilute the tor of Ministry degree will increase as quality of graduate religious studies.’24 more women are continually ordained Ideological confusion reigns as the and gain prominence in denominational field of religious studies broadens to leadership positions. As more women include history of religions, Eastern earn the first professional degree (Mas- cultures, Islamic studies, and other ter of Divinity) and the ‘first generation’ interdisciplinary areas in addition to of women preachers gives way to the biblical and theological studies, West- next, more terminal professional ern culture and Judeo-Christian her- degrees will probably be awarded. itage. Students enter doctoral programs in religion without the tradi- 2. Pluralism and Secularization tional ministerial preparation of the first professional degree (Bachelor of To the Association of Theological Divinity or Master of Divinity), and Schools, more significant than the gen- even without any religious commit- eral trends in seminary growth, are the ment.25 Between 1951 and 1960, specific shifts of ideological orienta- eleven new graduate programs in reli- tion and educational purpose occurring gion open. Between 1961 and 1970 in university religion departments dur- twenty-seven additional programs ing the 1950s and 1960s. These uni- arose. This is more than double the versity departments—traditionally number of programs available before providing the graduate education for World War II. teachers of clergy—changed in pro- Confusion in educational purpose found ways. Claude Welch, in a major (particularly regarding the validity of study, Graduate Education in Religion: A distinguishing between practical and Critical Appraisal, suggests a ‘crisis of research orientation) further mars the identity’ in graduate religious study picture. The differentiation between and a confusion in theological the Doctor of Philosophy and Doctor of 23 degrees. Welch remarks that semi- Theology is unrecognizable and naries ‘in addition to the inevitable requirements almost identical at many concerns about the weakening of their schools. Further, its intent as a teach- own privileged position, have been ing and research degree or for advance- fearful (a) that the new university pro- ment of ministerial skills is ambiguous. grams would be indifferent to the inter- Requirements and expectations for est of professional education and of the the traditional Doctor of Philosophy religious communities and (b) that the (PhD) or the Doctor of Theology (ThD) movement to by-pass the intermediate are nearly identical in North American theological seminaries. The Doctor of Hebrew Letters (DHL) at the Jewish 23 Claude Welch, Graduate Education in Reli- Theological Seminary (New York) is gion: A Critical Appraisal (Missoula: University the equivalent of the PhD or ThD at a of Montana Press, 1971). Since Welch speaks as the president of the American Academy of Religion (AAR) and on behalf of the American Council of Learned Societies (ACLS) his study 24 Welch, Graduate Education, pp. 39-40. carries considerable weight. 25 Welch, Graduate Education, p. 43. 24 Donald L. Tucker

Protestant seminary. Program struc- ‘humanity’ with a contrasting distinc- tures and curriculum expectations are tion of ‘divinity’.29 In this environment, similar. For example, during this time little attention is given to legitimate period, the PhD and ThD at the Gradu- pastoral, denominational, or parish ate Theological Union in Berkeley (Cal- concerns. ifornia), Harvard University (Massa- William Hull, in a thoughtful chusetts), Union Theological Seminary response to Welch, analyses carefully (New York), Columbia University (New the assumptions Welch makes. While York), and the PhD and Doctor of agreeing that certain benefits can Hebrew Letters (DHL) at the Jewish come from studying religion in a uni- Theological Seminary (New York), versity setting, Hull offers ‘three rea- according to Welch, were ‘academi- sons to encourage rather than to dis- cally indistinguishable.’26 The intro- courage doctoral programs in denomi- duction of the Doctor of Ministry as a national seminaries’.30 Hull suggests ‘professional doctorate’ muddied the that (1) empirical realism—the need to educational water even more.27 actually practise religion and spiritual- Given these developments, Welch ity; (2) public leadership—training lead- calls for a significant reduction in doc- ers competent to deal with ‘massive toral programs in religion and theol- spiritual challenges of our times’; and ogy. In Secularization of the Academy, (3) creative coexistence—‘May both of historian George Marsden—reflecting our tribes increase!’ is a better way on the influence of Welch—suggests than the retrenchment Welch pro- that ‘professors within seminaries and poses.31 The real question remains: Are university divinity schools came out clergy receiving the appropriate and looking second rate. Welch… con- necessary education for their profes- cludes that most seminaries, except for sion? Can a professional doctorate those connected to well-respected uni- remedy these concerns? The quality versities, were either ‘marginal’ or and status of the doctorate is suspect. ‘inadequate’.’28 Further, ‘religion Credibility of the degrees is eroding. departments increasingly could gain legitimacy by being oriented toward 3. Clergy Status and Reputation the non-Western, the non-conven- If the report of Welch did not serve to tional, and the (descriptively) non- tarnish clergy reputation and profes- Christian’. Arnold S. Nash, from a more theological than sociological angle, traces this secularization by exploring 29 Marsden and Longfield, Secularization, p. the development of the Latin and 35. See ‘Everything Has A Theological Angle’, Greek linguistic understanding of in Keith R. Bridston and Dwight W. Culver, eds., The Making of Ministers: Essays on Clergy Training Today (Minneapolis: Augsburg Pub- lishing, 1964), pp. 248-263. 26 Welch, Graduate Education, pp. 35-37. 30 William E. Hull, ‘Graduate Education in a 27 ATS, Bulletin 29 (1970), p. 187. Denominational Seminary,’ Review and Expos- 28 George M. Marsden and Bradley J. Long- itor 70 (Winter 1973), pp. 49-61. field, Secularization of the Academy (New York: 31 Hull, ‘Graduate Education,’ Review and Oxford University Press, 1992), p. 214. Expositor, pp. 59-61. The Rise of the Professional Doctor of Ministry Degree 25 sional status, it at least reinforced atti- While steep enrolment increases in tudes already prevalent. In 1928, the the Doctor of Ministry attest to its pop- average salary of the Protestant minis- ularity, concern about its academic ter was below that of most factory credibility remain. For example, in workers.32 Minimal education was 1989, of the 1,566 applicants to Doctor reflected in minimal pay. Protestant of Ministry programs, 1,391 were ministers were not highly regarded. accepted and 1,141 actually enrolled. Church historian, E. Brooks Holifield This means that nearly eighty-nine per- (who also serves as a consultant for the cent of Doctor of Ministry applicants in University of Mississippi Center for the 1989 were accepted into programs. Study of Southern Culture and profes- This acceptance rate was more than sor of American church history at Can- double the aggregate acceptance rate dler School of Theology, Emory Univer- for all other doctoral programs offered sity), an expert in the history of the in ATS schools. Even the acceptance American church and pastoral care, rate for Master of Arts and Master of contends that, although esteemed as Divinity programs was five to ten per- clergy, many local church pastors are cent lower than that for the Doctor of looked down upon ‘partially because of Ministry degree. In addition, only one- the churches’ low educational stan- third of schools offering Doctor of Min- dards’.33 Less than one-third of Protes- istry programs reported a policy for tant clergy in this period graduated from minimum grade point average for college and seminary compared to two- entrance and only four schools thirds of Catholic priests who were both required submission or consideration college and seminary graduates. of Graduate Record Exam scores.36 ‘[E]ven the educated and better-paid While credibility is one thing, finan- ministers who drifted to the larger cities cial stability and survival is another. found it necessary to contend with a cer- On the practical side, it is clear that tain patronizing air’, according to enrolment in the professional doctor- Holifield.34 Twenty-five years later, edu- ate is one major factor that stems an cational standards were somewhat bet- erosion in overall seminary revenue as ter, but still less than one-half of Protes- the number of applications declined in tant ministers had the equivalent of col- the traditional Master of Divinity lege or seminary graduation.35 degree, considered the ‘bread and butter’ of seminary education and the 32 E. Brooks Holifield, A History of Pastoral standard degree for ordination in main- Care in America: From Salvation to Self-Realiza- line denominations. Master of Divinity tion (Nashville: Abingdon, 1983), p. 217. enrolments helped salvage a poten- 33 Holifield, History of Pastoral Care, p. 216. tially bleak enrolment and financial 34 Holifield, History of Pastoral Care, p. 217. scenario. Commenting on the effect of 35 These statistics are compiled by Oren H. Baker, then executive secretary of ATS and professor of pastoral theology at Colgate- Rochester Divinity School. ‘Theological Edu- 36 Gail Buchwalter King, ed., Fact Book on cation: Protestant,’ in L. E. Blauch, ed., Edu- Theological Education for the Academic Years cation for the Professions (U.S. Department of 1988-89 and 1989-90 (Pittsburgh, PA: Associ- Health, Education, and Welfare, 1955), p. 238. ation of Theological Schools), pp. 23-24. 26 Donald L. Tucker

Doctor of Ministry students in overall ical journal in 1948 expresses well the seminary enrolment, Marvin Taylor sentiment for titles. Quoting from Ovid reports that, ‘it is readily apparent that R. Sellers of McCormick Seminary, the the DMin is the major factor in the con- editorial elaborates: tinued growth in professional enroll- It would be a mistake to hold that ments. Without it all but one denomi- there is no cause for dissatisfaction national group of schools would have about academic recognition in the 37 had a decline in numbers of students.’ ministry. If all ministers were A direct correlation between clergy called ‘Mister,’ probably there status and reputation and the Doctor of would be less cause for discontent; Ministry degree has not been estab- but there are the favored ones who lished. Analyses of motivations for have the degree of DD and so are entering Doctor of Ministry programs entitled to be addressed as generally emphasize the desire for ‘Doctor.’ All ministers know that increased professional competence, this degree means nothing in terms desire for a structured relevant pro- of scholarly achievement, but in the gram of continuing education, denomi- public eye the preacher who is a national or congregational expecta- Doctor rates more veneration than tions, or similar sentiments.38 Occa- sionally, one will admit the desire to does the parson who is only a get a better-paying position. Rarely Mister. In any group of young min- does anyone mention ego and pride. isters, next to the question of Nevertheless, anecdotal evidence link- vacancy and supply… is the award ing clergy desire for elevated status of the DD. and the pursuit of the title ‘doctor’ is The writer then suggests that clear. maybe the Doctor of Divinity should be An editorial appearing in a theolog- routinely awarded to all ministers after pastoring ten years.39 Some even turn to ‘degree mills’ to purchase their status. In 1960, influ- 37 Marvin J. Taylor, ed., Fact Book on Theo- ential theologian Carl F. H. Henry, in a logical Education (Vandalia, Ohio: Association Christianity Today editorial, acknowl- of Theological Schools, 1974-75), p. 14. edges that ‘the depth of sin does not 38 Jackson W. Carroll and others, ‘Pastor and Parish as Co-Learners in the Doctor of exempt the clergy, for whom pride Ministry Program: An Experiment in Theolog- remains a real temptation… The wor- ical Education.’ Theological Education 16, spe- ship of degrees has gone entirely too cial issue (Winter 1980), p. 184. This special edition reports on an intensive analysis of the Hartford Seminary 1977 Doctor of Ministry program, including assumptions of motiva- tional issues of clergy involved, and benefits of the program to both the clergy and congrega- 39 J. T. M.[cCosh?], ‘Proposal for a Seminary tions involved. See also, Jackson W. Carroll, DD Degree,’ Theological Observer, pp. 790-791, ‘Why Is the Doctor of Ministry So Popular?’ quoting from the Presbyterian (April 17, 1948) The Christian Century 105 (February 3-10, which reprints an article from McCormick 1988), pp. 106-107. Speaking (December 1947). The Rise of the Professional Doctor of Ministry Degree 27 far.’40 In 1972, Lee Porter substanti- David S. Schuller, in Ministry in ated Henry’s claim. ‘Ministers are America, a major study of forty-seven often eager to receive degrees. The denominations in the 1970s, examines number of degree mills that thrive by extensively the changing concepts of selling DD degrees is evidence ministry, including the attitudes and enough.’ According to this report, 308 expectations since World War II. He colleges and universities conferred the delineates clearly the desire of clergy to honorary DD degree, with ‘status-dri- be viewed as professionals. ‘In contrast ven clergy’ one of the most aggressive with professionals in medicine, law, or pursuers of prestige. Only the LHD and academe, many clergy appear unsure LLD. were given out in greater num- and self-deprecating. They suspect that bers.41 they are less intelligent, that their edu- Of course, this desire for credibility cation is not as good, and that their skills are not so highly developed.’43 is not new. Renowned church historian Certainly the prestige and advanced E. Harris Harbison suggests that Mar- training associated with the title Doc- tin Luther used his doctorate to gain tor complements the respect inherent credibility and ‘institutional signifi- in the position and title of Reverend. cance’ in his continual conflicts with Anabaptists. Harbison boldly asserts: ‘Luther was not the first or the last to 4. The ‘Professional’ versus gain assurance from the belief that his ‘Academic’ Debate right to speak out rested not only upon Beyond the general growth of seminary his inner call but also upon his DD enrolment, the severing of denomina- [Doctor of Divinity].’42 tional ties to secular universities, and the psychological impact of clergy status, there is the on-going debate concerning purpose, content, and validity 40 ‘The Scandal of Bogus Degrees’, Chris- of the ‘professional’ doctorate. Is pas- tianity Today 4 (May 9, 1960), p. 24. In the toral ministry a profession? Is the edu- same vein is O. W. Frost, ‘Pedagogical Quak- cation of ministers professional? These ery’, Christian Century (July 27, 1960), pp. 880- 881. For a more recent acknowledgement of are questions asked by ATS in its dis- the same problem, see Tim Minnery, ‘Short- cussions of the nature and purpose of cut Graduate Degrees Shortchange Every- theological education and continued body’, Christianity Today 25 (May 29, 1981), arguments over degree nomenclature. pp. 26-29. 41 Lee Porter, Degrees for Sale (New York: Arco Publishing, 1972), p. 143. A recent and thorough study of degree mills, including an 43 Schuller, David S., Merton P. Strommen, overview of the FBI DipScam project, is the and Milo L. Brekke, eds., Ministry in America: work by David W. Stewart and Henry A. Spille, A Report and Analysis, Based on an In-Depth Diploma Mills: Degrees of Fraud (New York: Survey of 47 Denominations in the United States American Council on Education and Macmil- and Canada, with Interpretation by 18 Experts lan Publishing, 1988). (The Association of Theological Schools in the 42 The Christian Scholar in the Age of the United States and Canada and Search Insti- Reformation (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1956), tute). (New York: Harper & Row Publishers, pp. 124-125. 1980), p. 5. 28 Donald L. Tucker

‘Theological Education as Profes- endorsement from ATS, the University sional Education,’ the theme of a con- of Chicago authorizes a Doctor of Min- vocation held at Episcopal Theological istry for students who feel the need for School in January 1967, concluded a practical professional education and, decade of debate about the kind of con- at the same time, adds a PhD in Prac- tinuing education relevant to pastors.44 tical Theology.47 The selection of pro- Concern was widespread that ‘turning fessional status is now in place. Even everyone into a PhD research scholar’ earlier, in 1960, San Francisco Theo- would hinder the ability to relate to the logical Seminary establishes an in-ser- real life of the church.45 Fifteen years vice Doctor of Sacred Theology (STD) earlier, Seward Hiltner argued before program for the continuing education the faculty, of pastors. This course was designed to there is no reason why the PhD alternate summer residence study with should not be awarded for work in in-ministry study over a five-year depth beginning with one of the period, followed by a series of compre- functional fields as well as with one hensive exams and a dissertation research project; the entire program of the abstract fields… Or, if the taking seven years to complete.48 PhD be too sacred to touch, at least In the initial stages of ATS debates there should be some other symbol over the Doctor of Ministry, many sug- to encourage exploration from the gest using it as the first degree rather functional as well as the abstract than the last—replacing the Master of side.46 Divinity—much like the professional In 1966, prior to any official degrees earned in medicine and law (the MD and JD respectively).49 After a

44 ‘Theological Education as Professional Education’, Theological Education 5 (Spring 47 One in Spirit: A Retrospective View of the 1969), pp. 1-302. This trend toward profes- University of Chicago on the Occasion of its Cen- sional degree nomenclature is also noted by tennial (Chicago, Illinois: University of Bruce L. Robinson, in ‘Professionalism and Chicago, 1991), p. 172. Ministry Today’, a report given at the thir- 48 Henry Babcock Adams, ‘STD Education teenth biennial meeting of the Association for at San Francisco’, Theological Education 1 Professional Education for Ministry, held in (Summer 1965), pp. 223-225. Atlanta, Georgia, June 13-16, 1974. 49 For a general overview, see ‘Graduate and 45 Franklin H. Littell, ‘Protestant Seminary Professional Education’ in Richard Hofstadter Education in America’, in James Michael Lee and C. DeWitt Hardy, The Development and and Louis J. Putz, eds., Seminary Education in Scope of Higher Education in the United States a Time of Change (Notre Dame, Indiana: Fides (New York: Columbia University Press), pp. Publisher, 1965), p. 552. 57-100. See also William J. McGlothlin, Pat- 46 Seward Hiltner, ‘The Professional Aspect terns of Professional Education (New York: G. P. of Theological Education’, unpublished paper Putnam’s Sons, 1960); W. Gordon Whaley, prepared for the 1952 annual retreat of the ‘American Academic Degrees’, Educational Federated Theology Faculty of the University Record 47 (Fall 1966), pp. 525-537; and Edgar of Chicago, at Green Lake, Wisconsin, October H. Schein and Diane W. Kommers, Professional 1951, [photocopy], pp. 60-61, Alumni Education: Some New Directions (New York: Archives, Princeton Theological Seminary, Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Princeton, New Jersey. Teaching and McGraw-Hill, 1972). The Rise of the Professional Doctor of Ministry Degree 29 review of more than six hundred orga- exist. The first major study of the nizations, Connolly Gamble, Director effects of the Doctor of Ministry is pub- of Continuing Education at Union Sem- lished by Auburn Theological Semi- inary in Virginia, argues that ‘the min- nary and Hartford Seminary’s Center ister belongs to the learned profes- for Social and Religious Research in sions, standing in the company of edu- 1987.53 This study concludes that the cators, physicians, and lawyers’.50 As advanced professional competence and early as 1949, Ernest C. Colwell, then critical theological reflection originally Dean of the Divinity School at the Uni- anticipated for the DMin is less evident versity of Chicago, had suggested than desired. Faculty bemoan that replacing the Bachelor of Divinity with many students did not demonstrate a professional doctorate so that minis- advanced levels of reflection or compe- terial education would be seen as grad- tence. In addition, Carroll and Wheeler uate and professional in nature.51 In express concern about variations in 1963, the School of Theology at Clare- quality from one program to another. mont (under the leadership of new Since that time, however, ATS President Ernest C. Colwell!) began a revised its standards and expectations four-year Doctor of Religion (RelD) as for DMin study and clarified program the basic professional degree for min- goals. A more recent study conducted istry. When ATS, at its 1970 meeting in 2002 (although limited in scope to (held in Claremont), voted to adopt the responses of program directors pre- nomenclature Doctor of Ministry, sent at one particular conference) sug- Claremont changed its Doctor of Reli- gests the strength of the DMin lies in 52 gion degree to the Doctor of Ministry. the level of student theological reflection, a clear improvement over the first Educational Quality decade. However, the same report also suggests that weaknesses still exist in Few comprehensive studies of the the lack of rigour in research design.54 quality or effectiveness of the DMin Although some suggest an ‘identity crisis’ in DMin education55 the expan-

50 Connolly C. Gamble, Jr., The Continuing Theological Education of the American Minister: Report of a Survey (American Association of 52 Allen J. Moore, ‘The Doctor of Ministry a Theological Schools, November 1960), p. 5. Decade Later’, Theological Education 4 (Sum- Gamble’s survey included 124 ATS seminaries mer 1976), p. 222. and 500 other agencies and institutions. See 53 Jackson W. Carroll and Barbara G. also Charles R. Feilding, Education for Ministry Wheeler, A Study of Doctor of Ministry Pro- (Dayton, Ohio: AATS, 1966) and Owen C. grams (Hartford Seminary, 1987). Thomas, ‘Professional Education and Theo- 54 Timothy D. Lincoln, ‘The Quality of Doc- logical Education’, Theological Education 4 tor of Ministry Education in 2002: What Pro- (Autumn 1967), pp. 556-565. gram Directors Think’. Theological Education 51 Allen J. Moore, ‘The Doctor of Ministry a 39, 2 (2003), pp. 137-148. Decade Later’, Theological Education 4 (Sum- 55 See Charles J. Conniry, Jr., ‘Reducing the mer 1976), p. 219. Walter D. Wagoner makes Identity Crisis in Doctor of Ministry Educa- this same suggestion in Bachelor of Divinity tion’, Theological Education, 40,1 (2004), pp. (New York: Association Press, 1963), p. 92. 137-152. 30 Donald L. Tucker sion of programs and enrolments cer- not disputed although its credibility in tainly attests to its popularity. The regard to research and teaching is less impact of this growth on clergy status, certain. The Association of Theological remuneration, and qualifications has Schools, in its degree standards, not been fully explored. Concerns makes a distinction between the goals about quality and perception do not for the Doctor of Ministry (advanced interfere with student enrolment. Even expertise in ministerial practice) and the original report of Carroll and the goals for the Doctor of Philosophy Wheeler confirms the value of the (theological scholarship for teaching, degree in raising clergy confidence and learning, and research). The vast self-esteem and in reaffirming commit- majority of pastors who complete Doc- ment and enthusiasm for ministry.56 tor of Ministry programs report ‘raised The crisis may be exacerbated by PhD morale and self-esteem, increased holders who look askance at what is enthusiasm about ordained ministry, perceived to be inferior. Clarity in and renewed commitment to their cur- degree expectations, a re-evaluation of rent jobs.’57 desired faculty background and qualifi- After more than thirty years, the ini- cations, and improved teaching in tial euphoria is diminished and current research structure may help reduce statistics reveal stabilization in Doctor these concerns. of Ministry enrolment, with modest new real growth. More crucial for long- term credibility are hints from faculty What Does the Future Hold? and administrators that the antici- The place of the professional doctor- pated critical theological insight and ate, in both the university and the sem- significant contributions to research inary, is clearly established. There will on the practice of ministry have not 58 be no retreat. Debates in North Amer- been realized. Clearer definitions of ica at the inception of the professional purpose, rigorous evaluation, and seri- Doctor of Ministry, follow similar lines ous attention to quality standards (in as those for other professional doctor- accepting new applicants and in exam- ates both in North America and more ining final candidates for the degree) recently in the United Kingdom. The may well determine the future status sheer volume of Doctor of Ministry for the ‘Reverend Doctor’. degrees conferred between 1970 and 1995 certainly attests to its popularity. Its recognition as a legitimate doctorate degree ‘to deepen the basic knowledge and skill in ministry’ is generally 57 Jackson W. Carroll, ‘Why Is the Doctor of Ministry So Popular?’ The Christian Century 105 (Februaryv1988), pp. 107-108. 58 Compare responses by Faith Burgess, William Lesher, J. Randall Nichols and Ray S. 56 Jackson W. Carroll, ‘Why Is the D.Min. So Anderson in ‘The Doctor of Ministry Program Popular?’ Christian Century 105 (February 3- in the Context of Theological Education’, The- 10, 1988), p. 107. ological Education 23 (Spring 1987), pp.77-88. ERT (2006) 30:1, 31-48 Learning from the African Experience: Bediako and Critical Contextualisation

Alan Thomson

KEYWORDS: Africa, contextualisation, the threat of theological relativism and methodology, contextual models, pri- unbounded pluralism, or what could be mal religions, monotheism, missio called the tyranny of the particular, Dei there is a need to search for some understanding of the processes, derivations and implications of these SINCE the 1970’s the term ‘contextual local theologies. By undertaking this theology’ has gained in prominence search it is hoped that mechanisms and relevance for those engaged in useful for mediating against the intercultural, and increasingly intra- tyranny of the particular may be found. cultural, theologising. Discussions So the study of contextual theology surrounding the topic are generally proceeds apace, actively engaging being engaged on two distinct though across a broad range of theological and intimately interrelated levels. The first practical concerns. In fact, by its is that of the theoretical, what is gen- nature, the study of contextual theol- erally referred to as ‘missiology’, while ogy crosses all of the major disciplines the second is that of the practical, what of traditional Christian study. It is, can be called ‘mission studies’. after all, a discussion about frame- Looking first at the missiological works and foundations. However, level, discussion tends to focus on within this broad range of scholarship understanding what contextual theol- there is an understandable emphasis ogy is and how it works, or perhaps, on hermeneutical and methodological more correctly, how it should work. A issues. This is perhaps why certain key driver behind this discussion is the issues have come to dominate the mis- desire for a genuine grappling with the siological agenda, such as the Evan- explosion of local theologies coming gelical and Ecumenical divide on the from the Two-Thirds World. Against authority of scripture, and the relative

Alan Thomson has studied at the Tyndale Graduate School of Theology in New Zealand, where his primary field of interest is contextual theology, with an emphasis on exploring both the African and Western understandings of contextualisation. He is particularly interested in the writings of Lesslie Newbigin, Harold Turner and the Gospel and our Culture Network, and how they apply to the New Zealand context. 32 Alan Thomson merits of orthodoxy and orthopraxy. In is, we would hope, largely predicated discussing missiological issues this upon theoretical formulations derived paper will not concern itself with from the insights of missiologists. As hermeneutical concerns per se, though this implies, there is an important dia- of course they are integral to any dis- logical, in fact symbiotic, relationship cussion of contextual theology; rather between those involved in missiology it will principally be concerned with and those involved in mission studies. methodological issues. This paper seeks to contribute to At the mission studies level the con- this relationship by undertaking a cerns are more practical in nature, gen- dialectical engagement between the erally focused on matters of applica- practical and the theoretical. By this tion. The primary focus here is on means I hope to demonstrate how a active engagement in inter and intra- fruitful theological discussion can cultural dialogue and evangelism. The ensue, one that changes in important driving questions are usually related to ways all those involved in it. Before issues of particularity, for example, proceeding with this demonstration those of method. So, for instance, the though it is appropriate to pause for a relevant question may be: how can I moment to discuss, in the following relate more relevantly to my poor order, both the key parameters of the Philippine Muslim neighbours when I dialectical approach being undertaken am an affluent white missionary? Or, here, and the parameters within which perhaps, how do I, a South Korean mis- the discussion will proceed. sionary, bridge the cultural gap with my African or New Zealand neighbours? In similar vein this paper is con- Key Parameters of Dialectical cerned with questions such as: how Approach can I actively live out my faith in the context of African traditional reli- As intimated above, the missiological gions? These are but a small selection framework is largely driven by a modu- of the great many concerns facing lar approach. In part this represents a those actively engaged in living out human predilection for simplicity: a their faith within the various, multi- search for tools that achieve some faceted contexts in which Christianity coherent management of an overly is expressed. They are representative abundant supply of data. In this con- of the other deep concern of this paper, text models operate as general addressing in some small measure the explanatory frameworks. Models can how of Christian engagement with the also serve other purposes; for example, world. some are constructed for indicative or Of course the theoretical and practi- predictive purposes, providing direc- cal distinction drawn above is never so tion for future research endeavours. clearly distinguishable in reality. The While being mindful that in some sense missiological considerations draw all models have an element of this lat- deeply from the well of actual experi- ter characteristic this essay is con- ences for their empirical data, while cerned primarily with the former, those the practice of contextual engagement models that seek to provide a working Learning from the African Experience 33 understanding of reality.1 further creativity that extends or In using such explanatory models supersedes the original models. there is a need to acknowledge their This returns us to the aim of this reductionist tendencies. These models paper, though now with a greater are, after all, simplistic representa- understanding of the parameters tions of what are often very complex involved. It allows us to state more sets of phenomena. This is certainly accurately and succinctly the aim of true in the field of practical theological this paper as engaging in a critical dia- inquiry. Here a prolific amount of logue between modular contextual the- anthropological, sociological and eco- ology theory on the one hand, and the nomic data intersects with the com- actual practice of intercultural commu- plexities of human behaviour to weave nication on the other, with the hope of an extraordinarily intricate garment of constructively contributing towards interactions. It is the unenviable task both. This paper further proposes that of theologians occupied with such this can best be achieved by examining inquiries to engage their study at both certain key models of contextual theol- the level of data and narrative, to inti- ogy through a specific case study. This mately understand the detail while case study approach allows us to gain concurrently constructing a sensible insight not only into the relative merits framework with which to explain the of the modular perspective to contex- available data. tual theology, thereby providing an However, mere understanding is understanding of the usefulness of insufficient. Once understanding is these models as tools for advancing gained it is incumbent upon theolo- our understanding of contextual theol- gians to disseminate their findings. ogising, but also into how the use of This dissemination is not only neces- these models can contribute to the sary for explanatory purposes, it also improvement of a specific situation. allows for critical reflection by the community at large. Open, though lov- ing, critiquing can lead the way to a Scope very constructive dialogue, one in As noted above this paper will proceed which important contributions can be on the basis of a case study. This imme- made to the models being presented, diately raises the question of where a whether by highlighting overlooked, or case study can be sourced. Of course over/under stated aspects. Such a dia- the choice made here immediately logue may also become the vehicle for betrays the author’s regional predilec- tions, which in this case happens to be Africa. Nonetheless, it is important to recognize that the dialectical method- 1 Charles Kraft, Christianity in Culture: A ology along which this analysis pro- Study of Dynamic Biblical Theologizing in Cross- ceeds is equally valid for any regional Cultural Perspective (New York: Orbis Books, analysis. Having established the gen- 1979), esp. pp. 23-33, and Stephen Bevans, Models of Contextual Theology (New York: eral context to be Africa though, there Orbis, 2002), Rev ed., pp. 28-33, guide the fol- is the important consideration of deter- lowing. mining the level of specificity required 34 Alan Thomson to achieve our aim. eration theology. While these theolo- For the purposes of comparative gies are certainly present in the region discussion it is often easier to speak in being examined, they are not as perva- generalisations, allowing very diverse sively or predominately so.2 and often divergent ideas to coalesce Having established the broad simi- under a single descriptive term. One larity present across a swathe of Africa such term is that of ‘African Theology’. there is also the need to acknowledge Its usefulness relates to its ability to the very many, and often antagonistic, draw together a multitude of similar diversities it represents. Most notably theological threads from one of the there exists a significant divide most multi-faceted continents on between the theologies derived from earth. It does have accompanying diffi- the nations of West Africa as opposed culties though, not least of which is the to those of the East. In fact, at each fur- widely differing contexts included ther stage of particularisation multiple within its ambit. In speaking of African divergences emerge. Hence the Theology it is therefore very important nations of West Africa contain within to describe the constituent similarities them a plethora of theological streams, included within it, thereby delineating and, similarly, individual nations such the limits of similarity being discussed, as Ghana display equally diverse theo- while concurrently acknowledging the 3 broad diversities still inherent within logical thinking and activity. the discussion. Trying to locate oneself within this With respect to the broad similari- milieu is an unenviable task. The pre- ties, it is proposed that this paper will ceding discussion does, however, high- have particular relevance for those light two methodologies that could interested in African theology emanat- usefully allow us to become orientated ing from contexts in sub-Saharan within the African context. The first is Africa, excluding South Africa. This to frame this discussion around the delineation is chosen for a number of general appellation of African Theol- reasons, beyond the obvious geo- ogy, seeking a pan-African case study graphic consideration. Two primary of critical contextualisation. In a paper reasons may be cited. First, there is the of this scope, however, such an ambi- quite different historical development of Christianity between these regions. The development of Ethiopic Christian- ity, for instance, is quite different from 2 Tite Tienou, ‘The Church in African The- ology; Description and Analysis of Hermeneu- the primarily western transmission of tical Presuppositions’, ed. Carson, D. A., Bib- Christianity experienced by its south- lical Interpretation and the Church: Text and ern counterparts. Second, there are the Context (Exeter: The Paternoster Press, many substantive differences between 1984), pp. 151-165. So also, Hesselgrave, and the theological contexts embraced by Rommen, Contextualization, pp. 96-98. these regions. So, for example, the 3 John Pobee, Toward an African Theology (Nashville: Abingdon, 1979), 15-23. Hessel- South African theological context grave, and Rommen, Contextualization, pp. 96- could be broadly described as embrac- 98 cite several other important factors, such ing or emanating from Black and Lib- as differing theological sources and aims. Learning from the African Experience 35 tious project would prove too difficult Christaller Memorial Centre in Ghana, to tame. However, one other avenue of and a director of the Oxford Center of inquiry may prove fruitful, viz, refer- Mission Studies, Oxford, England; as ence to a particular, specific represen- well as formerly being Visiting Lec- tative context. This is a potentially turer in African Theology at the Center useful context because, as noted for the Study of Christianity in the Non- above, it is in the particular context Western World, New College, Univer- that the modular framework needs to sity of Edinburgh, Scotland. Though have validity and usefulness. much of his time is spent in Ghana he This essay will therefore seek to travels extensively in the West each examine contextualisation, as experi- year lecturing. Aside from his vital enced within Africa, through the bridging role Bediako was chosen for thoughts of a single African theolo- two further reasons. First, we shall see gian, the Ghanaian, Kwame Bediako. that his theology is fairly representa- Of course no such discussion can pro- tive of the middle ground of African ceed in some kind of glorious isolation, thinking on contextualisation issues; and particularly so within the African and second, because of his articulate context where the sense of community elaboration of both historical and con- is so strongly present. We shall there- temporary African theological fore hear from a number of other the- processes. ologians, of varying African nationali- Having decided upon the subject of ties and Christian roots, who will the case study it now remains to pro- become important conversation part- ceed with the discussion. This paper ners as we progress. will therefore seek to understand how It is perhaps important to justify the Kwame Bediako views contextualisa- choice of Bediako over other equally tion; then it will seek to understand his commendable subjects, especially in perception relative to appropriate mod- light of the large pool of significant the- ular frameworks; thirdly, it will com- ologians Africa has produced. Within ment critically upon both of these such a context there will never be a frameworks and Bediako’s positions in truly satisfactory justification for the particular choice made. It can be noted light of the preceding analysis. Finally, though that some important guidelines it will then draw out some of the in this choice included the desire to broader implications that arise out of interact with a theologian of consider- the analysis. able pan-African status, who had a consistent and significant body of written The Task at Hand work to draw from and, given the context indicated by the title of this paper, The African theologian John Pobee had some significant interaction with notes: western theologians. The task is to develop an authenti- Bediako is an evangelical theolo- cally African expression of the one gian who is an increasingly important gospel … expressing the one bridging figure between Africa and the gospel in such a way that not only West. He is both director of the Akrofi- will Africans see and understand it 36 Alan Thomson

but also non-Africans will see scholar undertaking the task Pobee themselves as sharing a common outlines. He has engaged in substan- heritage with Africans.4 tial research of both the roots of For Pobee this is a task that can be African theology, through historical achieved by erecting a theological investigation, and of the significance of framework around three key guide- African theology in the contemporary lines: ‘… the search must be biblical, international Christian environment.7 apostolic and catholic’.5 Somewhat in Methodologically he builds on his his- anticipation of later discussion we can torical foundation by elaborating a note before proceeding further that comprehensive picture of the broad these key guidelines are not exhaus- distinctives that mark out a contempo- tive of the requirements. Justin Upkong rary African theology. The hermeneuti- notes the importance of context in the cal key informing his historical search, specifically highlighting ortho- research, and therefore used in his praxy as a central element of African understanding of the current contours theological dialogue. Nominally ‘secu- of African theology, is the African lar’ structures therefore also need to search for identity. He comments that form an important element in the theo- historically the development of an logical construct.6 African theology represents the story of a search for an authentic African Christian identity.8 Kwame Bediako Surveying the history of the gospel In Ghana Kwame Bediako is one story in Africa, Bediako concludes that despite the initial missionary encoun- ters being traumatic events for tradi- 4 John Pobee, West Africa: Christ Would be tional African cultures, the dynamic an African Too, (Geneva: WCC Publications, interaction of the gospel with African 1996), p. 49. Tite Tienou ‘Indigenous African culture was deep and abiding, eventu- Christian Theologies: The Uphill Road’, Inter- ally resulting in a significant, indige- national Bulletin of Missionary Research, 14/2, (Apr 1990), pp. 73-77. Muzorewa, The Origins nous reassessment of the received and Development of African Theology (New York: Orbis, 1985), pp. pp. 77-86. 5 John Pobee, West Africa, 49. Lesslie New- bigin, ‘The Enduring Validity of Cross-Cultural 7 See especially Kwame Bediako, ‘Biblical Mission’, International Bulletin of Missionary Christologies in the Context of African Tradi- Research, 12/2 (Apr 1988), pp. 50-53; A. tional Religions’, Samuel, Vinay, and Sugden, Nkwoka, ‘Jesus as Eldest Brother, (Okpara): Chris, Sharing Jesus in the Two Thirds World: An Igbo Paradigm for Christology in the Evangelical Christologies from the contexts of African Context’, Asia Journal of Theology, 5/1 poverty, powerlessness and religious pluralism (Apr 1991), 87-103; B. Quarshie, ‘The signifi- (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1984), pp. 81-121. cance of biblical studies for African Christian 8 Tite Tienou, ‘The Church in African The- theology’, Journal of African Christian Thought, ology; Description and Analysis of Hermeneu- 3/1 (Jun 2000), pp. 17-26. tical Presuppositions’, Carson, D.A., Biblical 6 Justin Upkong, ‘Towards a Holistic Interpretation and the Church: Text and Context Approach to Inculturation Theology’, Mission (Exeter: Paternoster Press, 1984), pp. 151- Studies, XVI/2, 32 (1999), pp. 100-124. 165, esp. p. 152. Learning from the African Experience 37 gospel message.9 This is not the only lived within the confines of a natural insight he gleaned from this historical culture that at some stage was inter- analysis. Bediako also recognized an sected by the story of the culture inherent ethnocentric bias as driving embodied in scripture.11 Over a period much of the modern missionary enter- of time the two cultures, the natural, prise. Important European mission and what he terms the adoptive (scrip- conferences are reflective of this tural) culture, eventually come to premise with, for example, the 1910 merge within the individual or group Edinburgh Conference concluding that such that ‘Scripture becomes recog- there existed no formative preparation nized by us as the narrative that for the gospel message in the animist explains who we are, and therefore as indigenous cultures of Africa. As Bedi- our narrative’.12 At this point the adop- ako notes, this led to an inevitable con- tive scriptural culture has become ‘our clusion: the need to import the gospel, story’; we are adopted into it. Quite along with its European cultural clearly this analytical commentary accoutrements, as the only means by reflects a self-conscious stance regard- which Christianity could be both artic- ing the place of both culture and scrip- ulated and lived.10 In effect, Europe ture within the gospel and culture was culturally and religiously interaction. exported. This, then, is the formative His mode of argument is very backdrop to the development of instructive in attempting to under- Kwame Bediako’s theology. stand what this stance might be. As The heart of Bediako’s argument is previously noted, the historical devel- captured in a paper presented in 2001, opment of African theology is very in which he discusses ‘Scripture as the important to him. His fundamental the- hermeneutic of culture and tradition’. sis is that the post colonial period of In this paper he is deeply concerned the 1950s to the early 1980s saw with the need for Christians to recog- African theology pursue an unusual nize that scripture is inherently partic- direction, at least in western eyes, as it ipative in nature and that this is central adopted, in Bediako’s terms, the to understanding Christian identity. ‘hermeneutic of identity’.13 This pur- Each Christian or Christian group has

11 John Parratt, Reinventing Christianity: 9 Tienou, ‘The Church’, pp. 82-84. For bal- African Theology Today (Grand Rapids: Eerd- ance note also Newbigin, ‘Enduring Validity’, mans, 1995), pp. 92-98. p. 50 and Steven Kaplan, ‘The Africanization 12 Kwame Bediako, ‘Scripture as the of Missionary Christianity: History and Typol- hermeneutic of culture and tradition’, Journal ogy’, Journal of Religion in Africa, XVL/3 of African Christian Thought, 4/1 (Jun 2001), (1986), pp. 166-186 and particularly Lamin pp. 2-11. Sanneh, ‘The Horizontal and the Vertical in 13 Bediako, along with most commentators, Mission: An African Perspective’, International strongly distinguishes between African theol- Bulletin of Missionary Research, 17/4 (Oct ogy and Black theology; see for example, 1983), pp. 165-171. ‘Understanding African Theology in the 20th 10 Bediako, ‘Biblical Christologies’, pp. 84- Century’, Themelios, 20/1 (Oct 1994), pp. 14- 94. 20. 38 Alan Thomson suit had a very specific focus in the pri- ern dominated model of theological mal roots of African society, an explicit engagement but in a genuinely biblical recognition that African society is, and encounter with their religious past. always has been, inherently religious. Importantly for our purposes, Bedi- ako notes that this search actually con- Hiebert and the Generic stituted a new theological methodol- Model ogy. Though not new in Christian his- The next logical step for Bediako was tory, it was new in the imaginations of to examine what African theologians western theologians still wedded to have made of this since the early enlightenment sourced, rationalistic 1980s. He notes that three primary 14 theological processes. He notes that streams of thinking can be discerned. in fact it constitutes old methodology The first is the radical continuity advo- with the highest of historical valida- cated by indigenisers such as Bolaji tion, being the primary tool utilized by Idowu.17 Bediako, specifically examin- the early church. Key examples of its ing Idowu’s treatment of God, notes use include the Jerusalem Council of that he perceives an essential, though Acts and the Pauline approach.15 diffuse, monotheism within the African Bediako then goes on to note that traditional religions. Idowu therefore African theologians, by the 1980s, had rejects the proposition that these reli- used the results of this search to derive gions be viewed as polytheistic. To this an authentic African theology from an extent the relationship between the essentially religious foundation. traditional religions and the Christian Importantly for Bediako, this showed God can be likened to a continuum of that African theologians of earlier revelation. This implies that both have decades had pursued their search ‘… not as historians of religion do, nor as an enduring place within the religious anthropologists do, but as Christian framework of African consciousness. theologians…’16 Their conclusions Bediako’s greatest praise and were therefore not sourced in a west- sharpest critique of Idowu comes at this very point. He sees Idowu as blaz- ing an important trail in the search for a uniquely African Christian identity. 14 Abraham Akrong is eloquent on this, pro- Central to this, in Bediako’s view, is viding personal testimony in answer to a ques- the necessity of dealing with the place tion on how to recover identity and religious of the primal religions in ongoing and cultural self-expression from the African Christian living, also a central theme in past. Refer to Barbour, C.M., et al., ‘Gospel, Culture, Healing and Reconciliation: A Idowu’s work. Idowu envisages an Shalom Conversation’, Mission Studies, XVI- essential continuity upon which Bedi- 2/32 (1999), 135-150, pp. pp. 141-143. ako is keen to build. The danger Bedi- 15 For this latter point note Larry Poston, ‘Cultural chameleon: Contextualization from a Pauline perspective’, Evangelical Missions Quarterly, 36/4 (Oct 2000), pp. 460-469. 17 See Bediako, ‘The Roots of African The- 16 Bediako, ‘Understanding African Theol- ology’, pp. 61-62 and ‘Understanding African ogy’, p. 15, quoting Andrew Walls here. Theology’, p. 16. Learning from the African Experience 39 ako attempts to avoid, which he per- theology … rather, in letting the ceives Idowu as having succumbed to, Christian gospel encounter, as well is formulating this proposition in such as be shaped by, the African expe- a way that the newness or unique voice rience …20 of the gospel is subsumed under the Bediako stands in support of this auspices of primal African religions. stream of thinking, noting that it con- Bediako is concerned that Idowu has tains the grounds for maintaining the not gone on to explicate the unique fine balance necessary between the impact of the gospel on Africans. To two divergent approaches outlined this extent Idowu is an example of above. On the one hand it holds in high Hiebert’s uncritical contextualization, esteem the cultural and theological an example of a syncretistic accep- legacy of the African primal religions, 18 tance of traditional practices. while on the other it interacts critically The second stream Bediako identi- with this legacy through the mecha- fies is the radical discontinuity cham- nism of a supracultural gospel. In this pioned by the likes of Byang Kato. way Bediako envisages the best of both Bediako focuses on Kato’s insistence worlds coming together, building a nar- that a distinctive biblical framework row path of creative tension upon needs to lie at the heart of an African which can be forged the future theo- theology. Kato, in this sense, rejects logical enterprise of African Christian- the need for engaging in a creative dia- ity.21 logue between traditional culture and This fits quite nicely into the cate- theology, preferring instead the pri- gorisation Hiebert puts forward as the macy of the universal biblical witness. preferred methodology for contextual- In effect this is a form of Hiebert’s izing the gospel message: critical con- ‘Rejection of Contextualisation’ or textualisation.22 As Hiebert describes 19 ‘Denial of the Old’. it, critical contextualisation is a The third and final stream of think- process whereby a congregation first ing is the middle ground occupied by recognizes the need for a critical ‘translators’ such as John Mbiti, who uphold … the development of a sustain- able tradition … [in which] … the 20 Bediako, ‘Understanding African Theol- Christian faith is capable of ‘trans- ogy’, pp. 16-17. 21 There are, of course, those who disagree lation’ into African terms without with much of the foregoing. So, Tienou views injury to its essential content … Mbiti as advocating an essential continuity per not in ‘indigenizing’ Christianity or Idowu’s uncritical contextualization; ‘Indige- nous African Christian Theologies’, p. 75. 22 Paul Hiebert, Anthropological Insights, pp. 186-190. Note also Wilbert Shenk’s idea of 18 Paul Hiebert, Anthropological Insights for ‘critical engagement’, present in the second Missionaries (Grand Rapids: Baker Book, century Epistle to Diognetus, ‘Missionary 1985), pp. 185-186. Encounter with Culture’, International Bulletin 19 Hiebert, Anthropological Insights, pp. 184- of Missionary Research, 15/3 (July 1991), pp. 185. 104-109. 40 Alan Thomson engagement of culture by the scrip- tension. Wagenaar explores this tures; second, uncritically gathers through three key cultural examples: information on their traditional reli- the use of African Names for God; the gions; third, undertakes a biblical use of Sacral Power; and the long- study relevant to the traditions at standing nub of contention, Polygamy. hand; and finally, critically engages the He observes two levels of interac- traditional religion. From this a num- tion in Bediako’s work. At a theologi- ber of possibilities emerge, including cal level Bediako advocates an essen- retention of certain aspects considered tial continuity with traditional customs to be not biblically injurious, rejection and religions, following the lead of of aspects viewed as contrary to the scholars such as Mbiti. However, at the biblical worldview, and finally chang- level of practical example his illustra- ing other aspects so that biblical ones tions demonstrate a decidedly more are retained while non-biblical points ambivalent attitude towards these are adapted or rejected, as is consid- issues. In practice he seems to advo- ered appropriate. cate an essential discontinuity on key points: ‘There seems to be an imbal- ance between Bediako’s wish of being Wagenaar’s Critique of open to the traditions and his actually Bediako critical and even negative attitude.’24 To the extent outlined above, Bedi- At first sight, analysed under ako’s methodological approach and Hiebert’s model, this objection points subsequent analysis would appear to to a negative evaluation of Bediako’s be firmly grounded within a wider the- judgement. Critical contextualisation ological framework. Upon deeper is a process of ongoing critical interac- analysis however, the stability of his tion in which the gospel meets, con- process, expressed above in terms of fronts and adjudicates on the different Hiebert’s categorisation, is less cer- elements of culture. As such it is often tain than anticipated. In a very inter- a matter of judgement, on the part of esting analysis Hinne Wagenaar the Christian community, as to which undertakes a critical interaction with elements are to be accepted and which Bediako’s theology,23 focusing particu- rejected. At one level therefore, under larly on his engagement with the Hiebert’s model, Bediako could be issues of identity and the pre-Christian seen as inappropriately exercising his past in Africa. In this analysis Wage- personal judgement such that he acts naar is certainly sympathetic to the at odds with his prevailing theological basic thrust of Bediako’s work, though ethos. he notices an underlying, unresolved This, however, is a far too simplistic explanation. Wagenaar’s critique speaks of a general attitude of acceptance being circumvented at the point 23 H Wagenaar, ‘Theology, Identity and the Pre-Christian Past: A Critical Analysis of Dr. K. Bediako’s Theology from a Frisian Per- spective’, International Review of Mission, 24 Wagenaar, ‘Theology, Identity and the LXXXVIII/351 (Oct 1999), pp. 364-380. Pre-Christian Past’, p. 369. Learning from the African Experience 41 of practical interaction by a general Hiebert’s model, we are unable to fully attitude of, at best, ambivalence. This investigate. It is appropriate therefore point is strengthened when we note to search for an alternative model that Wagenaar’s discovery that practical provides some assistance. examples do not abound in Bediako’s work. In fact, it is necessary to trawl through Bediako’s writings to find Kaplan and a Continuum them. This makes it all the more Interestingly Kaplan strikes this same notable that amongst this scarcity of problem when he examines the ques- examples Bediako demonstrates a gen- tion of the Africanization of missionary eral approach conversant with a criti- Christianity. A key consideration for cal and negative attitude. The implica- him was the inadequacy of blanket tions of this are significant. It implies terms, such as ‘adaptation’ and ‘incar- that Bediakos’ theoretical construct nation’, for analytical purposes. He does not carry through into his real life found that such terms tended to hide analysis, that there is an essential dis- more than they revealed, as indeed was parity between his theory and practice. the case with Hieberts’ generic This is just one explanation of the approach. Kaplans’ typological analy- Wagenaar analysis though. Another sis therefore eschewed the generic possible explanation lies in the con- style represented by Hiebert for a more tention that Hiebert’s explanation of extensive set of categorisations, in his critical contextualisation is an inade- case dividing contextualisation into six quate tool for this investigation. His primary adaptation modes.25 approach is useful as a means for His approach is essentially histori- describing the general approach Bedi- cal, depicting the various modes mis- ako utilises, but it is perhaps insuffi- sionaries have employed for their ciently nuanced to allow for analysis engagement with the local context. It beneath the level of theoretical frame- is noticeable that, in his argument, work. If this were the case, then what he is presenting does not consti- Hiebert’s approach would seem to tute a plurality of postures. On the con- struggle to critique adequately its own trary, it represents a continuum run- adherents as the level of application shifts from the general to the specific. ning from the naïve attitude of ‘tolera- One plausible explanation for such a tion’ through to the most sophisticated weakness lies in the lack of mecha- mode of ‘incorporation’. This final nisms Hiebert provides for analysing adaptation mode is a very provocative how critical contextualisation is actu- suggestion in light of the modern mis- ally engaged. His model is a good sionary movement. Through it he sug- example of a simple explanatory model gests an African incorporation into the that lacks the ability to fully dialogue biblical story on a par with western with its own case studies. Nonetheless Wagenaar’s critique has highlighted a significant potential problem with Bediako’s argument 25 Steven Kaplan, ‘The Africanization of that, under the framework provided by Missionary Christianity’, p. 167. 42 Alan Thomson incorporation into it.26 nonetheless proceeds from an inher- While African theologians certainly ently western perspective. Upkong agree with this contention, there exists argues persuasively that while philo- a subtle problem with Kaplan’s state- sophic concepts are an essential foun- ment of it. Justin Upkong pinpoints the dation for doing theology, this does not matter in a very interesting commen- necessarily imply the validity of a sys- tary. In his analysis he tackles two tematic philosophical approach. streams of inculturation theology that Upkong’s arguments are important he deems inadequate when applied to considerations here because Kaplan, in the African context.27 The pertinent advocating the ‘incorporation’ mode of stream for our purposes is labelled the adaptation, relies on the work of ‘philosophic’ approach. He character- Placide Temples.30 In Placide’s analy- izes this as an inculturation process sis, he notes that ‘Jamaa represents a predicated on the application of a philo- reinterpretation rather than a mere sophical system. Upkong uses an restatement of the Christian mes- applied example to argue against this sage’,31 and that ‘The numerous stream, that example being the process African concepts and teachings incor- Placide Temples describes in his book porated into the Jamaa belief system Bantu Philosophy.28 and ritual … are held to be of universal Upkong objects to this process for value and to be worthy of incorporation two major reasons. The first is that it into the wider church’.32 The key words does not adequately deal with the exi- here are ‘reinterpretation’ and ‘incor- gencies of the African situation, failing poration’. Kaplan views their interac- to offer a holistic solution to both the tion as resulting in a shift from ‘… an religious and secular sensibilities of attempt to express existing Christian the African context.29 The second is ideas in an African idiom…’ to a mind- that while it seeks to present an set where ‘… the Jamaa seeks to African philosophic alternative, it express new truths’.33 Clearly this aim is lauded by Upkong, although the process Kaplan envisages as bringing it about does not, 26 Research conducted in 1990-1992 in in Upkong’s eyes, develop a truly Malawi demonstrates the great difficulties Africans are having in comprehending this; African Christian understanding. refer Kenneth Ross, ‘Preaching in Main- Indeed it cannot, as it proceeds from an stream Christian Churches in Malawi: A Sur- vey and Analysis’, Journal of Religion in Africa, XXV/1 (Feb 1995), pp. 3-24. 27 Upkong, ‘Towards a Holistic Approach to 30 See his discussion Kaplan, ‘The African- Inculturation Theology’, pp. 100-124. ization of Missionary Christianity’, pp. 180- 28 Upkong, ‘Towards a Holistic Approach to 182. Inculturation Theology’, p. 102. 31 Kaplan, ‘The Africanization of Missionary 29 See also Zablon Nthamburi, ‘Toward Indi- Christianity’, p. 181. genization of Christianity in Africa: A Missio- 32 Kaplan, ‘The Africanization of Missionary logical Task’, International Bulletin of Mission- Christianity’, p. 182. ary Research, 13/3 (Jul 1989), p. 114 for a sim- 33 Kaplan, ‘The Africanization of Missionary ilar point. Christianity’, p. 182. Learning from the African Experience 43 inherently western foundation—that proceeded from missio Dei, then the of engaging theological concerns need to understand it through the through a dichotomous philosophic western frame of reference is circum- system that looks only to the religious vented for Africans.37 God is about a categories of life rather than life in its new work and it is more important to holistic understanding.34 understand this than it is to compre- Space does not permit a full discus- hend the historical process of trans- sion of this very interesting critique, mission that gave rise to it. In fact, particularly given its implications for understanding it through primarily western theological processes. How- western categories potentially robs the ever, one general point is pertinent to universal church of important new this discussion. Upkong’s analysis is understandings. Bediako represents possible because of the historical one theologian keen to highlight this. development that has occurred in As Bediako notes, ‘… the divine initia- African theological thinking.35 His cri- tive that precedes and anticipates his- tique was foreshadowed in the works torical mission, concedes the salvific of Lamin Sanneh. In 1983 Sanneh value of local religions.’,38 a very wrote a perceptive article in which he provocative suggestion in western promulgated a distinctively African eyes. view of recent theological and missio- Here we have now travelled full cir- 36 logical history in Africa. His central cle and returned to one of Bediako’s thesis was that Africa is coming of age dominating themes, the essential in the ongoing outworking of the uni- nature of African primal religions in versal gospel message. Sanneh argues understanding African Christian iden- that western mission history in Africa tity. In the process, we have arrived at actually represented an active engage- a much better understanding of his ment with the missio Dei, rather than underpinning logic. What has been just the imperialistic, western ethno- gained in the discussion above is an centric Christian enterprise it is often important insight. Upkong’s implied portrayed as. critique of Kaplan’s position is founded If indeed the African engagement upon a deeper layer of theological engagement with African culture than previous contextual models have allowed for. Sanneh lights the way by 34 Ben Knighton, ‘The meaning of God’, pp. 120-121, notes the difficulties posed by language even before philosophic categories of discussion can proceed. 35 Zablon Nthamburi, ‘Toward Indigeniza- 37 Bediako deals with Sanneh’s thesis quite tion of Christianity in Africa’, for example, extensively in his article ‘Translatability and notes that in African religious history Placide the Cultural Incarnations of the Faith’, Tempels and E. W. Smith ‘… were an excep- Scherer, J.A., and Bevans, S.B., eds, New tion in an age or [sic] rhetorical misrepresen- Directions in Mission and Evangelization 3: tation of African beliefs’, p. 114. Faith and Culture (New York, Orbis, 1999), pp. 36 Sanneh, ‘The Horizontal and the Vertical 146-158. in Mission’, pp. 165-171. 38 Bediako, ‘Translatability’, p. 170. 44 Alan Thomson noting that the African engagement categories provides for analytical arose from western participation in approaches that Kaplan’s construct missio Dei, ushering in a qualitatively did not allow for. different Christian experience, an When Bediako’s theology is com- experience akin to the gospel bursting pared with the six models Bevans out- the wineskins of Judaic election in lines, some very helpful results order to reap a harvest in fertile Gen- emerge. What is immediately and tile fields.39 Kaplan saw this change but explicitly clear is that Bediako uses lacked a full understanding of its radi- translation terminology to define his cality relative to western theological stance. This can be seen, for example, processes. when he speaks of ‘… the critical notion that the Christian faith is capable of “translation” into African terms Stephen Bevans without injury to its essential con- Upkong’s proposed solution to the tent’.41. This is an immediate indicator problem provides an important clue as that Bevans’ Translation Model is per- to where we may be able to find another haps the most appropriate framework suitable modular approach to continue to begin with. The parallels between our analysis of Bediako. Upkong con- Bediako and the Translation model are tinues his analysis by going on to advo- in fact numerous and explicit. cate what he calls a Sociological- From the start Bediako is deeply Anthropological Approach—an concerned to note the importance of approach based on what Stephen language in the developing theology of Bevans calls a praxis model.40 Bevans the African continent, noting that ‘… promulgates a very interesting typo- the possession of the Christian Scrip- logical framework. Instead of envisag- tures in African languages … be ing a continuum, he is quite explicit in regarded as the single most important advocating a plurality of options for element of the Western missionary ‘adaptation’, or, in Bevan’s own lan- legacy in Africa …’ He goes on then to guage, for engaging in contextual the- comment that ‘This … ensured that a ology. Importantly, his typological deep and authentic dialogue would breakdown of contextual theology ensue between the gospel and African avoids the simplicity that rendered tradition … in the categories of local 42 Hiebert’s model uninformative, while languages, idioms and world-views.’ his inclusion of avowedly non-western This expresses the heart of the translation model, the gospel, conceived of as a supracultural kernel, being trans-

39 Setiloane’s poetry vividly captures the pathos of the historical transmission. Refer 41 Bediako, ‘Understanding African Theol- Edward Schroeder, ‘Lessons for Westerners ogy’, p. 14. from Setiloane’s Christology’, Mission Studies, 42 Bediako, ‘Understanding African Theol- 4/II-2 (1985), pp. 8-14, esp. pp. 11-12. ogy’, p. 17. Lamin Sanneh, ‘The Horizontal 40 Upkong, ‘Towards a Holistic Approach’, and the Vertical in Mission’, pp. 166-167 is pp. 107-121. also quite explicit about this. Learning from the African Experience 45 lated through a process of dynamic depicts Bediako’s approach when he equivalence into the receiving culture. notes, ‘… the real work involves dig- A very interesting aspect of Bedi- ging deep into the history and tradition ako’s approach, in light of the transla- of the culture itself, “for it is primarily tion model, is the starting point advo- there that the treasure is found”’44 and cated by Bevans. He depicts adherents later ‘… while acceptance of Chris- of this model as beginning from the tianity might challenge a particular perspective of a supracultural husk culture, it would not radically change that is applicable across all contexts. it’.45 It is clear from these examples This is not an immediately obvious dis- that Bediako is also utilising what tinctive of Bediako’s approach. Bedi- Bevans describes as the Anthropologi- ako certainly does uphold the supra- cal Model. cultural nature of the gospel message. As a preliminary observation it is However, his methodological approach important to note that Bevans is not entirely consistent with what acknowledges the often fluid nature of Bevans suggests an adherent of the the situations theologians face. In view translation model would adopt. of this he explicitly recognizes that the Bediako, in fact, begins with the models he presents actually represent African search for identity, the need for a plurality, and are therefore inclusive an authentically African expression of in nature, with theologians able to the Christian faith. In essence it is per- exhibit aspects of more than one sonal and communal experience that is model.46 Certainly Bediako represents driving Bediako’s theological search. an excellent example of precisely this When we consider his perspective on approach. It should be noted here African primal religions, that they are though, that Bevans does not go on to preparatory for the gospel, it becomes delineate how such an approach might clear that Bediako is methodologically work in practice, nor does he engage in outworking the Anthropological Model discussion of any fundamental incom- Bevans describes. As Bevans notes, patibilities between the models. These ‘… the practitioner of the anthropolog- are important issues that bear further ical model looks for God’s revelation analysis and consideration, although and self-manifestation as it is hidden to do so here would move beyond the within the values, relational patterns, scope of our purposes so such discus- 43 and concerns of a context.’ sion is deferred to another time. Like the Translation Model so too In terms of how these two models the Anthropological model has numer- interact in Bediako’s analysis, we can ous points of connection with Bedi- ako’s theology, though this time in terms of his theological methodology. So, for instance, Bevans accurately 44 Bevans, Models of Contextual Theology, p. 56-57, finishing with a quote from Rush. 45 Bevans, Models of Contextual Theology, p. 57. 43 Bevans, Models of Contextual Theology, p. 46 Bevans, Models of Contextual Theology, p. 56. 139. 46 Alan Thomson note that on the one hand he is dedi- Under the aegis of these two models cated to the supracultural nature of the it is easy to see that the apparently gospel message. However, on the other dichotomous behaviour Wagenaar dis- hand, he is equally dedicated to the cerns is, in fact, the focal point of a fun- notion that African primal culture is damental clash of models in Bediako’s fundamentally good in a religious theology. While theoretically the inter- sense, containing within it a very high penetration of these two models, under level of preparation for the gospel mes- Bevans’ magnanimous gaze, is merely sage.47 At first sight this presents a sig- a feature of the pluralistic nature of the nificant tension, a point between which contextual models he puts forward, in adherents of the Translation model practice the interaction between one and the Anthropological model osten- and the other is manifestly wrought sibly clash. Wagenaar, as noted above, with complex tensions. In Bediako’s depicted just such a fundamental ten- case the tension lies unresolved, sion within Bediako’s writings. although Wagenaar does note a recent On the one hand he is open to the softening in Bediako’s approach. This theological importance of the African softening can legitimately be stated as primal religions and cultures, while on the Anthropological model’s more cul- the other he is highly critical of key turally engaging language of recogni- aspects of these religions and cultures tion replacing the Translation model’s when they engage with the gospel at tendency towards an asserted, propo- specific points. Restated in terms of sitional interaction in Bediako’s Bevans’ models, this is an expression work.49 of a clash between Bediako’s methodology, founded upon the Anthropologi- cal model predisposing him to a posi- Implications tive understanding of culture, and his This paper has taken the opportunity theological construct, operating from to investigate several models of con- within a Translation model framework, textual theology through a case study leading him to hold a suspicious and methodology, in this instance by exam- critical attitude to engagement with ining the work of an individual African cultural practices. It is perhaps this theologian. Three key types of models tension that prompts Wagenaar to were examined. The first was the comment: ‘Reading Bediako’s work, I generic model advocated by Hiebert, constantly experienced a tension which provided a broad descriptive between the critical African theologian framework of contextual theologising. and the traditional biblical evange- While certainly useful at this general list.’48 level it lacked the ability to engage and critique at the level of the particular. This weakness severely limits the use-

47 See also Jehu-Appiah, ‘The African Indigenous Churches’, pp. 410-420. 48 Wagenaar, ‘Theology, Identity and the 49 Wagenaar, ‘Theology, Identity and the Pre-Christian Past’, p. 373. Pre-Christian Past’, p. 373. Learning from the African Experience 47 fulness of the model as an analytical in this direction but, up to now, west- tool in the contemporary theological ern theologians have paid insufficient climate, a climate in which the particu- attention to this issue.50 lar is increasingly emphasised. The third model examined was that The next model examined was that of Stephen Bevans, which proved to be of the typological continuum presented the most useful analytical tool exam- by Kaplan. While more focused on the ined by this paper. When applied to a particular, it too struggled to provide a particular context, it managed to convincing explanation of the specific describe both the generic theological case study being analysed. In large processes being undertaken while con- part this was a result of an inherent currently providing a means by which western philosophical bias present the validity and usefulness of these within its framework, a bias rejected by processes could be examined. ‘Models African theologians as not being par- of Contextual Theology’ is therefore an ticularly relevant to their context. This excellent example of a modular has significant implications for the way approach to contextual theology that is the West interacts with an African, or both built around particular case stud- indeed any Two-Thirds world, theolo- ies and validated by reference to spe- gian. On the face of it, from a western cific case studies. It therefore stands perspective, it can be said that as a significant milestone in the con- Kaplan’s construction of his contin- tinuing development of our under- uum seemed a very plausible and standing of contextual theologising. authentically African attempt at con- Having briefly noted some of the textual theologising, one that implications arising out of this paper, markedly stretched the western theo- regarding the modular approach to logical comfort zone. contextual theology, there remains but From an African perspective, how- one further set of implications to note. ever, the framework Kaplan offered The interaction of models and case was still built upon a western founda- studies can, and should properly be, a tion. It may have stretched to the very two-way dialogue. The preceding edge of that foundation, becoming an implications arose out of a dialogue in uncomfortable prospect for western which the model under consideration theologians, but it never actually chal- was analysed in relation to its validity lenged those foundations. For many and usefulness for a specific case African theologians though it is pre- study. We need not stop here, for we cisely these foundations that are the problem. For them the western philo- can reverse the direction of dialogue sophic approach is too narrow a plat- form upon which to build a truly biblical framework for theologising in the 50 There are some notable exceptions; for African context. The question this nat- example Lesslie Newbigin provides an excel- urally raises is whether or not the lent challenge of western philosophic foundations in all of his later works and Charles Kraft western foundations are in fact suffi- is increasingly looking provocatively at issues cient for western theological pur- of relationship and spiritual power in contex- poses? Some work is being undertaken tualization. 48 Alan Thomson and consider the implications these els. This is by no means a given. The models have for the case study, in this differences between the Translation instance Kwame Bediako’s theological and Anthropological models are signif- processes. icant and should not be readily over- Arguably the most important looked. At a crude level these differ- insight to emerge is the need for indi- ences are analogous to the quite sig- vidual theologians to properly under- nificant differences between the understand the theoretical foundation upon standings of revelation and theology which they stand. From Bediako’s plaguing Evangelical and Ecumenical writings it does not seem as if the ten- interactions. In key respects these sions highlighted by Wagenaar were positions can be broadly categorised as the result of a self-conscious stance; stemming from a Translation versus rather it appears as if they have Anthropological model difference of emerged as a product of the process by perspective. which Bediako engaged his culture Without seeking to weigh Bediako with the gospel. It is only once they with the heavy weight of expectation it were examined through a grid, such as is perhaps not impertinent to suggest that provided by Bevans, that their that the struggle we find present in source and full implications became Bediako’s theology reflects a much clear. In this instance the application broader malaise in the current study of of modular contextual theology pro- contextual theology. Resolving this vides a mechanism by which the theo- malaise is not likely to be a fast or com- logical foundations and processes of a fortable process. Nonetheless, as indi- theologian can be further refined, or, viduals grapple with these issues in perhaps, maintained, though now in an their local contexts, it is to be hoped explicitly self-conscious manner. that significant insights will emerge Having said this, it must be noted and, perhaps, over time, a consensus that this is no simple process. Examin- will develop. Whether this is a consen- ing Bediako through Bevans’ eyes has sus of an acceptable plurality or the been instructive, although the positive emergence of a dominant methodology evaluation implicit in the foregoing is less important than the ongoing analysis is predicated upon a particu- spread of the gospel of Jesus Christ to lar view of Bevans’ models. This view and through the cultures of our world. can be summarised as Bevans’ con- Bediako, for one, is certainly a theolo- tention that there exists a true plural- gian worthy of engaging such a task ity amongst the models he presents, and we look forward to watching how and that one can in fact mix the mod- his theology develops from here. ERT (2006) 30:1, 49-59 Biblical Hermeneutics in Relation to Conventions of Language Use in Africa: Pragmatics Applied to Interpretation in Cross-cultural Context

Jim Harries

KEYWORDS: Missiology, discourse tics (SIL) and its associates in Bible analysis, Luo people, Bible transla- translation have undoubtedly done an tion, African theology, spiritual war- impressive job in taking the Scriptures fare. into diverse languages around the world. Somewhat in close sequence to possession of Scriptures in mother DISCUSSIONS on hermeneutics have tongue, we also however find emer- rarely considered one very important gence of New Religious Movements or, factor. That is, how words are used. in the African context, AICs (African Such is the bread and butter of the aca- Indigenous Churches). We can ask our- demic disciplines of pragmatics and selves why such apparently non- or discourse analysis. I would like to con- marginally orthodox movements are so sider the implications of this in today’s quick to emerge if the translation ‘shrinking’ world, especially in rela- process has been so successful? It tion to biblical interpretation and would seem that indigenous people do Christian teaching and mission in not always come to understand or Africa. apply (i.e. use) the Scriptures ‘as they The Summer Institute of Linguis- should’.

Jim Harries, who has worked in Zambia and then Kenya since 1988, is Interim Academic Dean, Kima International School of Theology, Maseno, Kenya, and Coordinator of the Yala Theological Centre. Now working on a PhD in Missions with Birmingham University, he holds degrees in Agricultural Technology, Education and Rural Development, and an MA in Biblical Interpretation from the London School of Theology. He is a fluent speaker of Kiswahili and Dholuo and has earlier written on different aspects of mission, including The Magical Worldview in the African Church (Missology October 2000). 50 Jim Harries

Scriptures Boost Traditional • That strange looking nuclear fami- Beliefs ly need no longer be our model for Christian living, as the Old A good clue as to why this should be is Testament is replete with examples given by Sanneh, who points out that of big men having multiple wives. far from the translation of scriptures being a means of oppressing ‘tradi- • Confusing teachings on science and tional cultures’, it very often results in physical causality need no longer their revival!1 On careful consideration be taken seriously, as numerous this should not surprise us as Bible biblical examples make it clear that translators into mother-tongues are of at the root of suffering and misfor- course ‘forced’ to use terms that tune is no less than ketho kwer, already have deep and wide roots in the which we (i.e. the Luo) know to be pre-existing way of life. Finding such in breaking the laws handed down by written form in a book said to have our ancestors. originated in God himself is likely to be a boost to traditional rituals and practices, now given official Christian legit- Lip Service not Matched by imacy and sanction. It is ironic that Action! churches and their Bible teaching, Some of the above is old hat to missiol- often considered to be destructive of ogists. Although it must be said—it is traditional cultures, are shown by San- deceptive in its penetration and power. neh as being rather the refuge for the That is, while a missiologist may give latter! lip service and recognition to the A few example of how this works in above, his/her mind gravitates back to the Luo language of Western Kenya his own roots when giving a morning written from an indigenous African devotion or preparing a message to perspective, may illustrate this point: share at the Sunday service. (Such • ‘Holy Communion’ is a new, foreign ‘gravitating back’ can, in my view, be and no doubt powerful white-man’s avoided to some extent if a non-west- ritual but becomes sap ruoth—a ern language is used.) The same of memorial celebration for a departed course happens in our theological sem- Luo chief. inaries that are dominated by western •‘God’ who was a mysterious texts and inputs. In other words, even ambivalent fellow originating in the degree of recognition of what hap- distant parts of the globe who one pens once the Scriptures are indi- can barely fathom, is now clearly genised has much less impact than it identified as Nyasaye—the very ‘ought’ when it comes to their main- life-force that has guided our peo- stream interpretation and application ple for generations. in the church. The question is being asked as to why theological education around the 1 Lamin Sanneh, Translating the Message: continent of Africa continues to be in the missionary impact on culture (New York: English, French and Afrikaans despite Orbis Books, 1989), p. 83. the availability of vernacular Bibles, Biblical Hermeneutics in Relation to Conventions of Language Use in Africa 51 and despite the fact that living astutely aware of issues concerning churches on the continent mostly oper- language use. This is considered in ate in African languages?2 This is an detail in the discipline of pragmatics, important question. Its answer, at the which is an important theoretical foun- moment I suspect, has more to do with dation for this work.3 economic power than reasoned theology. Seminaries will continue to be in cloud–land, considering sets of ques- The Folly of Inter-sport tions foreign to peoples’ experience, Language until this question is addressed. A good illustration to help a monolin- Teaching in cloud-land may not be gual person to understand the dilem- so bad in itself. But we need to remem- mas that arise when we take account of ber that students at such seminaries pragmatics is to think of sport. The are trying to apply what they are English-speaking world knows of taught. Being unfamiliar with deep lex- many sports and games. Each one has ical and cultural implications of even its own vocabulary! In cricket we have commonly used English words, our out, over, run and innings. In football we African students assume ‘new’ English have goal, defence, a shot and a free kick. words to be equal to African equiva- lents. (There are, of course, also many In tennis we have a set, a match, a rac- other reasons as to why what is taught quet and a serve. Now imagine that in seminaries may not be very practical these games represent different peo- for the African context. This much dis- ples with distinct languages. One peo- cussed area is not the major focus of ple and language of tennis, one of foot- this essay.) As a result, applying semi- ball and one of cricket. nary knowledge becomes at least dis- If a football player says to a cricket ruptive, at worst catastrophic for the player that he scored a goal, the cricket church. player won’t have a clue what he is As in many areas of cross-cultural talking about. So the football player activity, lip service is these days often must learn the language of the cricket given to vast existing cultural differ- player. Instead of reporting that he ences. Implementing such lip-service scored a goal, the football player must becomes the difficult next step that is say that he got a run. But hang on, you rarely taken, especially by monolin- may say, a goal is not the same as a guists (or monoculturalists). More run! And that is exactly the problem! serious issues lie under the surface. Then it comes to be the turn for the Scholars have recently become cricket player to explain to a football

2 Tinyiko Sam Maluleke, ‘African Chris- 3 For more details, see Stephen C. Levin- tianity, the Bible and Theology’, in Gosnell son, Pragmatics (Cambridge Text Books in Lin- L.O.R. Yorke and Peter M. Renju (editors), guistics) (Cambridge: Cambridge University Bible Translation and African Languages Press, 1983) and Geoffrey H. Leech, Principles (Nairobi: Acton Publishers, 2004), pp. 161- of Pragmatics (London and New York: Long- 176. man 1983). 52 Jim Harries player that the ball hit the wicket, and accordingly. If I play football I say thus he was out. Football fields do not ‘good goal’, whereas if I play cricket I have wickets, but do have goal posts, say ‘good run’, and there is no confu- and players are not knocked out, but sion. the ball can go out. So from saying the We would of course never be so fool- ball hit the wicket and the player was ish to teach someone the language of a out, we get the ball hit the goal post sport without also teaching them how and went out—in other words a corner that language is used and the rules of was awarded! Having a corner the game. There is no ‘inter-sport’ lan- awarded in a football match is quite dif- guage. Every sport, has its own lan- ferent from a batsman walking out at guage. Note that even if the same the end of his innings. And that is word(s) are used in different sports, exactly the problem! the way they are used and their mean- In tennis a powerful serve that hits ing varies significantly! A football the net has to be retaken, as it is player, a rugby player and a cricket counted a failure. In explaining this to fielder can all ‘catch the ball’, but for a football player, the tennis player is the football payer it is a foul, for the forced to say ‘powerful shot’ instead of rugby player very normal, and for the ‘a powerful serve’. When the football cricket player means that the batsman player hears that the powerful shot has is out! put the ball into the net, he may rejoice Anyone inventing an ‘inter-sport’ at this, leaving the tennis player language would be laughed out of askance! town! So why don’t we laugh when Those examples (that could be mul- English is used as an international lan- tiplied many times) are powerful illus- guage? Perhaps we ought to laugh trations of translation blunders which more, or cry! In fact, the impracticality I face constantly here in Africa. Such of such ‘inter-sport’ sharing of wisdom things happen constantly when Eng- illustrates why western theology intro- lish and African people converse. They duces confusion into the African are also what I find in the essays written by African students using English. church and why it is actually often best African students using English write for an African theological student to like a cricket player who is used to learn not to apply what he/she has been describing a cricket match using the taught. terminology of football. When I mark the essay using my knowledge of foot- Language is Meaningful only ball, I see all the familiar terms being used. The terms do not seem to be used in Use in the right way, but I give the writer We are now beginning to delve below the benefit of the doubt and give him a the tip of the proverbial iceberg in grade as I hardly want to be accused of terms of language usage and being biased. hermeneutics. A raft of issues regard- But does this analogy of sport hold ing daily language practice now need up? After all, one person can learn to to be unearthed. play many different sports, and adjust The ongoing concealment of these Biblical Hermeneutics in Relation to Conventions of Language Use in Africa 53 issues is rooted in false conceptions of ably no bad friend. A husband and wife the nature of language. These concep- can be ‘friends of mine’, but the wife is tions that have spread around the definitely not ‘my friend’ although I world helped by western economies ‘am friendly’ (in moderation) whenever appear to be rooted in notions of Greek I meet her. philosophy and of the enlightenment. There are clearly acceptable and The misconceptions suppose that lan- unacceptable, advisable and ill advised guage is a bridge between a person and ways of using the word friend. To give a physical and social world ‘out there’. a definition of friend is far from ade- Because, barring a few variations in quate to enable understanding of the climate and skin colour, the physical use of the word. In fact, appropriate and social worlds appear to be the detailed knowledge of uses of the word same around the world, and so also ‘friend’ clearly arises from a compre- language. As a result, it is supposed, hension of all factors pertaining to that as I talk to my mother about issues relationships within a community! affecting my neighbours and friends, I How often does this apply? am doing what young men do the world ‘Christians do not greet each other over. by saying “how are you” but by saying But do they? In this instance clearly “Praise the Lord”’, an old lady told me not in today’s world. Many urban in a Luo village (translation from dwellers have little clue as to the lives Dholuo). So on meeting a fellow Chris- of their neighbours, and are caught up tian, while being unsure as to whether in media presentations of what should one has already greeted them, one can be live-issues, and networks of friends ask, ‘ase pako kodi ruoth?’, being, ‘Have rooted less and less in geographical I already praised with you the Lord?’ proximity. But what then are friends? meaning, ‘Have I greeted you yet (this ‘She is my friend’ is a phrase all men morning)’? Again, knowing the mean- know to use with caution (except of ing of ruoth opaki will give an English- their wives) even within the confines of man little idea of its use. western English. Men need to be very The common western conception careful how they even express them- that words are there to prepare for a selves regarding fellow men, as ‘we doing, well illustrated by the wide- had a friendly time together’ can be spread use of behavioural objectives in quickly misunderstood, and men hold- educational curriculum planning,4 ing hands as they walk is similarly seems to fly in the face of Austin’s real- quickly interpreted to mean something ization that we do things with words, that Africans who do this habitually and that applies really to all words!5 are shocked by! ‘My friend’ I am often told in African uses of English as a pre- lude to an uninhibited blunt request for funds by a complete stranger. ‘He is my 4 For example, see Gary A. Davis, Educa- friend’ is stronger than ‘he is a friend tional Psychology Theory and Practice (London: Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, 1983), of mine’, and then we have, ‘he is just pp. 305-329. a friend’. A good friend implies that you 5 J. L. Austin, How to do Things with Words have been helped, but there is presum- (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1962), p. 52. 54 Jim Harries

What are the implications of such a dis- is, will say ‘a little bit’, thereby covery, if indeed it is true that the role acknowledging that his life-force level of words is not primarily in meaning but is low. In African thinking, salvation is in doing? Why should I pay attention to a boost or guarantee to that life-force. a word anyway, if it is not going to do This is why a saved person cannot pos- anything for me? sibly get sick, and why salvation is con- The reason the relationship sidered an ongoing or frequently between meaning and doing seems to repeated experience. (I am aware that be confused in the western worldview in saying this many westerners will would seem to be connected to the pre- consider me in theological error. Yet I eminence of a mechanical perception of am saying that this is a natural and log- the world. A carburettor by itself does ical conclusion if the Bible is read in nothing, but knowing its place in an many African languages.) Again, engine and knowing where to put other African people are noted for their lik- similarly ‘useless’ bits, results in a ing of long church services, as those powerful driving force. So words are many words continue to add to force taken as meaning things that only ‘do’ levels. Any absence of a morality iden- something when correctly combined tified in African Christianity7 clearly with other words. arises through words being valued for what they do, and not in constructing Ringing Bells in the African an understanding that can later be con- Theology Department sidered to be moral. Examples of profound differences in What would be the implication of the word usage’s between cultures can absence of such a mechanical world- easily be multiplied. I can put my finger view? That is, of a worldview where at random in a dictionary to find words, there is no perception of postponed and explain how usage of those word doing? In a sense we are here referring differs between African (Luo) and to Mbiti’s much maligned suggestion 8 that in Africa there is no future.6 Western (British) cultures: Instead of taking words as meaning • I find the word ‘mistrust’. This word things which later in some elaborate is often used to malign a fellow complexity do some doing, every word westerner but in the Africa that I is expected to be un-postponed doing. know this word is ‘normal’. An accumulation in the doing-ness of Peoples’ hearts being by default many words is what results in the desirable way of being. Some bells should here be being rung in the African theology depart- 7 See for example Keith Ferdinando, ‘Bibli- ment! In many African languages cal Concepts of Redemption and African Per- someone who is sick, if asked how he spectives of the Demonic’ (Unpublished PhD thesis, Council for National Academic Awards, London Bible College, UK, 1992), p. 284. 8 I have used Carole A. Capen 1998, Bilin- 6 John S. Mbiti, African Religions and Philos- gual Dholuo—English Dictionary Kenya (Tuc- ophy (London: Heinemann, 1969), pp. 15-22. son, Arizona 1998). Biblical Hermeneutics in Relation to Conventions of Language Use in Africa 55

guided by ‘bad’ forces,9 makes mis- Conventional Hermeneutics trust the default position. Falls Far Short in the Cross- •‘Bullet’ is in English a thing that Cultural Environment! hits another, hence a bulletin board So what is the relation of the above to brings information and an innocent the discipline of hermeneutics? In the person can be found by a bullet cross-cultural sense, I hope I have from a gun. A bullet ( in lisasi made it clear that the numerous Dholuo, from Kiswahili) in Africa detailed considerations dealt with implies that your fate has caught under the heading of hermeneutics, up with you. The bullet wouldn’t even though they may all be important, have hit you if you hadn’t erred in are only a small part of the interpreta- your relationship with the forces of tional differences one is faced with in a the universe, for example by saying cross-cultural environment. Ignoring the wrong thing to someone or differences in language usage has been breaking a taboo. (Many scholars a primary cause of unsuspected have pointed out that in Africa shocks, causing AICs to emerge from death, as also suffering, is always mission churches.12 caused by sorcery, spirits or a Two further examples can serve to 10 curse.) emphasize the point. Take the words of •‘Self-love’ is a desirable feature nec- Ezekiel 31:6a: ‘All the birds of the air essary for being able to love others nested in its boughs’ (NIV). I think of in western thinking, but must be the words of an old lady who is my bad in the Luo way of thinking as it neighbour in my African village home. implies a reduced investment to the Her late husband liked trees, and common good. Mbiti goes so far as therefore preserved many of them and to suggest that love is a rarely used planted others on his land. This has word in Africa.11 resulted in our having many songbirds In conclusion we can say that, in a all around us. I rejoice in the dawn cho- different culture, every word is used dif- rus, but ‘winyogo goyona koko’ ferently! (Dholuo) said the old lady, literally translatable as ‘those birds hit me with their din’ or ‘these many birds disturb me with their unpleasant noise’. I have at times spotted the old lady chasing away owls from her house at 5.00 in the morning, as owls are said to bring 9 Note the popularity in Africa of the book, death to the home. She is cutting down Moyo wa Binadamu (English = ‘The heart of trees as fast as she can, partly so as to man’). Moyo wa Binadamu (Arusha: Kituo cha reduce the bird population. Her use of Maandiko Habari Maalum—Kimahama, 1996). 10 John S. Mbiti, Introduction to African Reli- gion ( Second Edition) (Nairobi: East African 12 Application is of course much wider to Educational Publishers Ltd., 1991), p. 117. many fields of human knowledge that are com- 11 Mbiti, African Religion, p. 38. municated cross-culturally. 56 Jim Harries the term ‘bird’ shows that to this lady ried away implies a severe reduction in ‘birds’ are akin to devils. Understand- power. Although, given African peo- ing this remarkable change of use of a ple’s meeting with modernity, this common word can be ascertained only ‘power’ now resembles what we in by attention to use of language, or a western English call ‘technology’ and knowledge of culture. could be computers, cameras and video Turning to 2 Chronicles 36:18a: ‘He machines. carried to Babylon all the articles from I believe that these examples fall the Temple of God, both large and outside of the breadth of conventional small…’ The picture that this brings to hermeneutics. They can be discovered my mind is that of an ornate Anglican only by exposure to language in use, church with numerous crosses, candle- that is of course inherently related to sticks and items of historical interest; culture. this of course being informed by my Many stark differences in language- having seen numerous illustrations of use conventions arise between the ‘Temples’ in various contexts over West and the non-West. The church is many years, as well as having visited disadvantaged in its understanding of various churches of this type. I suspect the non-western world insofar as it has that an informed African interpretation been swept into the western world- could go in one of two directions. First, view. It would be supposed therefore ‘temple’ could be associated with that a church that has maintained a ‘shrines’ that some African people are ‘traditional’ theology or ecclesiology known to have as sites for making may be more able to integrate into the peace with their ancestors. Thus African way. The ‘pure westerners’ ‘ancestors’ have come strongly into the who work in Africa, such as experts in picture. The ‘articles’ have now development who work as consultants become those of African shrines— around the world, can be supposed to wooden carvings, perhaps skins, be much more seriously disabled in stones, etc. For those African people in their understanding than church work- which the priest is the household head, ers. the shrines are small and the ‘articles’ correspondingly few. Alternatively (and perhaps simultaneously) is the Biblical Interpretation in the notion of temple (in many East African Light of Language Use languages hekalu, a loan word from Arabic via Kiswahili) as a foreign thing Conventions understood by outsiders. Those out- Such differences in language usage siders have things that are very power- have wide implications for biblical ful, understood of course in holistic interpretation—that are these days all African cultures as a peculiar power of too often simply glossed over. Scrip- the gods. So we have an implicit tural passages can be examined for African understanding here that these differences. I selected Psalm appears in some ways closer to the 100:1-3 pretty much at random. I Ancient Near Eastern one, in which the believe that comparable differences in articles (in the quote above) being car- interpretation according to language- Biblical Hermeneutics in Relation to Conventions of Language Use in Africa 57 use conventions will be found through- the spiritual realm. This is because out the Bible. I look at the NIV in com- western society has many of its own paring an African with a western lan- mechanisms for physical provision. guage-use convention. … and so on. Verse 1. Shout for joy to the LORD, all The doing power of words is impor- the earth. tant in peoples’ relationship with the African people are widely known for super-human or metaphysical realm. their overt expression of ‘emotion’, God is clearly not dependent on our used as a means to bring spiritual or ‘doing’, but does value our adoration heart power, that may seem sense- (Deut. 5:9-11, Psalm 150 etc.), i.e. our less to ‘rational’ people. heartfelt words. Traditional healing Verse 2. Worship the LORD with glad- practices clearly make much use of the ness. Come before him with joyful songs. doing-power of words by using incan- The Luo have a long tradition of tations, encouragement and repeti- pakruok, which is of praising some- tions of key terms for calling on deities one, almost as a pastime. A musi- and for healing. Healing, it will be cian can be given a gift in order to noted from the above, is a restoring of sing in praise of someone. God’s vital-force levels, and not foundation- seeking praise in this way implies ally a bio-physical realignment of the that those praising him are doing so body or its parts. Herein lies the nub to in direct return for favours. much confusion between whether God ‘heals’ or not in African churches. The Verse 3. Know that the LORD is God. word ‘heal’ is clearly used differently God in the West is he who ‘fills the according to cultural context. gaps’ which are not filled by science, whereas in much of Africa this is God taking the credit for nature The Contextual Presence of and science. The latter can be known as hono (Dholuo), often ‘Spirits’ translated back into English as In the above examples and more widely ‘miracles’. the presence of bad forces or evil spirits associated with ancestors who have It is he who made us and we are his. some grudge must be remembered. Acknowledging that ‘we are his’ is a Turning to God can have a danger way of asking for help and support equivalent to that of being ‘teacher’s in exchange for obedience and ser- pet’ in my memory of my secondary vice in the patrimonial system wide- education. Playing up to the teacher spread in Africa. In western use of gives considerable advantages, but the such language, this is more a state- wise pupil always has his classmates ment of fact. (in this case the departed) in mind We are his people, the sheep of his pas- because, if he is not careful, they can ture. come to trouble him should ‘teacher’ The shepherding notion in Africa is not be looking! In practice offerings seen as provision in every sense, but and other due respect must continue to in the West primarily restricted to be given to ancestors. 58 Jim Harries

It is this constant presence and pre- We could take another illustration: sumed activity of those who were once picture the conversation between your- members of our (extended) families self as pastor and your church member that is perhaps the most difficult for whom you meet in town, if you were to westerners to understand in terms of start chatting with him, but unbe- its effect on biblical hermeneutics. In known to you he is sitting within my conception as a westerner my earshot of his mistress who up to this departed ancestors are gone. Even time has been unaware that he has a should I dream about them, this will wife and children. not trouble me in the slightest. This The situations are not helped by the does not apply to the Luo, or many currently widespread perceptions of other African people! Imagine having these ‘ancestors’ as being evil. In your late grandma watching you lie in Dholuo they are often referred to as bed, your late aunt making your child jochiende, which is also the translation sick because you have not yet sacri- for devils. ficed a chicken for her, or your great Egner is amongst those who find a uncle stopping your son from getting a routine deceptiveness in language use job. Every time you read your Bible you in Africa. She found her Ivorian friends must be thinking how what you read regularly making promises that they will help you avoid those troublesome could not possibly fulfil.14 Southall tells spirits. Whenever you talk to someone us that among the Alur people in else you must be careful as to what you Uganda there is a ‘divergence between say because the spirits are listening. stated rules and observed or even rec- Every dialogue is in effect a ‘poly- ollected behaviour and … great verbal logue’, with all that this implies.13 stress by the Alur on regularities The same applies to Bible exposi- which do not obtain in practice’.15 The tions. It is impossible to tell whether Alur’s description of their way of ruling what is said is in response to you as liv- their people was found by Southall to ing respondent, or whether it is said to be there to impress and not to be truth- please some over-hearing deceased ful. That is, they use language to cre- predecessor, or both. Taking the ate (political authority by impressing answer given to the latter as if it is people with their words) and not to meant for you can be, to say the least, describe (what actually happens)! grossly misleading: What if the ancestor has left the command: ‘always agree with the Europeans’? A Euro- Unique Language Usages pean would in such an instance be Certain uses of language may be taboo wrong to conclude that someone who ‘agreed with him/her’ actually considered him/her to be correct. 14 Inge Egner, ‘The Speech Act of Promising in an Intercultural Perspective’ (SIL Interna- tional. (accessed 8 Jan 2003). ing Polylogue’ 1-24 in Journal of Pragmatics 15 Aidan W. Southall, Alur Society: a Study in 36(2004) [PDF] (accessed 3 Dec 2003). Oxford University Press, 1970), p. 238. Biblical Hermeneutics in Relation to Conventions of Language Use in Africa 59 and unsustainable by local people. For- hardly solve the issue, because English eigners making such uses may be tol- people will see no need for the use of erated, but not imitated. As pregnant such a bewildering array of terms. women will even avoid speaking of Thus vast and critical realms of life’s their pregnancy and hide it for as long key functions can be omitted by well as possible in cultures such as that of meaning hermeneuts who are ignorant the Luo of Kenya; pastors may also do of language-use conventions. (In the the same regarding issues in their same way that, in the above example, churches. Open sharing is making one- any importance attached to reference self vulnerable to mysterious evil to different types of snow will be lost, (witchcraft) powers. so also important conventions of lan- Mismatches in vocabulary and guage usage can be lost in the course terms very easily arise cross-cultur- of translation.) ally. On first arriving in Kenya I was told that there is hardly any witchcraft Conclusion around these days. As the years went by I found the latter to be very preva- The ignoring of differences in language-use conventions is no longer lent. Perhaps it was a condemnation of acceptable in today’s world. The appar- practices such as witchcraft from the ent dominance of western culture may West that encouraged people to rede- have concealed but has not done away fine their practices so as to fall linguis- with these differences. It may give the tically outside of this much maligned deceptive impression that they are no category! A preacher’s condemnation longer there, but they are! They will of witchcraft may meet with approving not disappear overnight, if ever. Lan- nods and smiles, while the very thing guage usages are not picked up in class- he is condemning may be practised but rooms or even from textbooks but from under a different name! participation in peoples’ lives. We need The example of different types of a hermeneutics of language usages, or snow often associated with discus- we need to put hermeneutics on the sions on Sapir and Whorf’s theory of shelf for a while as we explore the language determinism illustrates the impact of the Scriptures on peoples’ possibility of whole realms of meaning living cultures. Translating the Bible and value being lost in the process of into African languages has been a valu- translation. (The language of the Eski- able exercise. Now we need Christian mos apparently has many distinct scholarship in those languages. Only terms referring to different types of thus can conventions of language use, snow. How does one deal with these with their manifold implications for distinct terms in a text if translating hermeneutics, begin to be taken into English?) Devising English equiv- account of in the derivation of non- alents for Eskimo terms for snow will western theologies. ERT (2006) 30:1, 60-85 Whither Evangelical Theology? The Work of Veli-Matti Kärkkäinen as a Case Study of Contemporary Trajectories

Amos Yong

KEYWORDS: Ecumenical theology, ing appreciation for Kärkkäinen’s the- Pentecostalism, Roman Catholic ological work had previously been reg- Church, Theology of Religion, istered in my collecting, editing, and Ecclesiology, tradition publishing a set of his essays in book form a few years ago (TPT). In the editor’s introduction to that book, I noted Introduction that Kärkkäinen was fast becoming one of the more important theologians IT was the appearance of Veli-Matti Kärkkäinen’s most recent book, One to be reckoned with in our time. He had not only already established himself as with God: Salvation as Deification and one of the leading Pentecostal voices in Justification, which occasioned the invi- the academy, but has also been work- tation to review his larger corpus in the ing hard toward an ecumenical rather pages of this journal.1 My long-stand- than merely confessional theology. In the meanwhile, the Kärkkäinen volumes which have appeared in the past 1 All references to Kärkkäinen’s books will few years have not only confirmed but be cited parenthetically; see the bibliography also added to his theological reputa- for a key to the abbreviations. My thanks to tion. David Parker, editor of ERT, for the invitation, As I reflect on Kärkkäinen’s wide- the opportunity, and the space for this extended engagement with Kärkkäinen’s ranging publications across the fields work. of ecumenical and systematic theology

Amos Yong (Ph.D., Boston University) is Associate Research Professor of Theology, Regent University School of Divinity, Virginia, USA, and a licensed minister with the Assemblies of God. He has published a number of scholarly articles and Discerning the Spirit(s): A Pentecostal-Charismatic Contribution to Christian Theology of Religions, (Sheffield, 2000); Spirit-Word-Community: Theological Hermeneutics in Trinitarian Perspective, Aldershot, UK: 2002); Beyond the Impasse: Toward a Pneumatological Theology of Religions (Baker, 2003), and The Spirit Poured Out on All Flesh: Pentecostalism and the Possibility of Global Theology (Baker, 2005). Whither Evangelical Theology? The Work of Veli-Matti Kärkkäinen 61 and more recently in theology of reli- and southern hemispheres.4 The pre- gions, I am led to ask important ques- sent configuration of evangelicalism as tions about the present and future a pluralistic and global phenomenon directions of evangelical theology. raises the question about what evan- There are actually two sides to this gelical theology is or should be as we question, one concerning the status of proceed into the twenty-first century. Kärkkäinen as an evangelical theolo- In the following pages, I wish to gian, and the other concerning the con- take up this question about evangelical tested nature of evangelical theology theology today, and do so by looking at itself. With regard to the former issue, the work of Kärkkäinen. I will argue I will shortly attempt to make the case that Kärkkäinen is an evangelical-ecu- for why Kärkkäinen qualifies as an menical-world theologian in the mak- evangelical theologian. The latter ing, and that it is, in fact, not only pos- issue, of course, is complex. The sible but even necessary that evangeli- boundaries of evangelicalism and, by cal theology move in some of the direc- extension, evangelical theology, have tions charted out by him. The next 2 always been debated. Not surpris- three sections (II-IV) look at each of ingly, some have suggested that evan- these three (evangelical, ecumenical, gelicals should focus not on boundary world) interrelated aspects of Kärkkäi- disputes but on identifying common 3 nen’s theological work, followed by a and unifying core convictions. How- critical dialogue with Kärkkäinen (V). ever, attaining agreement on what ele- I conclude in the briefer last section ments are non-negotiable and what are (VI) by asking about how Kärkkäinen’s adiaphora has proven elusive, espe- oeuvre to date also speaks to the possi- cially since the diverse evangelicalism bilities and challenges regarding the of the Euro-American west has been future of evangelical theology in the complexified with the recent growth of twenty-first century. evangelical churches in the eastern

II—Kärkkäinen as Evangelical 2 Jon R. Stone, On the Boundaries of Ameri- Theologian can Evangelicalism: The Postwar Evangelical Coalition (New York: St. Martin’s Press, Prosecution of the thesis that Kärkkäi- 1999). nen is an evangelical-ecumenical- 3 E.g., Gabriel Fackre, Restoring the Center: world theologian needs to begin with a Essays Evangelical and Ecumenical (Downers look at his evangelical credentials. Grove: InterVarsity Press, 1998), and Stanley Resistance to this could come from two J. Grenz, Renewing the Center: Evangelical The- ology in a Post-theological Era (Grand Rapids: directions. For one, Kärkkäinen has Baker Academic, 2000). identified himself first and foremost as 4 See Philip Jenkins, The Next Christendom: a ‘Pentecostal theologian’ (formerly) The Coming of Global Christianity (New York or ‘ecumenical theologian’ (more and Oxford: Oxford University Pres, 2002), recently), and much less as an ‘evan- and John M. Hitchen, ‘What It Means to Be an Evangelical Today—An Antipodean Perspec- gelical theologian’. For some evangeli- tive,’ Evangelical Quarterly, part I, 76:1 (2004): cals, the labels ‘Pentecostal’ and ‘ecu- 47-64, and part II, 76:2 (2004): 99-115. menical’ signify experientialism and 62 Amos Yong enthusiasm on the one hand and liber- faculty secretary and lecturer at the alism and diminished evangelistic zeal same institution, Kärkkäinen moved on the other hand, and these traits are with this wife, Anne-Päivi, and two considered antithetical to authentic daughters, Nelli and Maiju, to evangelical identity. At another level, Pasadena, California, and enrolled in for other more conservative evangeli- Fuller Theological Seminary’s masters cals, Kärkkäinen’s affiliation with in theological studies program. While Fuller Theological Seminary (since completing that degree (1988-1989), 2000) also puts him outside the evan- he pastored a small, independent evangelical orbit, given Fuller’s historically gelical church, the Finnish Christian more ecumenical and neo-evangelical Fellowship, in Los Angeles. Influenced reputation.5 Yet it is his location at by two prominent Pentecostal profes- Fuller that would also lead most the- sors at Fuller, Dr. Cecil M. Robeck and ologians in the academy to identify Dr. Russell Spittler,6 he took out a Kärkkäinen as an evangelical. This membership with the Society for Pen- irony provides further justification for tecostal Studies in 1988, and has us to utilize the work of Kärkkäinen as remained an active member ever a lens to explore the present state of since.7 Upon completing his work at evangelical theology and query about Fuller, Kärkkäinen returned to its future directions. I proceed to Jyväskylä where he was ordained by defend Kärkkäinen as an evangelical the Full Gospel Church, a classical theologian along three lines: through a Pentecostal denomination in Finland, biographical summary of his personal and pastored a Full Gospel Church con- and theological journey, an overview of gregation there from 1989-1991. the evangelical elements of his early In June 1991, Kärkkäinen again theological work, and a survey of his moved with his family to Thailand to more recent publishing record. work as a Full Gospel missionary at the The second of four children, Veli- Full Gospel Bible College (FGBC) in Matti was born in 1957 to Toivo and Bangkok. At FGBC, Kärkkäinen Aino Kärkkäinen who were then faithful in the Finnish Lutheran Church. During his teen years, he made a renewed commitment to the Christian 6 TPT was dedicated jointly to Robeck and faith even as the family was in the Killian McDonald. Kärkkäinen’s indebtedness process of affiliating with a small Pen- to Spittler was expressed in a festschrift essay: ‘Theology of the Cross: A Stumbling Block to tecostal congregation in his home town Pentecostal/Charismatic Spirituality?’ in of Kiuruvesi. After receiving his mas- Wonsuk Ma and Robert P. Menzies, eds., The ters in education from the University of Spirit and Spirituality: Essays in Honour of Rus- Jyväskylä (in Jyväskylä, Finland) in sell P. Spittler (London and New York: T & T 1982 and working for a few years as a Clark, 2004), pp. 150-63. 7 In 1994 and 1995, Kärkkäinen joined the European Pentecostal Theological Associa- tion and the European Pentecostal Charis- 5 George Marsden, Reforming Fundamental- matic Research Association, respectively. He ism: Fuller Seminary and the New Evangelical- remains an active member in these scholarly ism (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1995). organizations as well. Whither Evangelical Theology? The Work of Veli-Matti Kärkkäinen 63 taught a wide range of courses and also who have been able to participate over served as the college’s academic dean. the years.9 Consisting of one week of During his tenure, he learned to speak, meetings a year for five years, the dia- read, and write in Thai.8 Upon complet- logues over the first four years ing his term assignment, the Kärkkäi- included: 1) an initial phase of mutual nens returned to Finland where Veli- introduction (1972-1977); 2) many of Matti began serving at the Pentecostal the ‘hard questions’ between the two Full Gospel Iso Kirja-College (in Keu- traditions, such as glossolalia, ruu), first as professor of theology, and hermeneutics, healing, tradition and then in 1994 as president. During this experience, Mary (1977-1982); 3) an time, he matriculated at the University exploration of various topics related to of Helsinki to pursue research in ecu- the church and the communion of menical theology and dogmatics. saints (1985-1989); and 4) a discus- Kärkkäinen completed his doctorate in sion of evangelization and mission 1998—as a visiting scholar hosted and (1990-1996). Three brief comments mentored by Kilian McDonnell and the about the methodological, thematic, Institute of Ecumenical and Cultural and theological aspects of these vol- Research at St. John’s University in umes are important for our purposes. Collegeville, Minnesota—with a dis- First, the research and writing of sertation on the first three quinquennia Spiritus ubi vult spirat (‘the Spirit blows of the Roman Catholic-Pentecostal dia- where it wills’) and Ad ultimum terrae logue, and then wrote his habilitation- (‘to the ends of the earth’) emerged out schrift in 1999 focused on the fourth of Kärkkäinen’s immersion into the quinquennium of the dialogue. theological traditions of both modern Both the dissertation and the habili- Pentecostalism and the Roman tationschrift have been published (SS Catholic Church. To be sure, both vol- and AT). In these volumes Kärkkäinen umes relied heavily on the Final 10 provides a summary account of the Reports of the dialogue, the theologi- first four rounds of the dialogue cal position papers written specifically between official delegates of the for the dialogue, and the formal Roman Catholic Church and various Pentecostal scholars and theologians 9 Given that most classical Pentecostal denominations have been suspicious of the ecumenical movement, none have formally 8 Kärkkäinen also has command of Finnish, recognized the dialogue. Pentecostal partici- his mother-tongue, Swedish, the second pants have not been formal representatives of national language of Finland, and English and their churches, and usually rely not on denom- German, besides being able to read Russian, inational sources of support but on either French, Italian, Spanish, and other Scandina- institutional or private funding. vian languages, and having a working knowl- 10 The Final Reports of the first three quin- edge of the biblical and theological languages. quennia were published in PNEUMA: The Jour- He has published and continues to publish nal of the Society for Pentecostal Studies 12:2 widely in Finnish and other Scandinavian lan- (1990): 85-142; the fourth appeared in guages, especially in popular and ecclesial PNEUMA: The Journal of the Society for Pente- periodical literature. costal Studies 21:1 (1999): 3-88. 64 Amos Yong recorded dialogue notes. At the same biblical interpretation? What does time, because Kärkkäinen’s goal was Christian initiation consist of, and not just to present a descriptive what role, if any, does Spirit- and account of the dialogue but also to pro- water-baptism play in this experience vide theological analysis, he took up or process? What is the nature of the the task of mastering the growing church, and how do we understand the amount of theological literature being unity of the body of Christ, the apos- produced by Pentecostal scholarship tolicity of the church, the ordination of and post-Vatican II Roman Catholic its ministers, and the charismatic theology. The latter not only formed dimension of the church in relationship the background for the Roman Catholic to the Kingdom of God? What does the approach and contribution to dialogues missionary mandate of the church con- but also allowed for, and in some sist of, and how do we define the evan- instances, sustained the Catholic gelistic thrust of the church in rela- charismatic renewal movement. In the tionship to culture, social justice, pros- process, Kärkkäinen familiarized him- elytism, and common witness? self with the major Catholic theolo- Throughout, Kärkkäinen deftly negoti- gians of the last two generations— ates the tension between accurately Rahner, Congar, Schillebeeckx, reporting on the dialogue on the one Ratzinger, von Balthasar, Dulles, hand, while providing critical analysis Mühlen, Sullivan, Gelpi, and others— and measured assessment on the which in turn introduced him to the other. breadth and depth of the Catholic theo- This leads, third, to the specifically logical tradition. We will see below theological tendencies we see emerg- (III) how this wide-ranging engage- ing during this early phase of Kärkkäi- ment with Catholic theology has nen’s work. While Kärkkäinen repeat- served Kärkkäinen as an ecumenical edly demonstrates that he recognizes theologian. the value and truth of the Catholic per- Second, Kärkkäinen’s comprehen- spective, he nevertheless inevitably sive overview of the first four quin- suggests a way forward which quennia of the Roman Catholic-Pente- strengthens rather than betrays a Pen- costal dialogue meant that he had was tecostal theological identity in particu- given the opportunity to engage both lar and a theological orientation in line with the broad scope of the theological with confessing church (Free Church) spectrum and with the particularly commitments in general.11 So, biblical problematic topics dividing the two theological traditions. Over the course of the two volumes, then, we observe 11 The confessing or Free Church tradition the emergence of Kärkkäinen the sys- derives from the Anabaptist Reformation. For tematic theologian precisely through overviews, see Lee C. Camp, Mere Discipleship: his grappling with the challenging Radical Christianity in a Rebellious World issues raised by the dialogue. What is (Grand Rapids: Brazos Press, 2003), and Barry L. Callen, Radical Christianity: The the nature of revelation and of Scrip- Believers Church Tradition in Christianity’s His- ture? What is the role of the tradition, tory and Future (Nappanee, In.: Evangel, of experience, and of the Holy Spirit in 1999). Whither Evangelical Theology? The Work of Veli-Matti Kärkkäinen 65 revelation is neither merely mediated grounded and yet ecumenically gener- by tradition nor merely propositional, ous understanding of the gospel is but is personally encountered in and forged. Not surprisingly, it was also through Scripture (revelation’s ulti- during this period of research and writ- mate norm) by the power of the Holy ing that Kärkkäinen was invited to par- Spirit; Spirit-baptism is limited neither ticipate in other evangelical networks: to Christian initiation nor to post-con- the Lausanne Committee of Finland version charismatic experiences, but (1994-present), the AD2000 Commit- may be suggestive of the fullness of tee of Finland (1994-present), the Christian life marked by dynamic International Consultation on World Christian witness; the church is nei- Evangelization (held in Seoul, Korea, ther merely a hierarchical institution in May 1995), and the International nor merely a localized and organic body Charismatic Consultation on World of believers, but a diverse communion Evangelization (1998-present), just to (or fellowship, koinonia) of the Holy name a few. Arguably, his work on Spirit; and evangelization is neither these committees and consultations exhausted by social concerns nor provided concrete opportunities to test defined only in terms of personal trans- out ideas forged in the theological lab- formation, but includes both within the oratory. These early publications and wider missio Dei that seeks to reconcile ecumenical work vaulted Kärkkäinen the world to the Father through the to the forefront of Pentecostal theology Son in the power of the Spirit. Of in dialogue with the broader church course, differences remain about apos- and academy. It was partly on these tolicity (apostolic succession versus merits that Kärkkäinen was invited to apostolic experience made available join the faculty of Fuller Theological today by the Spirit), Mary (theotokos Seminary in the fall of 2000. versus servant of the Lord), tradition Since joining the Fuller faculty, (the papacy and the magisterium ver- Kärkkäinen has increasingly solidified sus the priesthood of all believers), his evangelical theological reputation. conversion (life long process versus This is reflected, in part, in a torrid sudden experience), and other topics. pace of writing that has resulted in Kärkkäinen would acknowledge these seven other volumes, including a three- impasses, but routinely calls for fur- part systematics textbook on pneuma- ther research. tology, Christology, and the doctrine of These early volumes reflect the God. Throughout, Kärkkäinen has emergence of Kärkkäinen as an evan- defined an evangelical theology as one gelical theologian. They demonstrate that ‘cherish[es] classical Christianity the possibility of engaging ecumenical as explicated in the creeds and main- dialogue in ways that compromise nei- stream confessions’ (C, 171; cf. OG, 81 ther confessing church commitments and ITR, 145), and defended ‘the more in general nor Pentecostal identity in orthodox version of Christianity as particular. On the contrary, it is pre- opposed to the liberal left wing’ (DG, cisely in dialogue that one’s theologi- 192). Scripture is understood as the cal position is deepened even while, infallible touchstone for theological paradoxically, a confessionally reflection and as the ‘normative source 66 Amos Yong of theology and practice’ (ITR, 33; cf. mitments.12 A new editorial project TPT, 26-28), and five out of the six the- launched with his colleague, William ology textbooks (the soteriology, Dyrness, and tentatively titled Global three-volumed theology, and theology Dictionary of Theology (under contract of religions) begin with biblical with InterVarsity Press), promises to overviews. Further, as we shall soon unveil the richness of the evangelical see, Kärkkäinen’s early exploration on theological landscape as it has devel- pneumatological theology in the oped around the world. To be sure, Roman Catholic-Pentecostal dialogue more conservative evangelicals and has combined with his commitments to certainly most fundamentalists will a high Christology to produce a robust continue to question Kärkkäinen’s trinitarian framework for theological evangelical credentials. However, reflection. Finally, the missionary and given any moderate (rather than con- evangelistic zeal characteristic of servative) definition of evangelical, Kärkkäinen’s Pentecostal roots have Kärkkäinen’s status as an evangelical not diminished, but rather found new theologian is difficult to deny. and intensified expression in his engagement with the topic of theology of religions (see §IV). III—Kärkkäinen as As a result of these developments Ecumenical Theologian during his tenure at Fuller, Kärkkäinen Kärkkäinen’s ecumenical journey has has become somewhat of a spokesper- continued over the years. He has been son for the evangelical perspective in involved in the International Dialogue theology. His invitation to contribute to between the World Alliance of volumes focused on bringing evangeli- Reformed Churches and Pentecostals cal theology into dialogue with the (1996-present), served as a consultant wider academy reflects a growing to and member of Faith and Order (Fin- appreciation for his evangelical com- land, 1994-2001; and USA and Canada, 2001), and participated in consultations and committees of the World 12 E.g., Kärkkäinen, ‘The Uniqueness of Christ and Trinitarian Faith’, in Sung Wook Council of Churches (‘Toward Common Chung, ed., Christ the One and Only: A Global Witness,’ 1996; Joint Working Group Affirmation of the Uniqueness of Jesus Christ between the WCC and Pentecostals, (Exeter, UK: Paternoster Press, and Grand 1999-present; ‘Ecclesiology and Mis- Rapids: Baker, 2005); ‘Christianity and Other sion’ Consultation, 1999-present; The- Religions’, in Sung Wook Chung, ed., Karl ological Preparatory Consultation on Barth and Evangelical Theology (Grand Rapids: Baker, and Carlisle, UK: Paternoster Press, Mission, 2000-present; Advisory 2005); ‘Evangelical Theology and Religions’, Group for Church and Ecumenical in Timothy Larsen and Daniel J. Treier, eds., Relations, 2000-present; and Consul- Cambridge Companion to Evangelical Theology tation on Healing and Faith, 2002-pre- (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, sent). All of this work has confirmed 2005); and ‘Wolfhart Pannenberg’, in Steve Carter, ed., New Dictionary of Christian Apolo- the global horizons for Christian theo- getics (Downers Grove: InterVarsity Press, logical reflection nurtured during his forthcoming). formative experiences teaching in Asia Whither Evangelical Theology? The Work of Veli-Matti Kärkkäinen 67 and studying and pastoring in Europe costal/charismatic circles), the new and North America. I suggest that the ‘world church’ (in dialogue with best way of understanding Kärkkäinen Catholic moral and political theolo- as an ecumenical theologian is pre- gian, Oliver O’Donavan), and the post- cisely by grasping the worldwide scope Christian Church as ‘another city’ (in of his theological vision. Presentation dialogue primarily with Barry Harvey, of this global sensitivity is most effi- but in the tradition of prominent the- ciently accomplished in a brief ologians like Stanley Hauerwas and overview of the methodology and con- John Howard Yoder). Already the heav- tent of Kärkkäinen’s trinitarian tril- ily ecumenical flavour of the ecclesiology, ecclesiology, and soteriology. ogy is unmistakable. I begin with An Introduction to Eccle- While much could be said about siology (2002) in part because the ecu- Kärkkäinen’s ecclesiology, its ecumenical scope of Kärkkäinen’s work is menical potential, I suggest, is partly here most clearly evidenced. There are the result of the specifically pneumato- three parts to the book. ‘Ecclesiologi- theological thread that is woven cal Traditions’ includes discussions of throughout the volume. Eastern Ortho- the doctrine of the Church in Eastern doxy is not only ‘Spirit-sensitive’, but Orthodoxy, Roman Catholicism, also understands the church to be con- Lutheranism, the Reformed churches, stituted by the Spirit. Post-Vatican II the Free churches, the Catholic ecclesiology has emphasized Pentecostal/charismatic orbit, and the the importance of the charisms in the ecumenical movement. ‘Leading Con- life of the church (thus opening the temporary Ecclesiologists’ include door to the charismatic renewal in the John Zizioulas’ ‘communion ecclesiol- church, for sure). Lutheran ecclesiology’ (Orthodox), Hans Küng’s ‘charis- ogy understands the Spirit to make matic ecclesiology’ (Roman Catholic), alive both the Word and the sacra- Wolfhart Pannenberg’s ‘universal ments. Obviously, Pentecostal/charis- ecclesiology’ (Lutheran), Jürgen Molt- matic ecclesiologies emphasize the mann’s ‘messianic ecclesiology’ church as a ‘charismatic fellowship’. (Reformed), Miroslav Volf’s ‘participa- Turning to contemporary ecclesiol- tory ecclesiology’ (Free Church and ogists, we see a similar recurrence of Pentecostal), James McClendon, Jr.’s pneumatic and charismatic motifs. ‘baptist ecclesiology’ (Anabaptist), Zizioulas emphasizes Christology and and Lesslie Newbigin’s ‘missionary pneumatology as the dual foundations ecclesiology’ (evangelical Anglican). of the church. Küng writes about the The last part, ‘Contextual Ecclesi- church as the ‘creation of the Spirit’. ologies’, overviews the Non-Church Pannenberg’s is a thoroughly pneuma- movement of Kanzo Uchimura in Japan, tological ecclesiology, an understand- the Base Ecclesial Communities in ing of the church permeated by the per- Latin America, the feminist church (as son and work of the Spirit. Moltmann represented by Letty Russell and Elis- wrote a very influential book titled The abeth Schüssler Fiorenza), the African Church in the Power of the Spirit (ET: Independent (indigenous) Churches, SCM Press, 1977). Volf focuses on the the Shepherding movement (in Pente- charismatic and trinitarian structure of 68 Amos Yong the church. McClendon’s ‘baptist Pentecostal/charismatic, and ecu- vision’ is very similar to those of Pen- menical), highlight leading contempo- tecostals, emphasizing the ‘this is that’ rary theologians of the Spirit (the correlation between the present expe- Orthodox Zizioulas, the Catholic Rah- rience of the Spirit and the experiences ner, the Lutheran Pannenberg, the of the earliest Christians as recorded in Reformed Moltmann, the biblical pneu- the book of Acts. And, of course, how matology of Michael Welker, and the can one have a missionary ecclesiology evangelical Clark Pinnock), and con- such as Newbigin’s without a robust clude with what Kärkkäinen called pneumatology? Thus we have Newbi- ‘contextual’ pneumatologies (drawn gin’s portrait of the church as a ‘com- from recent developments in process munity of the Holy Spirit.’ Pneumatic theology, liberation theology, ecologi- and charismatic themes are evident cal theology, feminist theology, and also in the contextual ecclesiologies, African theology). It is obvious that in not only in the African ‘Spirit- a relatively short volume, Kärkkäinen churches’, but also in the Shepherding is simply providing a survey of the the- Movement’s ‘renewal ecclesiology’. ological landscape, precisely the task In short, Kärkkäinen’s ecclesiology of an introductory theological text. is not just an introductory textbook, The approach in Pneumatology pro- although it is that as well. Rather, it vides various windows into Kärkkäi- can also be read as providing a con- nen’s theological method. First, structive and ecumenical ecclesiology Kärkkäinen is attuned to the perspec- precisely through the development of a tivalism of all theological reflection. pneumatological theology of the This pluralism is not, however, a threat church. The ecumenical nature of the to the theological enterprise. Rather, church is established, in this case, not theology is enriched precisely by the politically, organizationally, or struc- diversity of perspectives. This begins turally, but theologically (read: pneu- especially with the scriptural data, and matologically). To draw from the bibli- is continued in the historical and eccle- cal metaphor of the gift of the Spirit, siastical traditions. Second, drawing in the many tongues of Pentecost prefig- part from his missionary background, ure the church as a unity constituted by Kärkkäinen recognizes that contempo- diversity, and, hence, ecclesiology as rary theological reflection needs to constituted by the many gifts of the engage the wide range of perspectives many churches and the many perspec- outside the theological mainstream of tives of her theologians. the Euro-American West. Hence the Not surprisingly, then, Kärkkäi- liberation perspectives of Latin Ameri- nen’s three-volume trinitarian theol- can theologians and the spirit-world ogy begins with the Pneumatology perspectives of African theologians (2002). The six chapters introduce the need to be given voice. Finally, the topic, provide a wide range of biblical entire tenor of Kärkkäinen’s initial material, look at developments in the contribution to a trinitarian theology is Christian theological tradition, present dialogical rather than polemical. In ecclesiastical perspectives (Eastern contrast to traditional evangelical the- Orthodox, Roman Catholic, Lutheran, ologies which either ignore or casti- Whither Evangelical Theology? The Work of Veli-Matti Kärkkäinen 69 gate process, ‘green,’ or feminist per- Mark Taylor and Ted Peters (who spectives, Kärkkäinen’s attitude is Kärkkäinen suggests represents an respectful, reflecting a willingness to ‘evangelical version of postmodern learn. Christology’); Latin American libera- Those looking for explicit critical tion theology as seen in Gutierrez, comment will be disappointed. How- Boff, Gonzalez, and Sobrino; African ever, those willing to read between the theology as articulated by John Mbiti, lines will observe that Kärkkäinen has Charles Nyamiti, Aylward Shorter, and adopted in this volume the posture pre- Benezet Bujo; and Asian theology as viously developed in his work on the proposed by Raimundo Panikkar, Roman Catholic-Pentecostal dialogue: Stanley Samartha, Korean Minjung that discovery of critical points of dif- theologians, and Indian Dalit thinkers. ference both requires honest acknowl- As Kärkkäinen’s colleague at Fuller, edgment and calls for further research. Colin Brown, notes, the Christology is This approach invigorates theology as ‘breathtaking in scope and pace’ (back a personal and communal journey in cover). the Spirit: ‘New discoveries, new chal- Three brief comments about lenges, new potentialities await’ (P, Kärkkäinen’s Christology are in order. 177). First, while Kärkkäinen is focused on A similar method and ethos per- the second article of the creed, his wide vades the Christology (2003). Part I range of dialogue partners brings with presents the ‘many faces of Christ’ in them issues that touch on the entirety the Bible, while part II surveys the his- of the theological spectrum. Process tory of Christology from the post-apos- thinkers have metaphysical concerns, tolic period through the early councils John Hick, and others, engage in chris- and medieval developments to the var- tological reflection in light of the chal- ious quests for the historical Jesus ini- lenges of religious pluralism, Bultman- tiated during the modern period. Parts nians and Tillichians (among others) III and IV overview contemporary are divided over the relationship western and non-western (again, between the Jesus of history and the Kärkkäinen calls these ‘contextual’) Christ of faith, etc. Here, the system- christologies. The former include short atic thinking cultivated in his earlier chapters on Barth, Bultmann, Tillich, work allows Kärkkäinen to present the Zizioulas, Rahner, Moltmann, Pannen- issues clearly without losing a sense of berg, Norman Kraus (of the Disciples of (christological) coherence. Christ tradition), Stanley Grenz, and Second, Kärkkäinen’s introductory John Hick. comment is also illuminating: ‘the The latter present an even wider most exciting feature of the current kaleidoscope of christological ideas: scene is the rise of contextual and/or process theology as represented in the intercultural Christologies that work of John B. Cobb, Jr., among oth- attempt to speak to specific local ers; various feminist perspectives; needs…or needs of specific groups of black theology as exemplified in James people (such as women or the poor)’ Cone and the South African theologian, (C, 10-11). Rather than seeing this as Allan Boesek; postmodernists like a capitulating to a postmodern rela- 70 Amos Yong tivistic hermeneutic, I suggest that internally pluralistic and thematically this represents actually the full flower- diverse, yet with a narratival coher- ing of an evangelical and Pentecostal ence. Parts III and IV elaborate on commitment to understanding the familiar contemporary European the- gospel as transculturally relevant. In ologians, and on North American the- this, the motivation is not merely to ologies in dialogue with the classical develop an apologetic against liberal- tradition (secular/Death-of-God theol- ism or any other kind of -ism, but to ogy, process theology, open theism, engage the beliefs and practices of the and evangelical theology). Parts V and worldwide church. VI explore other more ‘contextual’ This leads, finally, to Kärkkäinen’s North American options (native Amer- concluding suggestions for future ican theologies, African American and research, which are themselves immigrant theologies, and feminist, instructive: further explication of womanist, and Latina theologies), and Christology in a religiously plural God in ‘non-western perspective’ world; further extension and assess- (African, Latin American, and Asian ment of the various contextual chris- theologies). Again, Kärkkäinen is gen- tologies; further inquiry into the rela- erally sympathetic in his discussion of tionship between the person and work the thirty plus theologians he of Christ, the latter with regard to describes, even if generalizations are engaging the various contexts of chris- unavoidable, given his attempt to cover tological reflection; and further reflec- as much theological ground as he does tion on the connection of Christology to in a limited amount of space. pneumatology and the larger trinitar- Yet there are also subtle but signifi- ian question regarding the identity of cant shifts to be observed in The Doc- the Christian God. As with the pneu- trine of God. Here, Kärkkäinen offers matology, Kärkkäinen’s Christology is more of his own critical perspective, published but still very much in via even if such is often disguised as mere media—there is always more that can commentary. So, while Tillich’s theol- and should be said. ogy was highly contextualized to the Not surprisingly, given the many existentialist ethos of the mid-twenti- promissory notes handed on by the eth century, ‘after roughly two decades Pneumatology and Christology, of unprecedented interest, it did not Kärkkäinen’s The Doctrine of God redeem its promises for continuing (2004) is the most ambitious and movement’ (DG, 166).13 Further, the lengthy of the three, focused as it is not Death-of-God theology—in its more only on God the Father, but also on the radical form expounded by William trinitarian identity of God. As before, Hamilton and Thomas J. J. Altizer— however, the goal of The Doctrine of ‘could not sustain itself. It was criti- God as the culminating volume of the cized not only by churchgoers and the trilogy is to bring the classical theistic tradition into dialogue with its modern/recent challengers. 13 Contra Kärkkäinen, however, Tillich Again, parts I and II focus on the scholarship is certainly alive and well in the biblical and historical traditions as theological academy. Whither Evangelical Theology? The Work of Veli-Matti Kärkkäinen 71 general public for introducing atheism struction as well. Such work should be and paganism into the Christian faith dialogical, involving the world church, but also by serious theological critics even if southern and eastern voices are such as Langdon Gilkey for taking the to be privileged initially. The ‘exciting term God out of the sphere of Christian developments’ in trinitarian theologi- theology and Christian tradition’ (DG, cal speculation occurring in these con- 178).14 Last (for our purposes) but not texts are what fuels, in part, Kärkkäi- least (given space constraints), it is nen’s optimism about the future asked if process theology ‘has been too prospects of theology. Finally, the new contextual in succumbing to the frame- situation of religious pluralism needs work of a panentheistic worldview’ to be grappled with theologically. A greater sensitivity to the issues raised (DG, 185).15 by the diversity of religions can be The Doctrine of God concludes also noted in the Christology and even more with suggestions for future research so in The Doctrine of God. along three lines. First, Kärkkäinen In looking back over the trinitarian calls for further work on postmodern trilogy, certain features of Kärkkäi- reactions to the Enlightenment. The nen’s theological method highlight its limits of western modernism have to be distinctively ecumenical flavour, recognized. What comes after moder- including its taking seriously Roman nity, however, is still an open question. Catholic and Orthodox perspectives. Second, the expansion of Christianity As important is the breadth of posi- in the southern and eastern hemi- tions given space and voice in these spheres demands theological recon- three textbooks. While one may wonder about why only newer eastern and southern perspectives are labelled as 14 Again, however, Altizer’s theological ‘contextual’, nevertheless Kärkkäinen articulations continue to command attention is to be applauded for taking seriously in the theological academy. For a recent re- the emerging ‘non-western’ voices in statement of his position, see T. J. J. Altizer, ‘The Primordial, Godhead, and Apocalyptic the theological conversation. Method- Christianity’, in Amos Yong and Peter G. ologically, Kärkkäinen is sensitive to Heltzel, eds., Theology in Global Context: the different socio-historical and cul- Essays in Honor of Robert Cummings Neville tural-religious contexts within which (London and New York: T & T Clark, 2004), the task of theology is pursued, and pp. 265-76; for an assessment of Altizer’s hence more open to narrative recent Christology in comparison with other approaches to the theological task. christologies, see Amos Yong, ‘Globalizing Christology: Anglo-American Perspectives in Theologically, the doctrines of the World Religious Context’, Religious Studies Spirit, of Christ, and of God are Review, forthcoming. dynamic and ‘tangible’, being located 15 Interestingly, Kärkkäinen’s most critical within particular traditions of dis- comments seem directed toward positions course and communities of practices. commonly classified under the category of the- Ethically, Kärkkäinen realizes that the ological liberalism, much of which is in its second, third, or even fourth generation. These theological reflection has implications critical remarks are less noticeable in his dis- for socio-political liberation and for cussion of non-western theologies. interreligious relationships, among 72 Amos Yong other concrete realities. ism, and evangelical theology), and an In contrast to the ecclesiology and overview of recent ecumenical conver- the trinitarian trilogy, Kärkkäinen’s sations on the doctrine of salvation soteriology, One with God (2004), is (Lutheran-Orthodox, Roman Catholic- less a textbook than it is a constructive Lutheran, and Orthodox-Pentecostal). theological monograph. Kärkkäinen’s In the final chapter, Kärkkäinen objective is to develop a doctrine of sal- presents a kaleidoscope of supporting vation that bridges not only East and perspectives on his soteriological West, but also Catholic and Lutheran hypothesis. Is not ‘union’ one of, if not emphases in the western church, and the only, defining motif of eastern and toward that end, he suggests that the western soteriologies? Does not fusion of the Orthodox doctrine of deifi- ‘union’ allow for the retrieval of fresh cation and the Lutheran doctrine of biblical imagery and voices? In what justification can be accomplished ways does the ‘union’ motif connect through the motif ‘union with God’. justification with sanctification, and Distinguishing Luther’s own theology recover emphasis on the doctrine of of salvation from that of the later love for the doctrine of salvation? As he Lutheran confessions with the help of weaves his way through these discus- the recent Finnish Mannermaa School sions, a substantive pneumatological of Luther research,16 Kärkkäinen sug- and trinitarian theology of salvation gests that biblical perspectives on sal- emerges, recapturing and extending vation read through the early Luther his earlier work in these theological should be understood not only in terms loci. Kärkkäinen concludes by asking of forensic justification but also in about what justification and salvation terms of ontological transformation, mean in the wider world context of the not just in terms of a spiritual transac- third millennium, and how to under- tion between God and Christ, but also stand the theological and dialogical in terms of human participation in the implications of deification, justifica- very life of God. tion, and union with God in the Christ- Defence of this thesis proceeds ian encounter with other faiths. through an exposition of the idea of jus- Before we take up in details aspects tification in recent New Testament of this last question in the next section, scholarship, an elaboration of deifica- it would be helpful to provide some tion in the Eastern Orthodox tradition, summary remarks on Kärkkäinen as an explication of justification and deifi- an ecumenical theologian. What is cation in Luther’s theology and later most valuable about Kärkkäinen’s Protestantism (Anabaptism, Method- introductory surveys is their global awareness, a feature practically absent from most evangelical treat- 16 Tuomo Mannermaa is a Finnish Lutheran theologian who has led this re-reading of Luther’s theology; Kärkkäinen cites Carl E. Braaten and Robert W. Jenson, eds., Union 17 An exception is Aida Besancon Spencer with Christ: The New Finnish Interpretation of and William David Spencer, eds., The Global Luther (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1998), as a God: Multicultural Evangelical Views of God good introduction to the Mannermaa School. (Grand Rapids: Baker, 1998). Whither Evangelical Theology? The Work of Veli-Matti Kärkkäinen 73 ments of these same topics.17 I gather from the work of Kärkkäinen the mis- that this global sensitivity has devel- siologist. Recall not only his mission- oped in part not only because of ary work in Thailand but also that his Kärkkäinen’s living, working and habilitationschrift was a missiology as studying on three continents, but in seen through the Roman-Catholic-Pen- part also because the Pentecostalism tecostal dialogue. Since then, Kärkkäi- which nurtures his faith, spirituality nen has taken out membership in the and piety is now truly a worldwide International Association of Mission movement. Thinking theologically as a Studies (2002-present) and the Ameri- Pentecostal (in particular) and as a can Missiological Society (2001-pre- Christian (in general) today requires sent), and continued publishing on the- just this kind of global vision in order ology of mission in various scholarly that justice can even begin to be done periodicals, among other forums.19 Out to the topics under consideration. of this concern for understanding But perhaps more importantly, Christian mission, and confronted with Kärkkäinen is committed not to any the religiously plural context of such parochial theology, but to the develop- mission in the twenty-first century, ment of Christian theology in its full Kärkkäinen had already begun to take ecumenical breadth and depth. To be up in the trinitarian trilogy some of the sure, the Pentecostal perspectives theological questions regarding Chris- informing Kärkkäinen’s early work tian identity in a religiously plural remain with him (as seen in the inclu- world and the Christian encounter with sion of the Pentecostal voice in One other faiths. The Christology discussed with God), but the church does not need John Hick’s universalist view of Christ, another theology, Pentecostal or oth- and questions concerning religious erwise. Rather, what is needed is a pluralism were dealt with across the trinitarian theology that is informed by entirety of The Doctrine of God. the biblical traditions and by the many In One with God, Kärkkäinen Christian perspectives down through queries the theological potential of the the ages and, now, across the world— ‘union with God’ motif for interreli- in short, a ‘consensual’ and ecumenical theology.18 gious dialogue (OG, 133-37). Does such an understanding of salvation provide a bridge for dialogue with tra- IV—Kärkkäinen as World ditional African notions of ‘vital partic- Theologian ipation’ (or other ideas from the world religions)? Yet Kärkkäinen cautions The development of Kärkkäinen as world theologian derives, in large part,

19 Kärkkäinen’s missiological essays have appeared in such as the International Review of 18 Kärkkäinen, ‘David’s Sling: The Promise Mission, Missiology, Asian Journal of Mission, and the Problem of Pentecostal Theology Mission Studies, Missionalia, International Bul- Today—A Response to D. Lyle Dabney’, letin of Missionary Research, and Exchange: PNEUMA: The Journal of the Society for Pente- Journal of Missiological and Ecumenical costal Studies 23:1 (2001): 147-52, esp. 152. Research. 74 Amos Yong against a naïve optimism regarding spectives on the religions, including assuming too many commonalities the tension between the universalism between religious traditions since sur- and the particularism of the gospel face conceptual similarities often message, while part II follows histori- reveal radical differences when the cal developments from the early deep structure of the traditions are church through the consolidation of examined. It is precisely because of the ‘outside the church no salvation’ these differences, however, that ‘the position to the challenges brought by common search of humanity to find the Enlightenment and our contempo- union with God may teach Christians rary experience of religious diversity. valuable lessons’ (OG, 136). In the Part III provides unique perspectives process, Christians who are made one from ecumenical documents revealing with God in Christ can manifest to their how different church traditions have neighbours in other faiths not only the attempted to wrestle with the issues, love of Christ but also, following while part IV presents brief introduc- Luther, even Christ himself.20 But are tions to twenty-one different mostly there limits to what Christians can contemporary theologians of the reli- learn from those in other faiths? Is gions. there anything genuinely new that can For this discussion, Kärkkäinen be received from the interreligious presents a new typology of theologies encounter that is not already contained of religions: ecclesiocentrism, which within the Christian faith? limits salvation to Christian faith and It is in part these questions that emphasizes the importance of mission- motivated Kärkkäinen’s Introduction to ary proclamation in the encounter with the Theology of Religions (2003) and religious others; christocentrism, Trinity and Religious Pluralism (2004). which has Catholic, mainline Protes- The former is an introductory text tant, and evangelical manifestations, while the latter is more an initial and emphasizes salvation as through attempt to articulate a constructive Christ, even if God may be at work Christian theology of religions. The through Christ (anonymously) by the breadth of the Introduction is also wide- Spirit in the lives of those in other ranging. Part I presents the ‘ambiguity faiths; and theocentrism, which deem- and promise’ of the various biblical per- phasizes the normativeness and absoluteness of Christ for those in other religious traditions. As with the other introductory text- 20 See the section in the chapter on Luther titled, ‘The Christian as ‘Christ’ to the Neigh- books he has written, Kärkkäinen bor’ (OG, 58-61). I wonder, in light of the para- stays primarily with descriptive expo- bles of the sheep and the goats (Matt. 25:31- sition and rarely ventures to provide 46) and the Good Samaritan (Lk. 10:25-37), critical commentary in this volume. He whether or not Christians also encounter does note that John Hick’s pluralistic Christ in their neighbours of other faiths; for theology of religions, which has gener- explication of this point, see Yong, The Spirit Poured Out on All Flesh: Pentecostalism and the ated widespread criticism, ultimately Possibility of Global Theology (Grand Rapids: denies the absolutistic and particular Baker Academic, 2005), §6.1.2. truth claims of all the religions, an Whither Evangelical Theology? The Work of Veli-Matti Kärkkäinen 75 irony which ‘works against the plural- ologians (Barth, Rahner, Dupuis, istic idea’ (ITR, 293). But Kärkkäinen D’Costa, Pannenberg, Pinnock, Hick, does not raise a counter-question to Panikkar, and S. Mark Heim, the only Stanley Samartha’s similarly pluralis- one not discussed in the Introduction), tic claim—that with regard to Buddha, and provides a case study of the Roman Krishna, Rama, and Christ, ‘the theory Catholic Church’s engagement with of multiple avatara (Hindu, ‘incarnated Muslims in France. Kärkkäinen’s own gods or other significant persons’) theological voice sounds forth much seems to be theologically the most more clearly as he engages in an ongo- accommodating attitude in a pluralis- ing critical conversation with his dia- tic setting, one that permits recogni- logue partners, both with regard to bib- tion of both the mystery of God and the lical interpretation and theological for- freedom of people to respond to divine mulation. At one level, this volume rep- initiatives in different ways at different resents the culmination of Kärkkäi- times’ (ITR, 301). The Introduction nen’s work to date insofar as it brings does include a concluding chapter of together his systematic orientation, ‘critical reflections and questions’ his trinitarian theological commit- which queries both the effectiveness of ments, and his previous work in theol- the typology and engages in a critical ogy of mission and theology of reli- dialogue with the twenty-one theolo- gions. At another level, however, this gians of religions. Here, the questions book signals the transition of Kärkkäi- Kärkkäinen poses to Samartha are nen as ecumenical theologian to meta-theological (on the notions of Kärkkäinen as constructive theologian truth and mystery, for example) rather in a world religious context. than explicitly theological. This development is most clearly Again, as with his other introduc- seen in the concluding chapter where a tory volumes, Kärkkäinen’s tone is catalog of where we have come from conciliatory, and his posture continues and where we should be headed is pre- to manifest the willingness to learn sented. In these pages, trinitarian the- from his interlocutors, even those who ology is contrasted with the ‘norma- do not adhere to the positions he tive’ pluralism (of Hick and others) espouses. The epilogue presents the insofar as the former provides a basic future tasks for Christian theology of principle for a theology of religions religions: the need for a constructive that preserves the particularity of trinitarian theology of religions; the Christian claims about the Triune God. need for an empirical engagement with Further, a trinitarian theology of reli- the religions as they exist in reality; gions must not separate Christ from and the need for common theological Spirit, nor Spirit from the Triune God, projects emergent from extended and nor the church from the Kingdom; sustained interreligious dialogue there also has to be continuity between between representatives of the various the eschatological verification of the faith traditions. truth (here, Kärkkäinen relies on Pan- It is to these tasks that Kärkkäinen nenberg’s principle of eschatological turns in Trinity and Religious Pluralism. verification) and the provisional theo- In this volume, he focuses on nine the- logical hypotheses that are being 76 Amos Yong tested. Finally, a trinitarian theology of believe about the religions? With religions provides an ontological foun- D’Costa (and Barth), but against Hick dation for the one and the many, for and Panikkar (and Rahner and Dupuis, communion amidst difference, with the depending on how they are inter- proviso that it affirms only with diffi- preted), Kärkkäinen urges that ‘other culty Heim’s proposal of multiple reli- religions are not salvific as such, but gious ends.21 other religions are important for the Kärkkäinen reaffirms his evangeli- Christian church in that they help the cal commitments at the end of Trinity church to penetrate more deeply into and Religious Pluralism: the divine mystery’ (TRP, 179). The question then becomes: what Christian trinitarian faith, in my does it mean to ‘penetrate more deeply understanding, seeks to find out- into the divine mystery’? It appears side the human person the grounds that it is Christians who gain access to for preferring one narrative over the depths of God precisely through another, that is, in the biblical sal- their encounter with other faiths. But if vation-history which narrates the such deeper understanding is not history of the triune God in sending salvific, then what is it? If, according to the Son in the power of the Spirit to One with God, salvation is participation save the world and bring it into an and union with God, does the interreli- eternal communion. If that is foun- gious dialogue contribute to such per- dationalism, so be it (TRP, 183n5). sonal and communal transformation? By this, the traditional Christian If it does, as the rhetoric of Kärkkäinen principle of fides quaerens intellectum seems to imply, then are not other (faith seeking understanding) is faiths also in some ways conduits of acknowledged to be the starting point God’s gracious and revelatory salva- for Christian theological reflection, tion? even with regard to the diversity of reli- I will return to this matter below. gions. At the same time, Kärkkäinen Meanwhile it is important to recognize also insists (rightly, in my estimation) that while Kärkkäinen does not shrink on a scripturally grounded universal- back from the speculative aspects of ism, described by John the Revelator’s Christian theology of religions, his ‘vision of God’s people gathered motivation from the beginning has together under one God’ (TRP, 177).22 been more missiological and concerned But aside from this methodological with Christian self-understanding. In principle and soteriological affirma- other words, Christian reflection on the tion, what exactly does Kärkkäinen religions enables a more self-critical promulgation of the Christian mission and encourages a more dialogical approach to other faiths even as it 21 As developed in S. Mark Heim, The Depths helps Christians to understand them- of the Riches: A Trinitarian Theology of Reli- selves and the diversity of religions gious Ends (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2001). 22 See also TRP, 146, where this eschato- within the providential plan of God as logical vision is reiterated against Heim’s pro- enacted in history. In the process of posal of multiple religious ends. grappling with these matters, Kärkkäi- Whither Evangelical Theology? The Work of Veli-Matti Kärkkäinen 77 nen has come to recognize that reli- has a ‘contextual’ section which refers gious diversity poses challenging ques- to recently emergent non-western the- tions to Christian theology today. ologies that ‘correct and complement Inevitably, by taking up these ques- the mainly Western approach that has tions Kärkkäinen the evangelical and dominated’ (P, 147). In Christology and ecumenical theologian has become The Doctrine of God, Kärkkäinen Kärkkäinen the world theologian and acknowledges that this does not mean theologian of the world religions. western theologies are not similarly contextual since no theology is ‘immune to surrounding philosophical, V—Critical Questions for religious, social, and political influ- Kärkkäinen ences’ (C, 188); yet the designation I have two sets of critical questions for ‘contextual’ remains useful and rele- Kärkkäinen, one concerning his work vant to the extent to which any theol- as an ecumenical theologian and the ogy is ‘firmly anchored in a specific context, be it cultural, intellectual, or other concerning his work as a theolo- related to a specific worldview’ (C, gian of the religions. We will take these 188), and to the extent to which ‘the- in order before returning in the last ologians acknowledge theologies to be section to the questions relating contextually shaped’ (DG, 199; empha- Kärkkäinen the evangelical theologian sis original). to the present and future of evangelical Any theologian has the prerogative theology. to define his own terms. But what is it My first set of questions to Kärkkäi- that contextualizes any theology? This nen concerns the overall methodology is a complex question to which no sim- which underlies his ecumenical theol- ple answer will suffice. For our pur- ogy. In brief, this set of questions can poses, I suggest that a theology is con- be explicated in terms of three other textually shaped by two interrelated interrelated questions: 1) Is not all the- factors: its historical practices and its ology contextual? 2) Is not the contex- socio-cultural situatedness. By this, I tual character of any theology mean that any theology attempts to informed, at least in part, both by the provide a coherent explanation that questions that it grapples with and by makes sense of its practices within the the practices that give it shape? 3) In broader social, cultural, religious, and what ways is Kärkkäinen’s own ecu- intellectual world. After Tillich, who menical theology in this sense contex- urged that theology arises in the tual, and how can it best proceed as response of revelation to the questions both contextual and ecumenical at the of the situation, there should be no con- same time? Let me elaborate briefly on fusion that what I am calling ‘socio- each of these questions in order. cultural situatedness’ refers precisely First, the question regarding the to the contemporary world in all its contextual character of all theology complexity. But the other half of my emerges in large part out of Kärkkäi- claim regarding the contextuality of all nen’s own theological categorization. theology requires further explication. Each volume of the trinitarian trilogy Following the work of Reinhard 78 Amos Yong

Hütter and others, I suggest that the- metaphors resonate most deeply with ology (Christian belief) is (or should the experiences and practices of the be) shaped as much by the practices of church in the various socio-historical the church as by Scripture or tradi- contexts within which it exists, etc. tion.23 This is not to deny that Scripture (e.g., OG, 131-33). Again, this is not to and tradition have played and continue deny that the Bible is normative and to play important roles in theological authoritative for shaping Christian reflection. Rather, it is to say that practice, but it is to say that the rela- Scripture and tradition are themselves tionship between scripture and prac- constituted by the practices of the tice is much more complicated than church, among other things. And what any one-way articulation of such rela- are these ecclesial practices? These tionship. would be the congregational liturgies For our purposes, the preceding (both structured and unstructured), remarks raise the following method- the devotional life, the symbolic enact- ological question about Kärkkäinen’s ments, the economic habits, the politi- ecumenical theology: insofar as all the- cal stances, the institutional interac- ology is contextual and thereby tivities, the social organizations and informed by the practices of the church networks, and other concrete manifes- (considered both diachronically across tations of Christian communities and the centuries and synchronically the individuals that inhabit them. around the world today), can Kärkkäi- From this perspective, for example, nen’s ecumenical theology succeed the Christian claim about Jesus Christ without taking into account the diver- as Lord and as God (and, by extension, sity of practices which inform the plu- claims regarding trinitarian faith) is rality of voices and perspectives that intricately tied up with the church’s he has attempted so valiantly to pre- adoration and worship of Jesus; or the serve? Kärkkäinen’s ecclesiology Christian understanding of the gives us windows into how the prac- Eucharist is inextricably connected tices of the church contribute to con- with the realization of the presence of stituting the ecclesiological traditions. Jesus around the communal table; or But the books published after the the Christian doctrine of the church is ecclesiology are not as helpful in iden- deeply intertwined with the inter-rela- tifying how ecclesial practices shape tionship between the church’s political and inform the teachings of the identity and its social practices; or the church(es) and her theologians. Christian doctrine of salvation is In the Introduction to Theology of dependent on which of the biblical Religions, Kärkkäinen does draw from ‘official church documents and confessional pronouncements’ (ITR, 110), 23 See Reinhard Hütter, Suffering Divine but he does not say much about how Things: Theology as Church Practice, trans. the liturgical practices of the Latin Doug Stott (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2000); Church undergird its ‘no salvation out- cf. also Miroslav Volf and Dorothy Bass, eds., Practicing Theology: Beliefs and Practices in side the church’ stance; or how the sec- Christian Life (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, tarian practices of the Free Churches 2002). have shaped their more exclusivistic Whither Evangelical Theology? The Work of Veli-Matti Kärkkäinen 79 perspectives; or how the socio-political remains especially problematic when practices of the mainline Protestant the very different practices of churches denominations have similarly shaped in Africa, Asia, and elsewhere are fac- the more inclusive attitudes of the ecu- tored into the ecumenical conversa- menical movement, etc. Granted, tion. At the end of the day, how is an Kärkkäinen’s intention was to write ecumenical theology even possible, introductory textbooks about the given the radical differences that char- church’s beliefs, not social histories acterize the practices of the churches about the church’s practices, so we around the world? should not be too hard on him for not Here is where I wish to present doing what he never set out to accom- Kärkkäinen with a suggestion. Rather plish.24 than attempting to develop an ecu- But the question remains: how menical theology in the abstract, why viable is an ecumenical theology not acknowledge that there is no ahis- abstracted from the practices that sus- torical ecumenical theology possible, tain the beliefs and confessions of the and to work toward an ecumenical theology in confessional perspective? church in all her diversity? In fact, let What about acknowledging that theo- me put the matter even more strongly: logical consensus cannot be achieved an ecumenical theology is possible through abstract reflection alone, but only in abstraction; often what contin- that a truly ecumenical theology must ues to divide churches are the prac- be informed not only by the diversity of tices that inform the diversity of the- perspectives but also by a diversity of ologies at the ecumenical roundtable. practices? If the ‘tongues of Pentecost’ This was seen in the processes leading reflect an ecumenical harmony of dif- up to and following the release and dis- ferent voices declaring the wonders of cussion of the ecumenical document, God (Acts 2:11b),26then so also will the 25 Baptism, Eucharist, and Ministry, and diversity of confessions reflect an ecumenical theology of different perspectives into the truth of God. 24 Yet at one point in his discussion of Pan- In this case, Kärkkäinen’s own Pen- nenberg’s theology of religions, Kärkkäinen tecostal habitus does not inhibit the wonders if the result is a viewpoint that is ecumenical potential of his theological ‘one-sidedly rational’ (TRP, 93). His question vision. On the contrary, precisely is motivated by what he takes to be the absence of doxology in Pannenberg’s quest for because his Pentecostal perspective is truth in the interreligious arena. As such, rooted in the practices of his churches, Kärkkäinen seems to recognize the insepara- the Pentecostal contribution is essen- bility of the church’s practices from her tial rather than marginal to the devel- beliefs. 25 See Baptism, Eucharist and Ministry, Faith and Order Paper No. 111 (Geneva: World Council of Churches, 1982), and, for commen- 26 I argue this point at length in my ‘“As the tary, Baptism, Eucharist and Ministry: Initial Spirit Gives Utterance…”: Pentecost, Intra- Reactions from Roman Catholic Dioceses in the Christian Ecumenism, and the Wider United States (N.p.: National Association of Oekumene’, International Review of Mission Diocesan Ecumenical Officers, 1986). 92:366 (July 2003): 299-314. 80 Amos Yong opment of a fully ecumenical theology. First, Kärkkäinen acknowledges at This was most clearly seen both in his the end of Trinity and Religious Plural- ecclesiology and in his ‘decision’ to ism that he has only taken some first begin his trinitarian trilogy with pneu- steps toward developing a more com- matology rather than with the theology prehensive trinitarian theology of reli- proper. The pneumatology was gions. One of the important principles launched first because of the pneuma- suggested in that last chapter, how- tological orientation nurtured by the ever, was to think of the relationship Pentecostal tradition, while the eccle- between Christianity and other reli- siology, as we saw earlier (III), was gions as a kind of unity-in-diversity shot through with pneumatological mirroring the triune communion. In motifs and emphases. this framework, the Trinity is the In fact, as I suggested then, the structuring principle for Christian faith strength of the ecclesiology was not even as it also ‘pushes Christians to only in its comprehensiveness (essen- dialogue with other religions’ (TRP, tial for an introductory textbook), but 163). Yet Kärkkäinen also realizes that also in its suggestiveness for a sys- this is an idealized model which calls tematic reconstruction of the doctrine for testing through engagement with of the church in pneumatological per- the empirical religions. spective (a pneumatological or Spirit- If/when Kärkkäinen moves from ecclesiology). In short, I am simply ecumenical dialogue to actual interre- urging Kärkkäinen to return to and ligious dialogue and from ecumenical retrieve some of the Pentecostal tra- theology to a theology informed by the jectories articulated earlier in his theo- interfaith conversation, he may find logical career (e.g., TPT, part I) both to himself stretched in one of three direc- provide more concrete grounding for tion: a) toward Hick’s pluralistic his ecumenical theology, and to rein- hypothesis, which threatens to col- vigorate the constructive dimension of lapse the differences between reli- his future theological work. gions; b) toward Heim’s trinitarian the- This brings me to the second set of ology of religious ends, which threat- questions I have, this time for Kärkkäi- ens to collapse the unity-in-duality of nen as (an emerging) world theologian. eschatological scenarios deeply This set of questions can also be expli- embedded in the theological tradition; cated in terms of three interrelated or c) toward a kind of Hegelian synthe- questions: 1) what is needed to more sis (syncretism!), which (evangelical) fully unfold Kärkkäinen’s nascent theologians are rightly concerned trinitarian theology of religions? 2) about. This is because trinitarian theo- How does the fact that other religious logical reflection, sundered from the traditions are similarly constituted by practices which nurture it, leads to practices provide challenges for con- abstract pronunciations regarding the temporary Christian theology of reli- religions similarly sundered from the gions? 3) W(h)ither Kärkkäinen as a practices which nurture these other theologian of world religions in light of faiths. The interfaith encounter adds these challenges? Again, I address increasing levels of theoretical and each briefly in order. practical depth that illuminate our Whither Evangelical Theology? The Work of Veli-Matti Kärkkäinen 81 basic understanding of other religious tices. Christian theological proposi- traditions, and in that sense, prolonged tions—e.g., about the Trinity and the engagement with the interreligious incarnation—make little sense outside dialogue will challenge our more of the larger narrative and practices abstractly formulated theologies of from which they emerge. Similarly, the religions. truth claims of other faiths are embed- What I am saying here, of course, is ded in their narratives (worldviews) that other faiths are constituted simi- and practices (rituals, etc.). The prob- larly by a complex web of practices—of lem is that truth claims are proposi- liturgies, devotional life, symbols, tionally formulated, yet their nested- institutions, commentarial activity, ness within wider ways of life and social configurations, economic habits, thinking means that theology of reli- political stances, etc.—which inform gions has to go beyond, beneath, or their beliefs and doctrines.27 Thus, one behind the doctrinal claims of the reli- cannot sustain a theology of religions gions in order to assess their truthful- apart from the religions themselves. In ness. But to do so requires that one other words, any worthwhile Christian enter into that other way of life, so to theology of religions will eventually speak, in order for the sensibility of need to deal concretely with the actual such claims to emerge within a partic- beliefs and practices which constitute ipatory framework. the world of the religions (just as any How can Christian theologians theology of science will need to deal engage in that kind of interreligious with the actual sciences or any theol- encounter without compromising their ogy of culture will need to deal with distinctive religious commitments? actual cultures). When this happens, Are Christian theologians only limited however, the complexity of the truth to inviting their dialogue partners from question thrown up by the plurality of other faiths to enter into the Christian religions is further exacerbated. way of life and ‘taste and see that the Kärkkäinen rightly wishes, following Lord is good’ (Ps. 34:8), but prohibited Pannenberg and others, not to discard from accepting the invitation from the question of truth amidst the plural- their dialogue partners to enter into ity of religious claims. How to adjudi- and experience these other religious cate these matters in the framework of ways of life? And if Christian theolo- fides quaerens intellectum is one of the gians do proceed in the latter direction, foremost challenges for Christian the- do we lapse into a kind of fideism ology in the twenty-first century. amidst the multiplicity of truth claims 28 This difficulty can be seen espe- in the world of religions? cially in light of the connection between religious beliefs and prac- 28 I expand on these matters elsewhere— e.g., Yong, ‘The “Baptist Vision” of James William McClendon, Jr.: A Wesleyan-Pente- 27 As argued forcefully by George Lindbeck, costal Response’, Wesleyan Theological Journal The Nature of Doctrine: Religion and Theology in 37:2 (2002): 32-57, and ‘The Spirit Bears Wit- a Post-Liberal Age (Philadelphia: The West- ness: Pneumatology, Truth and the Religions’, minster Press, 1984). Scottish Journal of Theology 57:1 (2004): 1-25. 82 Amos Yong

My response is that theology has Against this backdrop, w(h)ither always been an ongoing dialogue Kärkkäinen as a world theologian? between the biblical/theological tradi- Two paths forward suggest them- tions and the contemporary situation. selves. On the one hand, Kärkkäinen In the case of theology of religions, the could continue in his attempt to dialogue must now be extended to develop a Christian theology of other engage the beliefs and practices of reli- religions for Christians. This would not gious others. Hence the importance of require that he ‘get his hands’ (too) further refining the discipline of com- dirty with actual engagement with parative theology for any Christian the- those in other faiths. Technically, this ology desiring to take into account the move would also limit Kärkkäinen to world context. The key to a compara- being a theologian of world Christian- tive theology is its dialogical and inter- ity, thus withering his prospects as a subjective character. Theological and world theologian and a theologian of doctrinal statements are compared at the world religions. Of course, such various levels, only through a sus- work—theology by the church and for tained process of dialogue allowing a the church—is necessarily, but it is much deeper sense of familiarity to also in some significant senses prelim- emerge among the dialogue partners inary to the quest for truth that ani- about the wider framework of ideas mates the theological quest. (worldviews) and practices within with On the other hand, Kärkkäinen fundamental religious beliefs are could continue his project as a world embedded.29 I suggest that this kind of Christian theologian by engaging with intersubjectively engaged project in any and all who are interested in the comparative theology is necessary if subject matter of theology, including we want to really honour the beliefs representatives from other faith tradi- and practices of religious others, if we tions. This would lead to the kind of wish to remain vulnerable to transfor- intersubjective mode of comparative mative learning, and if we have an theology sketched earlier. This move authentically eschatological horizon will, of course, allow the project of that frames our quest for theological Kärkkäinen as world theologian to truth.30 come to fruition, and that precisely because it propels Christian faith seeking understanding to pursue the theo- 29 For an example of such a venture in com- logical truth question to the ends of the parative theology, see the three volumes of earth. The Comparative Religious Ideas Project: Robert Cummings Neville and Wesley J. Wild- At this point in Kärkkäinen’s theo- man, eds., Ultimate Religious, The Human Con- logical career, then, my two sugges- dition, and Religious Truth (all published by tions are, seemingly, in contrary direc- Albany: State University of New York Press, tions. On the one hand, I have encour- 2002). aged Kärkkäinen to return to his Pen- 30 I defend this proposal at much greater tecostal roots, not merely to retrieve a length in the concluding chapter of my Beyond the Impasse: Toward a Pneumatological Theol- sectarian theological identity ogy of Religions (Grand Rapids: Baker Acade- (although in certain contexts needing mic, 2003), ch. 7. the prophetic truth of the gospel, such Whither Evangelical Theology? The Work of Veli-Matti Kärkkäinen 83 a sectarian identity is essential), but sociological, the methodological, and also to provide a confessional ground the theological. The following remarks for the particularity of claims which are necessarily tentative, attempting constitute any constructive ecumeni- to discern the most promising direc- cal theology. On the other hand, I have tions for the future of evangelical the- also encouraged Kärkkäinen to engage ology in light of Kärkkäinen’s work to in the interreligious dialogue, not only date. to further establish his identity as a From a sociological perspective, the world theologian, but also because identity of evangelicalism and of evan- Christian faith presumes a universality gelical theology is seriously contested. to the gospel that cannot (and should The fundamentalist-evangelical divide not) back down in the face of alterna- has now proliferated into a spectrum tive claims to truth. that includes neo-evangelicals, post- How to reconcile these two? Per- conservative evangelicals, Wesleyan- haps no simplistic reconciliation is Arminian evangelicals, ecumenical possible on this side of the eschaton, as evangelicals, mainline evangelicals, theologians are called to live with both and Pentecostals and charismatics, the particularity and the universality of among other groups and movements. the gospel message. Yet in the hands of At this level, evangelicalism is too good theologians, such a tension is not fragmented, and historians will debate disabling, but rather provides the endlessly the genealogies of the resources out of which truth is dis- ‘authentic’ evangelicalism. Part of the problem is that each of these evangeli- cerned. Kärkkäinen is such a theolo- cal identities has been forged in differ- gian, and I am convinced his celebrat- ent contexts, protesting different mat- ing and inhabiting his Pentecostal ters. habitus more fully will only stimulate Yet it is also precisely this situation his ecumenical theological program which illuminates for us the value of even as it will further ground his com- Kärkkäinen’s work, especially the parative theological engagement with trinitarian trilogy and the textbook on the interreligious dialogue. ecclesiology. The ecumenical trajec- tory of these volumes provides us with VI—W(h)ither Evangelical one example of how to engage with difference: that of understanding it suffi- Theology? ciently so as to be able to describe it on While Kärkkäinen is really still only a its own terms. Critical engagement mid-career theologian with his mag- cannot proceed through straw-posi- num opus far ahead of him, I have nev- tions. Kärkkäinen’s ecumenical ertheless been already sufficiently approach to theology is suggestive for encouraged and challenged by his the future of evangelical theology pre- work to ask about the question con- cisely because it protests both against cerning the direction that evangelical a sectarianism which refuses to take theology needs to take in the twenty- the contemporary context seriously, first century. Allow me to approach and against a liberal relativism which this question from three directions: the refuses to take the question of theo- 84 Amos Yong logical truth seriously. cal, cross-cultural, etc. It is also just as This raises, of course, the method- important that both ends of any spec- ological question for evangelical theol- trum are necessary for us to chart an ogy. Evangelicals have come to under- evangelical middle ground. More con- stand the sola scriptura of the Reforma- servative positions are reminders of tion not as a literal guideline that lim- the importance of past insights, even its the sources for theological reflec- while more progressive alternatives tion, but as pointing to the recognition would help us explore the acceptable of scripture as authoritative norm for limits of Christian theological dis- theology.31 Yet what does this mean course. Kärkkäinen’s articulation of and how is this enacted in the practic- the pluralism of biblical data on any ing of theological reflection? Does doctrine also helps us to see the per- scripture shape theology with its spectival nature of religious knowing propositions (a la Carl Henry and oth- that enriches rather than relativizes ers) or with its narrative (a la Gabriel the theological task. Hence the diver- Fackre and others)? Alternatively, is sity of Christian theologies provides a the normativeness of scripture con- wealth of resources for evangelical nected with the trinitarian shape of the theology in our time so long as, following Kärkkäinen’s lead, we adhere to gospel and the narrative of the Father the authority of the scriptural norm, sending the Son by the power of the follow closely the consensus gained by Spirit?32 the tradition, and engage new ideas I do not intend to address these and issues with careful discernment. issues comprehensively. But it is pre- The perennial challenge will be to cisely evangelical disputes about theo- articulate the unity of the faith in terms logical method that force this question. of its diversity. Embracing this chal- I suggest, again, that Kärkkäinen’s lenge will invigorate evangelical theol- work proposes one way forward for ogy, not to mention ecumenical theol- evangelical theological method. We ogy and world theology. need a spectrum of approaches: bibli- Am I therefore suggesting that any cal, historical, ecumenical, philosophi- evangelical theology must also be ecumenical and global? At one level, I am actually saying that any evangelical 31 For evangelical reconstructions of the theology, concerned as it is with the doctrine of scripture, I have found most help- relevance of the gospel message for the ful William J. Abraham, Canon and Criterion in whole world, cannot but be ecumenical Christian Theology: From the Fathers to Femi- nism, new ed. (Oxford: Oxford University and global in its horizons. Further, Press, 2002), and Telford Work, Living and from the pietist perspective, which Active: Scripture in the Economy of Salvation informs Kärkkäinen’s (and my own) (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2001). Pentecostal tradition, to ask about the 32 One example of such a construal of bibli- meaning of Jesus is to ask about the cal normativity in terms of the gospel narra- meaning of Jesus for us. Hence, what tive is seen in the Reformed theologian, Daniel L. Migliore, Faith Seeking Understanding: An would Jesus mean to Buddhists, Hin- Introduction to Christian Theology (Grand dus, Muslims, and Jews, among oth- Rapids: Eerdmans, 2004). ers? To ask the question about how Whither Evangelical Theology? The Work of Veli-Matti Kärkkäinen 85 theology today comprehends the iden- Kärkkäinen Bibliography tity of Jesus and the meaning of salva- (and key) tion as formulated through the ecu- AUT—Ad ultimum terrae: Evangelization, menical conversation (as Kärkkäinen Proselytism, and Common Witness in did in One with God) leads to asking the the Roman Catholic-Pentecostal Dia- related question about how a world logue (1990-1997), Studies in the theology might understand the identity Intercultural History of Christianity of Jesus and the meaning of salvation 117 (Frankfurt am Main and New as formulated through the interreli- York: P. Lang, 1999). gious encounter. In this case, does C—Christology: A Global Introduction Kärkkäinen’s oeuvre to date chart one (Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, way forward for evangelical theology 2003). as we anticipate the next few years and DG—The Doctrine of God: A Global Intro- decades? duction (Grand Rapids: Baker Acade- I therefore suggest that an authen- mic, 2004). tically biblical, ecumenical, and world IE—Introduction to Ecclesiology: Ecu- theology will be an evangelical theol- menical, Historical and Global Perspec- ogy. Put in other terms, an evangelical tives (Downers Grove: InterVarsity theology today will be faithful to the Press, 2002). biblical narrative, will be ecumenical in ITR—An Introduction to the Theology of scope according both to Jesus’ prayer Religions: Biblical, Historical, and Con- for the unity of the church and to St. temporary perspectives (Downers Paul’s metaphor about the church Grove: InterVarsity Press, 2003). being one body constituted by many P—Pneumatology: The Holy Spirit in Ecu- members, and will anticipate the pos- menical, International, and Contextual sibility of the Spirit’s speaking through Perspective (Grand Rapids: Baker Aca- any language, tribe, nation, and even demic, 2002). religious tradition, even as this hap- OG—One with God: Salvation as Deifica- pened on the Day of Pentecost. I have tion and Justification (Collegeville, presented Kärkkäinen as modelling Minn.: Liturgical Press, 2004). one way forward for evangelical theol- SS—Spiritus ubi vult spirat: Pneumatology ogy. Readers who have persevered in Roman Catholic-Pentecostal Dialogue through this essay should now turn to (1972-1989), Schriften der Luther- Kärkkäinen himself for the details of Agricola-Gesellschaft 42 (Helsinki: such a vision for evangelical theology Luther-Agricola-Society, 1998). in the twenty-first century.33 TPT—Toward a Pneumatological Theol- ogy: Pentecostal and Ecumenical Per- spectives on Ecclesiology, Soteriology, and Theology of Mission, ed. Amos Yong (Lanham, Md.: University Press of America, 2002). TRP—Trinity and Religious Pluralism: 33 My thanks to Veli-Matti Kärkkäinen for looking over Sections II-IV to ensure that I The Doctrine of the Trinity in Christian have not misrepresented his work; yet I take Theology of Religions (Aldershot, UK, full responsibility for the ideas in these pages. and Burlington, Vt.: Ashgate, 2004). ERT (2006) 30:1, 86-94 Toward an Ethic of Shared Responsibility in Galatians 5:13-15

Peter Mageto

KEYWORDS: Freedom, love, individ- dence’2 (cf. 1:11-12, 17-19). On author- ual, community, service, legalism, ship, there is clear textual evidence unity, Spirit, mission that Paul himself wrote the letter (1:1, 13-16: 2:1-14: 4:12-20). In many ways, the epistle is a unity, and this unity of Introduction diverse elements (history, theology and ethics) is one of its most charac- MOST scholars agree that Paul teristic and important features.3 wrote to the Galatians in response to a In Galatians 5:1 Paul shows that severe crisis that was likely to cause freedom from the law is necessary. He 1 disunity among Christians. Some urges the Galatians to remain con- scholars, depending on chapters 1 and stantly in that freedom by not embrac- 2, argue that Paul develops a defence ing the new law which the opponents for his apostleship, though Bernard are urging them to do because they will Brinsmead reminds us that ‘the charge concerning apostleship is one of depen- dence on Jerusalem, not indepen- 2 Bernard H. Brinsmead, Galatians: Dialogi- cal Response to Opponents (California: Scholars Press, 1982), p.15. Cf. James D. G. Dunn, New Testament Theology (Cambridge: Cambridge 1 Frank Matera, Galatians (Collegeville: University Press, 1993), p. 5, who argues that Liturgical Press, 1992), p. 3; the agitators Galatians 1 and 2 introduce Paul’s theological were Christians from Judea who advocated for argument. circumcision. cf. Robert Jewett, ‘The Agitators 3 C.K. Barrett, Freedom and Obligation: A and the Galatian Congregation’, NTS 17 study of the Epistle of Galatians (Philadelphia: (1970) p. 207. Westminster, 1985), pp. 9-11.

Dr. Peter Mageto is an ordained Methodist Minister who has served congregations in Mombasa and Nairobi, Kenya. He is a graduate of St. Paul’s United Theological College, Limuru, Kenya and Garrett- Evangelical Theological Seminary, Evanston, IL, (PhD) where he conducted his research on theology, ethics and HIV/AIDS. Currently, Dr Mageto is serving as a Missionary-in-Residence at Aldersgate United Methodist Church and Methodist Temple in Evansville, Indiana, and does adjunct teaching at the University of Evansville. He speaks in conferences and has published widely on the topics of theology, the church, and AIDS. Toward an Ethic of Shared Responsibility in Galatians 5:13-15 87 be moving to a new yoke of slavery.4 In ethic of shared responsibility in chap- this section of Galatians, we begin to ters 5 and 6.6 Accepting Jesus Christ by sense the tension between law and faith moves individual members from Spirit, command and inward motiva- their slavery to the elements of the tion, individual and community.5 He world and the imposition of the law contends that reverting to the age of into a state of freedom and service the law is going back to slavery—no within the new community of faith. one can be in both ages at the same Consequently, freedom for Christians time. No wonder Paul decided to issue becomes in essence a responsibility of a series of advisory and hortatory service within the new community of statements here. faith. In chapters 5 and 6, Paul speaks to the community that bears Christ’s form Freedom from and to Service: and is led by Christ’s Spirit. His Individual and Community address presupposes the presence of In Chapters 5 and 6, Paul has worked Christ and the constant activity of out his theological presentation so that Christ’s Spirit. He describes the a redefinition of covenant fidelity in essence of corporate patterns of life terms of the faithfulness of Christ that constitute God’s continuing apoc- serves as a Christological basis for his alyptic rectification (meaning divine ethic. The dispute in Galatia was not action that rectifies or justifies human- simply about ethnic identity marks, but ity) which is explained in this letter by about how life was to be regulated on a reference to the way God was reaching daily basis. On that score, the agitators out through Jesus Christ, even to the upheld the law as the means by which Gentiles, by conquering the cosmic ele- behaviour was to be governed and man- ments and powers which had enslaved aged. Accordingly, without Paul’s pre- them. The corporate patterns describe sentation of chapters 5 and 6, his what the church has been called to do, explanation of the gospel in chapters 1 not by being a new community of faith, to 3, related as it is to the Galatian cri- but because the church is fully sis, would have been incomplete. equipped by the Holy Spirit to bear Therefore, Paul’s use of the motif of the faithfulness of Christ in 2:20 opens the way to his discussion of a Christian 6 Bruce W. Longenecker, ‘Defining the Faithful Character of the Covenant Commu- nity: Gal. 2:15-21 and Beyond’ in James D.G. 4 Matera, Galatians, p. 180. Cf. Mark D. Dunn (ed.), Paul and the Mosaic Law (Grand Nanos, The Irony of Galatians (Minneapolis: Rapids: Eerdmans, 2001), pp. 88-89. Cf. Hans Fortress Press, 2002), p. 69, where he argues Dieter Betz, Galatians (Philadelphia: Fortress that Paul dissuades the Galatians from a Press, 1979), pp. 254-255, where he provides course they had their desires awakened to pur- a sub-division of chapter 5 and 6 into three sec- sue. tions, all of which serve as a restatement of 5 Peter Richardson, Paul’s Ethic of Freedom the ‘indicative’ of salvation (5:1-12; 5:13-24; (Philadelphia: Westminster Press, 1979), p. 5:25-6:6:10), and concludes with an eschato- 80. logical warning (6:7-10). 88 Peter Mageto fruit.7 Therefore, as the corporate pat- others, but Jesus Christ is the true terns of the new community of faith are example of our true freedom9 that leads meaningful, the members in this com- to effective service in the world. There- munity have to understand their free- fore, when we serve our neighbours, dom and its application in service to we derive our actions from the example others. The community founded in the of our Lord Jesus Christ. Despite the name of Jesus Christ is to be of service fact that sin separates human beings to the broader community, serving as from God, as God sends us back to the an agent of transformation. world to reach others for his kingdom, Paul makes a passionate appeal to we are reminded to love them as God’s the Christians in Galatia to embrace an creatures, and treat them as potential ethic of shared responsibility so as not candidates for freedom from sin, made to abuse their new-found freedom and possible in God’s grace. Any Christian fall prey to the traps their opponents service toward our neighbours is only a were setting before them. He chal- sign of what Christian faith is all about lenges Christians to evaluate and in truly serving God and humanity. understand the basis of their freedom. The ethic of shared responsibility is Consequently, Paul reminds the Chris- well articulated for all believers as tians not to fear embracing social members of the new creation in 5:22- responsibilities that come with Christ- 23. The ethic of shared responsibility is ian freedom. In other words, Christians made possible through the fruit of the must be ready to utilize effectively Spirit: love, joy, peace, patience, kind- numerous opportunities God makes ness, generosity, faithfulness, gentle- available as we seek ways and means ness, and self-control. Paul was con- to reach the world with the transform- cerned that Christians may abandon ing gospel of Jesus Christ. Thus, Paul the true gospel of freedom and go back urges Christians to embrace a reach- to embrace the old yoke of stoicheia out service founded on the holistic min- (elements of the world as found in 4:8- istry of Jesus Christ. 11). The life controlled by the fruit of In embracing Christian freedom the Spirit will in turn bear fruit in the made manifest in Christian service to lives of those that we serve. In this con- others, we acknowledge that our ‘obe- text then, Christians are urged to uti- dience and ethical behaviour found in lize their Christian freedom to estab- the relationship with God and the moti- lish meaningful and lasting relation- vating power of the Holy Spirit’8 ships that will enhance the gospel in strengthen us to serve others in agape the world. Consequently, we can take love. In other words, as Christians, we Paul’s challenge in Galatians to under- do not depend on ourselves to serve score the conviction that sin causes conflict, while the righteousness of God in Jesus Christ provides freedom from sin to all those who believe and 7 Cf. J. Louis Martyn, Theological Issues in the Letters of Paul (Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1997), pp. 233-4. 8 Richardson, Paul’s Ethic of Freedom, p. 82. 9 Barrett, Freedom and Obligation, p. 43. Toward an Ethic of Shared Responsibility in Galatians 5:13-15 89 obey, to follow Jesus as the way, the Lk. 10: 27; cf. with Romans 13:8-10). truth and the life. In this, the law of Christ is the fulfil- Paul’s concern is broader than we ment of the new covenant with its might think, as it is not just about con- accompanying eschatological law.11 demnation, but salvation that leads to It is true that our service will be real greater light and not just a mere play- service if something essential takes out of becoming a believer today and place for others through what we will backsliding to sinful practices tomor- and do in our turning to them. The row. As the Christians in Galatia were same God who alone is good makes us challenged by Paul to operate on a dif- responsible, even as those who are not ferent realm controlled by the Holy good, to be available to him and there- Spirit, so we are reminded as Chris- fore to our neighbours. In other words, tians today that a new life lived under the wound with which our neighbour the control of the Spirit is sufficient comes to each one of us shows that we and can impact more lives as we reach should serve our neighbours without the world. Therefore, Christian free- reservation. The neighbour needs our dom working through love in the world unconditional service and, where pos- is the content of the new creation, not sible, our presence. Therefore, Paul as man’s achievement, but God’s gift.10 urges the Galatian Christians to ‘lead a Paul’s challenge to the Christians in life in accordance with the Spirit, Galatia is well summed up in 5:14b: because such a life is de facto the fulfil- ‘you shall love your neighbour as your- ment of the Torah.’12 self’, which at the end will serve as a We do not serve our neighbours basis for that freedom. It is becoming when we use our encounter with them clear that for Paul, freedom in God to draw attention to ourselves. In this means finding the ability to mature into way, in the case of very many supposed the personhood each one of us was cre- works of care and charity, we have to ated to be; it means a growing realization of those qualities of life that bring us to full participation in God’s plan that has been made known to us 11 C. Marvin Pate, The Reverse of the Curse: Paul, Wisdom and the Law (Tübingen: J.C.B. through the love of Jesus Christ. It is Mohr, 2000), p. 205. Cf. Matera, Galatians, pp. from the mystery of God’s love for us 196-197, where he asserts that love satisfies that we move to the life of love, which the requirements of the law because it is a gift is given by God and to our fellow men. of the Spirit, accomplished in Christ. There- In reducing the Mosaic law to the love fore the law is fulfilled through love. command (cf. Lev. 19:18) Paul alludes 12 Betz, Galatians, pp. 275-276. Cf. Pate, The Reverse of the Curse, p. 210 argues that since to Jesus’ summary statement of the the law is indivisible and binding on Jew and Torah as recorded in the synoptic Gentile alike, one must keep it in entirety to be gospels (cf. Mk. 12:33; Matt. 22:39; justified by God, or, preferably, one can trust in Christ, who fulfilled and terminated the law. This concept is still lacking in many Christian teachings, as some think that Paul wholly con- 10 Barrtett, Freedom and Obligation, pp. 59- demned the law in upholding justification by 63. faith. 90 Peter Mageto ask ourselves whether ultimately the the church.14 This love provides a dis- individuals concerned, or the relevant tinction between society, church or community, or the the religious and the irreligious, state in general, are not simply putting between the covenanted and the on an act to show and prove their un-covenanted that is abolished in worth. The challenge is to develop Christ. Abraham is the ancestor of human willingness to do one thing: to all believers, of the Jew who sees be available to one another in the true through the precepts of Torah to its Christian sense, that we reckon our- real requirement of faith rather selves as God’s, and that we forgive than works, and sees that faith one another for our sins. Paul certainly directed towards Christ, and of the emphasizes the fact that no more and Gentile who has the work of the no less is required of us than to be law written in his heart and trusts Christ’s ambassadors to each other. Christ, knowing that he has no reli- The challenge that Paul is setting gious works to offer.15 before the Galatians is to evaluate the essence of agape love that has been made manifest by Jesus Christ himself. Toward an Ethic of Shared This love has to be experienced in a corporate context. Individualizing this Responsibility: A Model for love is only destroying that community Christian Unity of faith that Paul intended to establish. People outside the church have tended Genuine love in which the whole law is to criticize Christians for their legalis- fulfilled creates true community; com- tic tendencies, though in most cases munity enhances it. Thus, Christians tend to ignore that criti- the power of the new age is love— cism. This criticism shows up our lack not just love in general, but God’s of concern for others and insensitivity love, the love through which God to the effect of our legalism on others. has created all that is, in which God The kind of Christianity that has been wills that it be sustained, and by planted in many mission fields tends to which God acts to redeem it. For appeal to legalistic tendencies, thus Paul the decisive event of God’s becoming condemnatory rather than love is Christ’s death.13 forgiving. I see in Paul’s writing to the Galatians a flexibility that opens up an We encounter neighbours with our alternative, one that can be linked with whole attitude as people whom God the operative principle of agape love, truly counts to be God’s, just as God derived from God in Jesus Christ, and counts us to be his. God’s love is visi- empowered by the power of the Spirit, ble, not just because of retelling the story of Jesus, but also through the ongoing life of the community of faith, 14 Richard B. Hays, The Moral Vision of the New Testament: A Contemporary Introduction to New Testament Ethics (San Francisco: Harper- 13 Victor Paul Furnish, The Moral Teaching of Collins, 1996), p. 375. Paul (Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1979), p. 26. 15 Barrett, Freedom and Obligation, p. 37. Toward an Ethic of Shared Responsibility in Galatians 5:13-15 91 keeping always in the path of the true ministry of our Lord Jesus Christ. To gospel. Because of its ethical tradition serve humanity with a Christian eye is and insight and anticipation, the Chris- not just to want to live together in tian community should be especially unity, but to take into account what open to opportunities for fulfilment and Christ has done to redeem humanity. especially sensitive to forces which We are Christ’s ambassadors in declar- frustrate it. ing Christian freedom in our world The church has found itself at a today. crossroads. It is faced with divisive The way Paul deals with the identity dilemmas in cases of divorce, homo- marks that his agitators were urging sexuality, circumcision (especially in the Galatians to accept, as well as his African countries), ordination of challenge to the Galatians to serve one women, and in response to the another, is the church’s challenge HIV/AIDS epidemic. It is Paul’s mes- today in seeking unity. Sin affects the sage that local congregations should transformation that the church pro- form the ground on which the right claims and it deforms the law, making teaching is to be done so that members others turn law into legalism by using can do away with their pride cherished it as a stepladder to ascend to God’s level. We have a true example in Paul in works that usually undermine the in his dealing with the agitators who unity of the church. ‘Anything that were urging the Galatian Christians to does not work itself out in love, though accept unnecessary identity marks. it may conceivably be verbal ortho- The church’s challenge today is to wit- doxy, is not faith in Paul’s sense of the 16 ness truly for Christ by declaring null term.’ God is active in the world as all the identity marks that society and well as in the church. He does not the world have accepted as standards intend a different kind of wholeness for for humanity. The church’s challenge the church from that which he desires is to acknowledge truly the principali- for the world. ties and powers of darkness in the Therefore, Christian freedom world as they obstruct access to the enables us to enter into meaningful true transformation that Jesus offers to relationships with other persons and to all those who believe and trust in him. find the fulfilment of our own lives in Any identity marks that are enhanced God as we live for him and for others, by rigid political or cultural legalism since a Christian is one who is free to only enslave all those who are not will- care for others. If we are to understand ing to surrender to Jesus Christ as Lord that service to the neighbour is and Saviour of their lives. True Christ- required as part of our faithful Christ- ian freedom is what Jesus provides by ian living then concern for the effects setting us free from any legalistic ten- of sin should motivate us to reach our dencies that dehumanise rather than God-given neighbours in love and ser- liberate.17 vice as made manifest in the life and Emphasis on the church as a body or

16 Barrett, Freedom and Obligation, p. 71. 17 Barrett, Freedom and Obligation, p. 62. 92 Peter Mageto community is an essential factor that sets a clear picture for the church minimizes the individual and maxi- today whereby Christians are per- mizes corporate reality. For Paul, to be suaded as a community of Christ to in freedom is to be in service to and for remember and return to the life in others. Freedom is the well-being of Christ. The great warning that Paul the community that is founded on extended to the Galatians can be agape love and perfected in serving one extended to the church today, that our another. The church, as a community understanding of the life in the Spirit of faith, is where all members are val- should not be distorted by thinking ued and their individual contributions that we are free from ethical responsi- are respected. In other words, freedom bility. Rather we should come to terms is more than asking for equality, with the fact that the new life in the human rights, and justice or to be in Spirit is a life in which Christians are solidarity with the oppressed and suf- called to an ethic of shared responsi- fering. Freedom should be understood bility as Paul says, to ‘bear one through the faithfulness and love of another’s burdens’ (6:2). However, we Jesus Christ have to ensure that the call of forbear- Love as service introduces a dimen- ance does not lead the church to ‘grow sion which is not found in mutual love: weary in doing what is right’ (6:9a). the element of self-giving. The sacrifi- Therefore, in the context of Paul’s cial love of Christ remains the para- ethic of shared responsibility, by Chris- digm for our Christian service to the tian living and walking in the Spirit, world, without denying the value of the church is mutually determined. that love which we experience in Chris- Living by the Spirit is the motive and tian fellowship. Love is mutual shar- power of walking in accordance with ing, mutual support, binding the the Spirit’s leadership. Walking in human community together in special accord with the Spirit leads believers ways. In other words, the Christian to the place where the life of the Spirit marks of baptism, confirmation, Holy upholds those under assault.19 Communion, speaking in tongues or In discovering love of one another, leadership should not enslave the body the true image of God is brought to us. of Christ. When these marks become There is no way an individual believer barriers to others, then Christians slide can journey alone. The community is back to become legalists. very important. It is absurd that the It is indeed clear that Paul grounds church of Christ in the world has been the community’s life in the Spirit. For divided for ages on doctrinal issues, Paul, ‘participation in the crucifixion of some of which arise from a misrepre- Christ is the sole condition for ongoing sentation of Paul’s teaching. The life in the Spirit’.18 In other words, Paul denominational demarcations (established by missionaries under colonial- ism in line with the spheres of influence in third world countries), racial 18 Charles H. Cosgrove, The Cross and the Spirit: A Study in the Argument and Theology of Galatians (Macon: Mercer University Press, 1988), p. 172. 19 Cosgrove, The Cross and the Spirit, p. 194. Toward an Ethic of Shared Responsibility in Galatians 5:13-15 93 divisions, class, gender, ecclesiastical Our seminaries must reformulate their privileges, economics and politics programs to enable the church to remain a challenge to the church today. become a community immersed in his- In order to overcome these kinds of tory, living perpetually in action and barriers so that Christians of all ages reaction with the society in which it and gender attain their true freedom in finds itself. The freedom of faith must Christ and are of great service to the not be destroyed by legalism but has to world, the church must be the church be enhanced through service to others. and be transformed in Jesus Christ so The church has to remain the con- as to become ‘a sign of God’s eschato- science and the servant within the logical reconciliation of the world’.20 human society. It is only by discerning The local congregation should be a when and where and how God is community characterized in its life, revealed and manifested in the early mission and worship by inclusiveness church that we will come to terms with and advocacy for the rights of others. what God wants the church to do The congregation in its contextual today. The option for all Christians is to challenges has to underline the recon- demand that we review in critical ciling work of Christ, who has broken terms the history to which we belong. down the barriers of ethnic identity This faith gives rise to spiritual experi- marks, racism and many other barriers ences that urge many Christians to labour for forgiveness, reconciliation by creating a new people in the Spirit. and love across the inherited bound- In this way, the local congregation will aries of religion, ethnicity, culture and champion the true freedom and agape sexuality in yearning for a world rec- love in proclamation, and by deeds in onciled in love and justice. Jesus Christ in whom ‘there is no Paul’s ethic of shared responsibility longer Jew or Greek, there is no longer summons the church to work towards slave or free, there is no longer male or genuine community, in which each eth- female; for all of you are one in Christ nic group remains faithful to its Jesus’ (Gal. 3:28). At heart the Christ- dynamic and changing identity and yet ian church is to be a welcoming and is enriched by and enriches others. In open community to all those who are this way, the churches must seek to powerless and helpless, by unmasking contribute not only to the development the dehumanizing powers often inher- of each culture but also to bring har- ent in serving others. mony among all those who share the This ethic of shared responsibility Christian faith. must stem from our theological institu- The church is called to participate tions. Most of the seminaries give an in the mission of God to establish God’s impression of being remnants of the new creation, to bring everything monasteries of the middle ages, living together under the lordship of Christ far away from the real issues of life. (Eph. 1:10). This is to be done by inviting people to repent and believe the gospel of Jesus Christ, as well as by 20 Hays, The Moral Vision of the New Testa- struggling together for justice, peace ment, p. 441. and the integrity of creation. The 94 Peter Mageto church therefore needs to challenge persuaded that life-forming principles structures and practices of economic, should be derived from the teachings of political, sexual, racial, ethnic and Paul. other kinds of oppression, recognizing In essence, Christians must be the intersecting nature of these ready to help all those who are stum- oppressions and their specific impact bling rather than condemning and on equality within community. expelling them. This action is recipro- The churches are called to move cal; no privileged group stands out towards visible unity in order to pro- from the rest, as we are reminded by C. claim the gospel of hope and reconcili- K. Barrett: ‘I must bear up the burdens ation for all people and to show a cred- that weigh my fellows down, but I can- ible model of the life that God offers to not look to anyone else to bear my all. Christians, though scattered in responsibilities. All Christians are diverse cultures, have been redeemed equal, and all share in responsibility 21 for God by the blood of the lamb to form for the good of the whole.’ one multi-cultural community of faith. The church is challenged constantly The ‘blood’ that binds them as brothers to search the scriptures critically, to open itself up to new insights and hon- and sisters is more precious than the estly acknowledge where it has abused ‘blood’, the language, the customs, the scripture to justify its own understand- political allegiances or economic inter- ing of issues that divide people. The ests that may separate them. This is church is called to examine and the essence of Paul’s ethic of shared explore its relations with people of responsibility in summoning Chris- other faiths. Jesus Christ is our para- tians to account for their freedom in digm of the responsible person. Jesus Jesus Christ in their daily endeavours. shows us what it means to be faithful to God and to other people, to be free Conclusion from the power of evil and from the accepted ethos of the time, to release We cannot afford the luxury of select- into the world a transforming power, to ing one aspect or another of Paul’s love others unselfishly and sacrifi- teaching. We must interpret Paul in cially, to hope in face of suffering and some appropriate way for ourselves in defeat. An ethic of shared responsibil- the light of our circumstances. But ity is ultimately a new paradigm, which understanding Paul’s argument in his teaches us what it means to be human context will give respect and appropri- and to be responsible. ate understanding rather than passing judgment or interpreting Paul out of our own ignorance of the apostle. I am 21 Barrett, Freedom and Obligation, p. 90. ERT (2006) 30:1, 95-96 Book Review Baptists Together in Christ Although the Baptist movement is now 1905-2005 approaching its 400th anniversary, and A Hundred-Year History of the for much of that time the ‘fellowship of Baptist World Alliance kindred minds’ even on a global basis has been positive, as this book shows, global Richard V. Pierard (editor) organisation has come rather late. Even Falls Church, Virginia: Baptist World now, with well over 200 unions or con- Alliance, 2005 ventions in membership, and others join- ISBN 1-931985-13-8 ing all the time, as a voluntary move- Pb pp 358 Index Bibliog ment, the BWA still does not embrace all Reviewed by David Parker, Editor, Baptists—the most notable group now Evangelical Review of Theology not in membership is the large Southern Baptist Convention which withdrew in the Baptists Together in Christ is a scholarly hundredth year over ideological differ- history of the Baptist World Alliance, the ences. voluntary association national Baptist As a denomination made up of indepen- unions and conventions around the world, dent churches and unions, and without a embracing over 100 million people. The central hierarchy, the issue of interest to book, which covers the period 1905 to scholars and church people is whether 2005, was launched at the Baptist such a global organisation was proper, Centenary World Congress held in necessary, or important, and even granted Birmingham, UK in July 2005. a positive answer, whether it could in fact The book consists of ten chapters telling be achieved. The saga unfolded in these the story in chronological sequence from pages shows how the able and dedicated the pre-history prior to 1905 up to 2005. leadership of some outstanding people The authors are drawn from North such as Clifford, Shakespeare, Prestridge America, UK, Europe and Australia, with and many others, built on the overall editing by well-known Baptist his- groundswell of the grass roots support, torian, Richard V. Pierard and two associ- and was able to overcome all kinds of ate editors. The Foreword is by Billy obstacles. It managed to deal with the Graham (a featured speaker at most of effects of two world wars and other deci- the recent BWA world congresses) and sive conflicts in which substantial num- the Afterword by the current General bers of Baptists were on both sides of the Secretary, Dr Denton Lotz. The fully lines of hostilities. indexed and documented text is support- In due course, there emerged an organi- ed by a large number of photographs of sation that is neither exclusively church Baptist life around the world, several lists or para-church, but one that effectively of BWA officials, staff and conferences, harnesses its members around the world and an annotated bibliography. An addi- for evangelism, mission, theological edu- tional feature is a series of boxes and cation, and ministry with youth, women photographs providing cameos of the and men. Its greatest achievements over presidents and other leading figures in a substantial period of its life have the movement such as John Clifford, G.W. undoubtedly been in the area of advocacy Truett and Nilson Fanini. for justice and religious freedom and lat- 96 Reviews terly, aid and relief. Holistic mission of which has driven the movement and the this kind is appropriately flagged by Lotz varied personalities that have led it. In (along with evangelism and nurture) as particular the content of speeches, papers key ministries for the future. and reports have been effectively sum- For much of its history, the truly global marised, so that interested readers are character of the BWA was a dream, domi- able to interact with the substance of nated as it was by European and North global Baptist thinking, which gives a feel American interests. But as time pro- for the developments that have been doc- gressed, it has become more internation- umented. alised in its personnel and interests, and There are plenty of issues facing Baptists more regionalised in its programs. around the world and as a global body, Perhaps more importantly, it has become many of which are listed in Lotz’s a voice for many in diverse parts of the thoughtful Afterword, including social world who desperately need it, especially justice, the nature of church and ministry, in relation to the vision and comprehen- and ways of effective evangelism. This sive range of values it has embodied and volume indicates that the BWA is likely expressed. to continue making a significant contribu- Much of the narrative of a book like this tion on these topics, as it has in the past. necessarily involves details of organisa- But perhaps the more substantial question and programs, yet the authors have tion revolves around the role of a global also succeeded in presenting the dynamic church body in a post-denominational age.

Baptism, Church and Society in England and Wales from the Evangelical Revival to Baptism, Eucharist and Ministry David M. Thompson The theology and practice of baptism have not received the attention they deserve. This book discusses the theology of baptism and popular belief and practice in England and Wales from the Evangelical Revival to the publication of the World Council of Churches consensus statement on Baptism, Eucharist and Ministry (1982). David M. Thompson is Fellow and President of Fitzwilliam College, Cambridge, and Reader in Modern Church History in the University of Cambridge.

ISBN: 1-84227-393-0 £19.99 229x152mm 224pp

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ABSTRACTS/INDEXING This journal is abstracted in Religious and Theological Abstracts, 121 South College Street (P.O. Box 215), Myerstown, PA 17067, USA, and in the Christian Periodical Index, P.O. What has Infant Baptism done to Baptism? Box 4, Cedarville, OH 45314, USA. An Enquiry at the End of Christendom It is also indexed in the ATLA Religion Database, published by the American Theological Library Association, 250 S. Wacker Dr., 16th Flr., Chicago, Illinois 60606-5834 USA, E- David F. Wright mail: [email protected], Web: www.atla.com/ Infant baptism has been the dominant form of baptism in the Christian West for more than a millennium and a half. How has this affected the understanding and practice of baptism? David Wright conducts a searching critique of traditions of earlier centuries down to the MICROFORM present. This story is variously surprising, disturbing, sobering, not least against the backcloth of the New Testament. Today, in the twenty-?rst century, reform promises a fresh This journal is available on Microform from UMI, 300 North Zeeb Road, P.O. Box 1346, consensus on baptism. Ann Arbor, MI 48106-1346, USA. Phone: (313)761-4700 Written for all with a serious interest in baptism, including church leaders, historians, students of liturgy and Christians on both sides of the ‘baptismal divide’, this enquiry at the Subscription rates end of Christendom is thought-provoking, necessary and historically illuminating. David F. Wright is Emeritus Professor of Patristic and Reformed Christianity, New College, University of Edinburgh. Institutions Individuals

Period USA & Elsewhere USA & Elsewhere ISBN: 1-84227-357-4 £8.99 229x152mm 124pp UK UK Canada Overseas Canada Overseas One Year £30.00 $78.80 £31.60 £30.00 $51.20 £31.60 Two/Three Years, per year £27.00 $70.90 £28.40 £27.00 $46.10 £28.40 Free Church, Free State 2/3rds world, individuals and institutions: The Positive Baptist Vision 50% discount on the overseas sterling (£) rates listed above. Nigel G. Wright All subscriptions to: Paternoster Periodicals, PO Box 300, Carlisle, Cumbria CA3 0QS, UK What exactly is a baptist vision of the church? Tel: UK 0800 195 7969; Fax: 01228 51 49 49 What are the biblical, historical and theological roots of this approach to Christian Tel Overseas: +44(0) 1228 611723; Fax +44(0) 1228 514949 community? Email [email protected] Web Site: www.authenticmedia.co.uk/paternoster What is the place of such a vision in the context of a global church? Free Church, Free State is a textbook on baptist ways of being church and a proposal for the future of baptist churches in an ecumenical context. Nigel Wright argues that both baptist Important Note to all Postal Subscribers (small ‘b’) and catholic (small ‘c’) church traditions should seek to enrich and support each When contacting our Subscription Office in Carlisle for any reason other as valid expressions of the body of Christ. always quote your Subscription Reference Number. Nigel G. Wright is Principal of Spurgeon’s College, London. This appears on the address label used to send your copies to you. ISBN: 1-84227-353-1 £9.99 216x140mm 240pp

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