Managing Forests for Trees and Birds in Massachusetts

Home , Eastern wood pewee, Northern hardwood forest

A Guide to Habitat Assessments and Silvicultural Practices

Adapted from Vermont’s Foresters for the Birds Project Table of Contents INTRODUCTION AND PURPOSE MASSACHUSETTS FOREST BIRDS

1 Massachusetts Forest Birds Massachusetts has more than 3 million acres Not all landowners will be candidates for More than 200 species of birds breed in 2 Evaluating a Project of forested land, and about 75% of that land is creating young forest habitat, perhaps due to their Massachusetts every year, and more than 100 of 2 Step 1: Identify Regional privately owned (Thompson et al. 2014). This management goals or property size. Instead, they those species nest in our forests. Identifying all Conservation Needs means that private landowners are positioned to may want to create mature forest habitats that are species by sight and sound — and knowing their 3 Atlantic Coastal Pine Barrens be the most significant contributors to creating beneficial for wildlife. There is a need to improve respective habitat associations — is a daunting 3 Northeastern Coastal Zone and maintaining habitat for forest birds and other the understory and midstory structure in much task, even for experts. To make the connection 4 Northeastern Highlands wildlife. of our older forests, which would enhance the between forest birds and silviculture practices 6 Step 2: Determine Landscape habitat for mature forest birds. Many of these more clear, we have selected a suite of species for Given the scale and rapid pace of development Condition for Birds species, such as Wood Thrush and Eastern each ecoregion of the state. The birds in these and suburbanization in Massachusetts, our 8 Step 3: Analyze Stand Conditions Wood-pewee, are also declining. groups, the Focal Birds, were chosen because existing forest resources are becoming 14 Special Considerations for they: Young Forest Habitat increasingly valuable to the Commonwealth and Last, it is important to remember that the goal is 16 Adverse Impacts of Deer our wildlife. Thoughtful management of our to create a diverse, healthy, and resilient • Are a conservation priority in the region, 17 Making Management Decisions undeveloped lands can create forests that work ecosystem, and is not solely focused on just birds or statewide 17 Management Option 0: for both landowners and wildlife, help buffer the and forests. Much like the “canary in the coal • Are relatively simple to identify by sight Let it Grow Commonwealth from the anticipated effects of mine” expression, birds are indicators of or sound 18 Management Option 1: climate change, and also serve as shelter for ecosystem health (Niemi and McDonald 2004). A • Collectively use a wide range of forest Low-intensity Harvest species that are at risk of decline. forest with viable populations of White-throated types and habitat conditions Sparrows, Ruffed Grouse, or Wood Thrush is a • Are likely to respond positively to some 19 Management Option 2: The nature of this work is continual. Forest forest that is supporting a large variety of other common silviculture practices Moderate-intensity Harvest composition and structure change over time, and wildlife species as well. 20 Management Option 3: as a stand ages it provides habitat for These species do not occur in our forests alone. High-intensity Harvest different wildlife communities. In this document Each species is likely to be found in conjunction 23 Bird-friendly Best Management Practices we present the basic principles of evaluating with other declining species, so management 23 Companion Documents forest habitat for birds, and provide suggestions for the Focal Birds will benefit other birds and and Additional Resources on how to utilize silviculture in managing for wildlife. 24 Credits that habitat. We approach silviculture through Birds with Silviculture in Mind: A Pocket Guide to 24 Work Cited not only the lens of timber production, but also Focal Birds for Massachusetts Foresters is a quick- 25 Photo Credits the lens of forest bird production. reference, full-color look at each of the Focal The age composition of forests in Massachusetts Birds. It is an essential companion document to Acknowledgements is decidedly skewed toward older trees, with only this guide. Funding for adapting this publication to a small percentage of forests younger than 30 Massachusetts was provided through the DCR years old (Figure 1). The underrepresentation of Figure 1. The age composition of forestland managed Working Forest Initiative. young forests comes at a cost to the wildlife that by the Massachusetts Division of Fisheries and

depend on them. This cost is reflected by declines Wildlife is generally representative of the entire The original project on which this publication in both the range and abundance of many species state, with few areas of early successional habitat. was based was supported by the Northeastern of young forest specialists across the state. For Area State and Private Forestry, U.S. Forest example, Chestnut-sided Warbler and Service, and TogetherGreen, a National White-throated Sparrow are two species that rely Audubon program with funding from Toyota. on young forest patches — and are two species Thanks to all of the foresters participating in the that are declining in the state. Foresters for the Birds Program, who provided feedback on the original documents.

1 EVALUATING A PROJECT

Creating a Foresters for the Birds Stewardship Atlantic Coastal Pine Barrens Northeastern Coastal Zone Northeastern Highlands Plan is similar to assembling a typical plan, but (southe ast) ce ntral SE C ( ) W (we st) there is additional emphasis given to creating Covering Cape Cod, the Islands, and much of Found in central and northeastern Massachusetts, This region, covering western and north central habitat that will support species in need of conser- Plymouth County, these are forests dominated this is perhaps the most heterogeneous region. Massachusetts, contains some of the state’s most vation. It considers habitat at three scales, going by xeric site species like pitch pine and various These forests typically support oak-pine and productive forest soils — particularly in the tree oaks. Dense understories of scrub oak and from the largest to the smallest: oak-mixed hardwood stands. Soils are generally limestone regions of Berkshire County — as huckleberry are common, and wetlands may acidic and sandy but not xeric. This zone includes well as some of its least productive sites, like 1. The context of the respective ecoregion contain Atlantic white-cedar. Fire and wind the more southern oak-hickory forest type, some those in the cold, boggy headwater regions where 2. The landscape surrounding the parcel (e.g., hurricanes) have been important red spruce and balsam fir become significant elements of the northern hardwood forest, and 3. The stand level characteristics disturbances historically, and therefore these components. The forests are principally all variations in between. Along with the Atlantic forests are considered to be disturbance northern hardwoods with varying components After evaluating the current habitat conditions, dependent. Some recommended silvicultural Coastal Pine Barrens, this zone has a high density of oak and red spruce. A cooler climate, more work with the landowner to assign and prioritize practices mimic this disturbance. of human settlement and cities, and forest birds rugged terrain, and higher elevations are management activities based on combined timber are highly dependent on the remaining tracts of important underlying habitat components and bird habitat objectives, and incorporate Bird- forest. in this zone. These forests are productive friendly Best Management Practices (BBMPs) breeding grounds for a high diversity of birds. during implementation (see page 23 for more details).

STEP 1 IDENTIFY REGIONAL CONSERVATION NEEDS Massachusetts hosts a broad diversity of natural forest communities across the state. These forest communities are commonly grouped into three ecoregions based on similar forest types, ecosystems, and wildlife communities (Figure 2). Each Brown Thrasher and Northern Bobwhite are Canada Warbler and Wood Thrush are two Mourning Warbler and White-throated Sparrow are two important birds that can benefit from some important birds that can benefit from some two important birds that can benefit from some has a slightly different assemblage of birds, as silvicultural practices in the SE ecoregion silvicultural practices in the C ecoregion silvicultural practices in the W ecoregion well as different patterns of human land use:

Figure 2. The three ecoregions of Massachusetts with outlines of municipal borders. Each region has a slightly different bird community and different land use patterns and considerations.

2 3 When analyzing an ecoregion, consider the Table 1. Focal Bird species by ecoregion. SE – (Southeast) Atlantic Coastal Pine Barrens following: C – (Central) Northeastern Coastal Zone W – (West) Northeastern Highlands • What are the resident Focal Birds • How densely populated is the region? For (Table 1)? Some species are included in all example, the Northeastern Coastal Zone and three ecoregions; others are limited to only Atlantic Coastal Pine Barrens are more densely Species Regions one or two. While some species occur populated by humans, resulting in greater Mature Forest Black-and-white Warbler SE C W statewide, they may only be designated as fragmentation of forest habitats. The effects of Wood Thrush SE C W Focal Birds in one or two ecoregions where this are discussed in the next section of the Black-throated Green Warbler C W they are of particular conservation concern, document. Black-throated Blue Warbler C W and will benefit from habitat improvement. Veery SE C W Eastern Wood-pewee SE C W Canada Warbler SE C W Young Forest Eastern Towhee SE C W Chestnut-sided Warbler SE C W Brown Thrasher SE Mourning Warbler W White-throated Sparrow C W Mosaic of Habitat Types American Woodcock SE C W Ruffed Grouse SE C W Northern Bobwhite SE Cavity Nests Northern Flicker SE C Yellow-bellied Sapsucker W

Human population density in Massachusetts (2010 Massachusetts census)

4 5 STEP 2 Representation of Forest Age Classes Proximity of Patches and DETERMINE LANDSCAPE CONDITION A landscape of predominantly mature forest Surrounding Land Use Fragmentation is an umbrella term used to FOR BIRDS punctuated by patches of young regenerating The proximity of forest patches to each other describe the loss of habitat, leading to smaller forest will provide a diversity of age classes for matters too, especially in a fragmented landscape. patches and increased isolation by areas of Moving inward from the ecoregion, the next species with different habitat requirements. In A bird’s reproductive success is often higher in dissimilar habitat. A landscape with few level to consider is the landscape immediately most cases, a given landscape is lacking early a patch located close to other forest. Also, forest patches that are isolated by areas of surrounding the property, which can have successional habitat. Early successional habitat dispersal movements can occur among patches, nonforest is considered fragmented. Some of implications for stand level habitat quality. should exist in both small (<2.5-5 ac) and large where individuals from a growing population the Focal Birds may not occur in heavily A rule of thumb for thinking about the landscape (>5 ac) patches, comprising about 10% of the (especially young birds) can supplement a fragmented landscapes. Or, they may be present from a bird perspective is to consider an area forested landscape (Litvaitis 2006). declining population, or recolonize a patch but unable to find high-quality habitat. Even of approximately 2,500 acres. This is about the if you are unable to greatly affect landscape The long-term goal is to create a mosaic of where a local extinction occurred. Thus, small area of a circle with a 1 mile radius. conditions, you can still manage for quality bird successional stages across the landscape, while isolated patches are less valuable than large habitat at the stand level, as discussed in the Consider the composition (proportion of different also allowing some forest to naturally mature to patches in close proximity. land uses and forest ages) and configuration next section. This will improve conditions for true old-growth conditions. This diversity of The maximum distance for patches to still be (size, shape, arrangement, and relative positon forest birds in general, and help the species forest ages, combined with the presence of considered close will vary by species. For of different land uses and forest ages) of the in question to persist in an otherwise less-than- wetland complexes and riparian areas, will help example, the rather sedentary Ruffed Grouse landscape surrounding the parcel in question. ideal landscape. support all of the Focal Birds. may only move a maximum of 3 miles to While landscape conditions are difficult to appropriate habitat (Small and Rusch 1989), address through stand level management, Amount of Forest Cover and Large Patches whereas highly mobile migratory species can examining the existing landscape can help decide Large (>1,000 acres) swathes of contiguous forest disperse tens of miles between habitat patches what management practices to perform — provide the highest quality habitat for interior (Tittler et al. 2009). or not perform — and which bird species can nesting birds that reproduce more successfully be effectively managed for. away from edges and development. Area- Finally, consider the surrounding land uses. A bird will more readily move through a low- A full explanation of landscape effects on habitat sensitive species are known to avoid any forest intensity residential area with scattered trees quality is beyond the scope of this document. that is within 330 feet from the edge (Rosenberg than an expansive parking lot. However, some general concepts are described in et al. 2003), and instead prefer the inner core this section. of a patch. The minimum size of a forest patch needed to provide high-quality habitat depends on the amount of forest cover in the landscape. For example, Wood Thrush in a heavily forested landscape (>70% cover) can find high-quality habitat in medium-sized patches (~200 acres). In landscapes with little forest (40% cover), Wood Thrush need patches of more than 350 acres for good habitat. That said, the reported minimum sizes for a particular species should not necessarily be used as management targets — Wood Thrush nest generally speaking, the bigger the better. Other Focal Birds sensitive to patch size include Black-throated Blue Warbler and Black-throated Green Warbler.

6 7 STEP 3 Forest Edge Canopy Composition Midstory Vegetation ANALYZE STAND LEVEL CONDITIONS Birds nesting close to the forest edge face a For the purposes of forest bird habitat, a mature Defined as woody vegetation 5-30 feet high, this higher abundance of nest predators and the forest is greater than 30 feet high, and has a layer includes understory trees like striped maple Moving further inward from the surrounding brood-parasitizing Brown-headed Cowbird generally closed canopy (>80%) with relatively and hophornbeam, young or suppressed canopy landscape, the last thing to consider is the habitat (Chalfoun et al. 2002, Howell et al. 2007), small gap openings throughout. This favors a tree species, and taller shrubs, like witch-hazel. complexity and structure within a stand. A bird’s especially in fragmented landscapes. These suite of mature forest-nesting bird species, As with the understory layer, locally high stem ability to survive and successfully reproduce is and other negative effects of edge can extend including Ovenbird and Black-throated Green and foliage densities distributed throughout a related to the presence of specific structural 150-300 feet into the forest interior. Warbler. stand will provide nest sites, foraging substrates features such as nest sites, food and foraging and protective cover. Structure is more important substrates, singing perches, and cover from Try to minimize the amount of forest edge. When creating gaps with a low-intensity harvest, than species composition, though a diversity of predators. The mere presence of a particular Circular forest patches are ideal because they the diameter should not be more than two times species is ideal. While exact preference will vary species does not necessarily indicate high-quality have the least amount of edge relative to area. the canopy height. For reference, a circle with a by species, having coverage in 30%-70% of this habitat. Square or rectangular patches are the next best diameter of 120 feet — twice a 60-foot canopy layer is desirable. configurations. A long, thin strip of forest is the – has an area of ¼ acre. These openings mimic Managing forest conditions to develop least desirable for birds and other edge-sensitive small natural disturbances and create high function appropriate structural features can increase the wildlife. Consider regenerating areas between opportunities for regenerating intermediate- and habitat quality of a stand, and make it more peninsulas and indentations to improve the shade-tolerant tree species. Patches can be much likely that a given species is not only present, shape. Regeneration can also connect smaller larger, say ¼ to ¾ of an acre, when conducting a but can also successfully survive and reproduce. patches to form one large forest area. moderate-intensity harvest. Of course, not all birds require the same habitat conditions, and it is rarely possible to manage Regeneration in these openings provides nesting for all species in the same space. Be sure to and foraging habitat for birds such as Black- consult the Focal Birds document when throated Blue Warbler, Wood Thrush, and Veery. making management decisions for each species The distribution of these openings may vary, but or habitat type. mature forest conditions should be maintained on the whole. The following habitat attributes are important to qu ali ty

keep in mind when managing for mature forest habitat. Special considerations for young forest Adult male Brown-headed Cowbird (left). habitats are discussed on page 14.

Brown-headed Cowbird chick with its adoptive hab i tat

Song Sparrow parent (right). i ncre as i ng

low function

8 9 Understory Vegetation Soft Mast Deciduous Leaf Litter For bird habitat purposes, understory is defined high function Retain, release, and regenerate soft mast species A thick layer of leaf litter is home to an array of as live vegetation 0-5 feet high, including tree such as black cherry, serviceberry, and apple. insects, mites, and spiders — the prey of many seedlings and saplings, shrubs, and herbaceous These produce food sources that are especially birds. Some species, such as Veery, Wood Thrush, vegetation. High stem and foliage densities of important in late summer when many species and Ovenbird, largely forage on the ground, woody plants in this layer provide nest sites, are preparing for a strenuous migration and searching the leaf litter for food. Ovenbirds also foraging substrates, and protective cover. undergoing energy-intensive molt. Rubus rely upon a deep layer of deciduous litter for species that dominate openings are also important constructing their ground nests. An abundant Some birds tend to associate with particular sources of soft mast for birds. In young forests, amount of leaf litter is a few inches thick with plant species. For example, Black-throated Blue and in the understory of mature forests, shrubs few, if any, bare spots on the forest floor. Warblers are known to nest in dense clumps of like Viburnum spp., dogwoods, and blueberries hobblebush or mountain laurel (Holway 1991). While pine needles are used as material in nests, a are also desirable. However, in general the overall complexity of the leaf litter of pure needles is not desirable. Instead, qu ali ty

understory vegetation plays a more important the litter should include a large amount of de- Non-native Invasive Plant Species role than plant species composition (Hagan and ciduous hardwood leaves. Of course, this will not Consideration, control, and monitoring of Meehan 2002). be this case in a softwood stand, and that’s OK. hab i tat non-native, invasive plant species is a

In many forests across the state, understory is management objective for improved habitat as thin or lacking, and enhancing this cover is often well as a silvicultural objective. When non-native beneficial. Well-distributed patches of under- plants are present, strive to locate larger group/ story vegetation covering 50%-80% of the stand i ncre as i ng patch openings near already disturbed areas is desirable. Care should be taken to not disturb (e.g., agricultural lands) and away from interior existing areas of thick understory, especially near sections. Use best practices to prevent spread of wetlands including small wooded swamps or non-native invasive plants (refer to Massachusetts streams. Canada Warbler relies on nearly impen- Forestry Best Management Practices Manual). etrable understory and midstory near wooded Non-native, invasive plants, such as bush streams or swamps. Disturbing that habitat can honeysuckles, buckthorn, autumn olive, and result in losing Canada Warbler from a site. Japanese barberry, present a variety of threats to forest health in Massachusetts and the Northeast. Ovenbird nest made out of leaf litter low function Although some species of birds successfully use invasive plants as nesting sites and eat their fruits, the fruits generally have low nutritional value (Ingold and Craycraft 1983) and the arthropod diversity and abundance on non-native plants is often lower, providing less forage. Also, invasive plants reduce the diversity of other nesting and foraging substrates in forest ecosystems (Schmidt and Whelan 1999, Ortega et al. 2006).

10 11 Coarse and Fine Woody Material Snags and Cavity Trees Large Diameter Trees Water and Wetland Features Coarse woody material (CWM) is defined as Snags are standing dead or partially dead trees. Large-diameter cavity trees are critical for larger Streams, ponds, and wetlands add to the downed logs and branches ≥5 inches diameter at Snags provide opportunities for nest cavity cavity nesting species including Barred Owls diversity of habitats available for forest birds. the tip, and >5 feet long. Fine woody material excavation by Yellow-bellied Sapsucker and and Pileated Woodpeckers. Some large-diameter For example: (FWM) is composed of limbs and branches <4 Northern Flicker, which may be re-used in (24+” DBH) trees should be present in the inches diameter. Blowdowns and slash are the subsequent years by other species like Saw-whet forest. Some of these may be financially mature • Rock- or gravel-bottomed streams within a most common sources of CWM and FWM. Owl. As with CWM, the dead wood creates acceptable growing stock (AGS), and others may forest matrix may support Louisiana abundant forage for bole-feeding birds like be senescent or declining unacceptable growing Waterthrush, a warbler that nests in cavities CWM may provide sites for singing and other Hairy Woodpecker and Brown Creeper. stock (UGS) that may be retained as legacy and under steep streamside banks or in upturned behaviors, such as the Ruffed Grouse’s familiar Branches on snags may be used as foraging wildlife trees. Structurally-sound, large-diameter roots of a fallen tree over or near water. drumming. Additionally, the decaying wood perches and nest sites. trees are important stick nest sites for woodland • Forested wetland communities such as red provides habitat for insects and other arthropods raptors, such as the Northern Goshawk. maple, Atlantic white-cedar, and hemlock- that are a significant part of the diet for many Retain all snags when possible, and strive for a hardwood swamps provide breeding habitat birds. minimum of 5 per acre greater than 10 inches Native Species Diversity important to Canada Warbler. These forests diameter. Consider creating snags by girdling if Maintain a minimum of at least two cords per Plant species composition should reflect the range tend to have a low canopy height and an there are particularly few. acre. When possible, leave large cull logs that of species that are part of the natural community abundance of ground cover — primarily ferns will remain for long periods of time. Individual Cavity trees may be alive or dead. Suggested type. Native species diversity is important for and shrubs. They also have structurally pieces of FWM have little value, but when it is targets for cavity trees are 1-3 trees >18 inches regeneration, overall forest health and resiliency, complex and uneven forest floors with hum- aggregated into piles (e.g., slash piles), it can offer diameter per acre, and 4 in the 12-18 inch range. and for forest birds that tend to select specific mocks, rootballs, and downed woody debris perches, nesting substrate, and protective cover Managers should strive for a relatively even vegetation types for foraging or nesting. For that provide concealment for nests and young. for birds like White-throated Sparrow and Veery. distribution of snags and cavity trees, as most example, yellow birch provides preferential • Shrub-dominated wetlands provide habitat for cavity users are territorial, and clustering snags foraging substrates for many insect-eating bird American Woodcock and Alder Flycatcher. will result in fewer individuals using the nest species including Blackburnian Warbler, Black- Coarse Woody Material holes. Aspen and paper birch make particularly throated Green Warbler, and Scarlet Tanager high function good live cavity trees, as they are frequently (Holmes and Robinson 1981). chosen for cavity excavation, possibly due to their soft wood and vulnerability to various Softwood Inclusions heart-decay fungi. Retain softwood inclusions in hardwood stands to provide increased structural complexity and species diversity, as well as varied foraging and nesting opportunities. Such components are particularly beneficial for species such as the Black-throated Green Warbler, Blackburnian qu ali ty Warbler, and Blue-headed Vireo. hab i tat

i ncre as i ng

Pileated Woodpecker cavity nest with three young

low function

12 13 SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR Young forest patches of all sizes will benefit birds Staggering the creation of adjacent patches can The previously mentioned concepts of soft YOUNG FOREST HABITAT in Massachusetts, from small 2.5 acre openings extend the utility of a site, and the maintenance mast, coarse and fine woody material, snags Creating a young forest patch on the landscape distributed throughout a forested matrix, to large of young forest should be included in forest and and cavities, and invasive plant species apply is one of the most beneficial actions a forester or openings in excess of 25 acres (Litvaitis 2006, wildlife management planning. to both mature and young forest habitats. a landowner can accomplish for wildlife. Young, Askins et al. 2007, Schlossberg and King 2008, Shake Young forest birds are also sensitive to edge. Soft edges between mature and young forest regenerating forests are critical for a suite of birds et al. 2012). Create square or circular patches of young forest openings are also better than abrupt hard edges. that exclusively use early successional habitat for rather than rectangular or irregularly shaped Soft edges provide a buffer against predators and breeding and foraging. Many of these species patches to reduce the amount of edge. Both early Brown-headed Cowbirds entering deeply into have experienced severe population declines, successional and mature forest birds (during the the forest, and obscure their view of nesting birds largely due to loss of habitat (Schlossberg and King post-breeding period) have been found to prefer (Hagenbuch et al. 2012). 2007). Additionally, some species that breed in interior young forest habitat (≥ 164 feet from the mature forest, such as Black-and-white edge) compared to edge habitat (Rodewald and Warbler and Wood Thrush, move into these Vitz 2005, Vitz and Rodewald 2006, Schlossberg and areas after the breeding period, but before King 2008, Shake et al. 2011). migrating south (Anders et al. 1998, Marshall et al. 2003, Vitz and Rodewald 2006). Finally, early successional habitat is used by many other types Table 2. Number of years after clearcutting an eastern deciduous forest that breeding, of wildlife, like some mammals, reptiles, and early successional birds first appear, become common, and then decline. pollinator species. Low canopy cover makes this young forest suitable Species First Appear Become Common Decline A reasonable goal is to have about 10% of the for birds that breed in early-successional habitat. Ruffed Grouse 10 15 20 forest in a landscape in an early successional stage Veery 3 10 20 at any point of time (DeGraaf et al. 1992). If early Northern Flicker 1 1 7-10 successional habitat is lacking in the surrounding Chestnut-sided Warbler 2 4 10 landscape, consider creating young forest patches. Black-and-white Warbler 3 10 * For the purposes of bird habitat, a young forest is Mourning Warbler 2 5 10 defined as an area of at least 2.5 acres with dense, Canada Warbler 5 15 * regenerating forest, and an open canopy (<30% White-throated Sparrow 1 2 * cover). These young forest habitats are ephemeral by nature, benefiting some bird species for a small It is assumed that some residual stems (snags and live trees) remain window of time as forest succession proceeds for * Present until next cutting cycle about 15-20 years (Table 2). Excerpt of a table from DeGraaf and Yamasaki 2003

14 15 MAKING MANAGEMENT DECISIONS

MOVING FORWARD Every silvicultural application will have its pros MANAGEMENT OPTION 0. ADVERSE IMPACTS OF DEER Once you have evaluated a property by and cons for a given bird or related group of Let It Grow Many regions in Massachusetts have high completing steps 1-3, ask yourself the following birds. For practical purposes, the effects of When supported by current stand conditions, densities of deer, which can have significant questions before making your management management can be generalized into the appropriate landscape context, and a landowner’s adverse ecological impacts. For example, large decisions: following four categories of harvest intensity, objectives, “let it grow” can sometimes be the best numbers of deer can overbrowse a forest interior, each of which typically creates a forest condition option to promote bird habitat. When present, affecting the abundance, species composition, and • What are the bird habitat strengths and that will benefit slightly different suites of birds. closed-canopied stands with well-developed density of understory vegetation and regenerating deficiencies across the ecoregion, landscape, This content may be used to help select a harvest midstory and understory layers — perhaps as the canopy trees. In turn, this can negatively affect and property? intensity to create specific habitat, or it may be result of past management practices — are likely the abundance and diversity of birds that nest and • What birds are presently benefiting? What used to identify the resulting habitat attributes already providing quality forest bird habitat, forage below the canopy (McShea and Rappole birds could or should be here? likely to be created by a proposed harvest. and will continue to function without a harvest. 2000, DeCalestra 1994). • Is there unique habitat on the property? In the Letting it grow shouldn’t, however, mean landscape? A stark lack of certain habitat, like “do nothing.” In the absence of an impending While deer densities are particularly high in young, early successional forest? timber harvest, there are many less intensive eastern Massachusetts, this issue is worth • Are there opportunities to leverage existing management activities that can serve to maintain discussing statewide. Writing a bird plan is a quality habitat to improve nearby deficiencies? or enhance the habitat quality currently provided great time to speak with landowners about the • Are there timber management priorities that by the stand, such as: importance of deer densities on their forestland, can be used to leverage habitat creation, or that and implications for bird species that they may can be adjusted to maintain habitat elements? • Creating snags and future cavity trees be trying to promote. • Does the habitat need to be enhanced? Doing throughout stands by girdling nothing may be the most appropriate action. • Increasing dead woody material on the forest floor Considering these and other questions can • Controlling invasive plant populations help identify areas of important habitat, • Supplemental planting of mast-producing prioritize stands for treatment, or help justify shrubs a complex management decision. All decisions • Identifying legacy or wolf trees (e.g., trees with involve a balancing act between habitat goals especially large size, cavities, shaggy bark, etc.) and timber objectives, so assigning value to particular habitat elements based on the assessment and the landowner’s priorities is Snags are especially valuable to birds as foraging a critical consideration. sites and potential nest cavity sites.

16 17 MANAGEMENT OPTION 1. MANAGEMENT OPTION 2. Low-Intensity Harvest Attribute Enhancement Moderate Intensity Harvest Attribute Enhancement A low-intensity harvest maintains a closed- • Locate gaps to release advance regeneration, When managing for birds, the moderate-intensity • Locate gaps and patches to release advance canopied forest (>80%) while enhancing timber remove clusters of high-risk, low-vigor, or harvest category encompasses a broad range of regeneration, remove clusters of high-risk, quality of existing stems. Understory and low- value trees, and avoid sensitive sites silvicultural practices, all of which generally low-vigor, or low-value trees, and avoid midstory layers may also be enhanced, favoring • Expand crop tree definition to include: involve a regeneration event and a deliberate sensitive sites shade-tolerant tree species and understory plants. - Tree species with special bird value canopy retention somewhere between 30%-80%. • Expand crop tree definition to include: These types of harvests are meant to mimic small (e.g., yellow birch and soft mast) Specific retention and regeneration systems will - Tree species with special bird value and infrequent natural disturbances, like - Trees with novel features (e.g., vary based on timber quality, markets, overstory (e.g., yellow birch and soft mast) wind-throw or ice storm damage, which create cavities or large crowns for perching) species, regeneration target species, and myriad - Trees with novel features (e.g., cavities small scattered gaps in the canopy and increase - Underrepresented species (e.g., soft other factors. In terms of bird habitat, what or large crowns for perching) growing space for residual crowns. Natural mast producers, softwood inclusions) these treatments all share is a marked increase in - Underrepresented species (e.g., soft events would create snags and woody material, • Maintain or enhance an understory tree and understory vegetation and widespread creation mast producers, softwood inclusions) so these are appropriate considerations during shrub component for forage and cover (e.g., of gaps and openings of various sizes. This type • Maintain an understory tree and shrub harvest as well. striped maple, hophornbeam, mountain laurel, of harvest may mimic a range of natural events to component for forage and cover (e.g., striped hobblebush) which birds have adapted, including widespread maple, hophornbeam, mountain laurel, The decision to conduct a low-intensity harvest • Retain cavity and den trees tree mortality due to pests or pathogens, which hobblebush) may represent a balance between managing would create a significant number of snags and • Retain cavity and den trees for timber and mature forest habitat. Periodic Compatible Silvicultural Treatments woody debris over time. harvests may occur while maintaining and • Small Group (<0.3 ac) and Compatible Silvicultural Treatments gradually enhancing the habitat quality. These Single Tree Selection Depending on canopy retention and opening • Small Group (<0.3 ac) Selection types of treatments favor birds that require • Shelterwood with Reserves sizes, these types of treatments will benefit • Shelterwood with Reserves mature, closed-canopied forests for breeding, • Variable Retention Thinning different birds. At the higher end of canopy • Expanding Gap Shelterwood such as Black-throated Green Warbler, • Patch Selection retention, benefits may be kept intact for birds • Patch Selection Eastern Wood-pewee and Wood Thrush. Other requiring closed-canopy forests for breeding, important elements to consider are understory such as Black-Throated Green Warbler and and midstory layers, snags, woody debris, and the Wood Thrush, and may in fact create optimal softwood component. habitat for gap feeders like Eastern Wood-pewee. At the lower end of canopy retention, or with removals focused in larger groups or patches, young forest-obligates like Chestnut-sided Warbler will likely start to appear.

Black-throated Green Warbler with nesting material

Eastern Wood-pewees flit out into canopy gaps when hunting for flying insects 18 19 Table 3. Modified Attributes and Bird Species That May Benefit from a Low- to Moderate-Intensity Harvest MANAGEMENT OPTION 3. HIGH-INTENSITY HARVEST Degree of Structural Complexity Duration • Include parts of vertical structure like snags Modified Attributes Post-treatment Focal Bird Species That Benefit and larger perch trees, evenly distributed Improved foraging gaps in midstory 1-30 years Eastern Wood-pewee Larger openings may retain groups of legacy Increased understory density 3-15 years Black-throated Blue Warbler trees Canada Warbler • Retain soft mast as this will contribute to Ruffed Grouse structure as well as add to the diversity and Veery temporal availability of forage Wood Thrush • Minimize non-native, invasive species Enhanced softwood component 5+ years Black-throated Green Warbler • Allow for advanced regeneration of timber Canada Warbler species, shrubs, and herbaceous growth Clearcut 1 year post cut. What initially • Retain similar levels of course woody debris, White-throated Sparrow appears extreme will become great habitat and piles of fine woody debris Increased growth and vigor in canopy trees 5+ years Black-and-white Warbler for early successional bird species as the Wood Thrush understory regenerates. Increased midstory density 15+ years Canada Warbler Suggestions for a Strategic Location Wood Thrush Either a lack of young forest habitat on the • Avoid disrupting contiguous mature forest by Retained or created snags/cavity trees 5+ years Northern Flicker landscape, or the lack of an alternative creating young forest at an existing edge, or Yellow-bellied Sapsucker management option for a degraded stand, may near an open wetland lead to the decision to conduct a high-intensity • Build off of existing early successional habitat, harvest. This treatment is designed to create a such as powerline corridors or abandoned large area of young forest, reducing the canopy beaver ponds cover to 0%-30%. This option approximates • Consider a gradient of age classes by creating stand-replacing natural events like tornadoes and new young forest adjacent to sapling/pole forest fires, and it also replicates a historically stands widespread cutting practice that benefited a suite • Consider clearing a stand of degraded timber of birds that are now categorically in decline. quality due to high grading, ice damage, disease, etc. Size and Shape • Consider creating young forest on poor • An area of 2.5 acres is a minimum to be of growing sites, which will extend its longevity. high value for early successional birds Regenerating old fields also last longer as • Larger areas are even better, upwards of 25 young forest than a recently cut forest acres or more • Cut aspen (quaking and bigtooth) to create • Minimize the amount of edge relative to area. dense thickets of root-sprouts that are Circles are best; squares are better than long, particularly beneficial to Ruffed Grouse thin strips Compatible silvicultural treatments • Clearcut/Clearcut with Reserves • Seed Tree • Overstory Removal in 2-Cut Shelterwood

20 21 Focal Species Disturbance Associations Bird-friendly Best Management Practices COMPANION DOCUMENTS AND With or without bird-conscious practices spelled ADDITIONAL RESOURCES Table 4. Focal Species Disturbance Associations* out in a forest management plan, there are Bird- This and other Foresters for the Birds friendly Best Management Practices (BBMPs) Natural information, as well as any updates, will be that may be implemented during any timber Disturbance Management Deciduous to Coniferous to available on the website at harvest that will benefit forest-breeding birds: Regime Objective Canopy Cover Mixed Forest Mixed Forest www.masswoodlandsinstitute.org/programs/ Stand- Maintain Open Eastern Towhee Mourning Warbler • Time of Year – If possible, operate outside of foresters-for-the-birds. replacing patches (0%-30%) Chestnut-sided Warbler Northern Bobwhite† the breeding season (mid-April to late August The following resources are also of importance: disturbances of young Mourning Warbler in Massachusetts), as to not disrupt mating >2.5 acres in forest, 5-15 Ruffed Grouse behavior, destroy nests, or alter quality habitat • Birds with Silviculture in Mind: A Pocket Guide size years old, American Woodcock† after birds have chosen their territories. to Focal Birds for Massachusetts Foresters – >2.5 acres in Brown Thrasher • Roads and Trails – Keep woods roads and skid A quick-reference, full-color look at each of size Northern Bobwhite† trails <20 feet wide, and incorporate bends and the Focal Birds. Northern Flicker twists on long straightaways. Wider roads have • Mass Audubon Breeding Bird Atlas 2 – been shown to have a fragmentation effect to www.massaudubon.org/birdatlas/bba2 Canopy gaps Create Intermediate Black-and-white Warbler White-throated Sparrow strictly interior forest species, such as the Wood Read all about each bird species, including and pockets canopy (30%-80%) Black-throated Blue Canada Warbler Thrush and Ovenbird, and long stretches of our priority birds, and the science behind what of regen- gaps to Warbler straight roads are favorable corridors for is causing population declines. eration 0.25- encouage Canada Warbler Brown-headed Cowbird to travel into forest • Mass Audubon State of the Birds reports – 0.75 acres in dense Eastern Wood-pewee interiors. www.massaudubon.org/our-conservation- size regeneration Ruffed Grouse • Leave it messy – Avoid a park-like condition; work/wildlife-research-conservation/state in pockets Veery leave some tops, slash, and course woody wide-bird-monitoring/state-of-the-birds 0.25-0.75 Wood Thrush material that can be used as cover, singing A summary of the findings of the Breeding acres in size Northern Flicker perches, and foraging substrates. Bird Atlas, including case studies on a • Follow normal BMPs – A number of bird representative species of different habitat types. Small and Minimize Closed Black-and-white Warbler Black-throated Green species rely on forested swamps and other • A sample management plan, habitat infrequent gap size and (80%-100%) Black-throated Blue Warbler wetland habitat such as stream banks for assessment forms, and inventory procedures disturbances frequency. Warbler breeding. Following basic Forestry Best can be found at http://bit.ly/2e6p4q0. that main- Favor large, Canada Warbler Management practices that protect wetlands tain an aver- old trees Eastern Wood-pewee will help these birds. Avoid disturbing age of >80% and snags. Wood Thrush existing tip-ups, stumps, and logs and snags canopy cover Maintain Yellow-bellied Sapsucker during harvesting operations. >80% average canopy cover in the stand.

* Focal Birds are grouped according to habitat features they strongly associate with. They may be found in a wider variety of conditions than shown here. † These species require other nearby habitat types in addition to early successional forest.

22 23

Credits Technical Report NE-144. USDA Forest Forest Ecology and Management 183: 127-135. Shake, C.S., C.E. Moorman, J.D. Riddle, and The Massachusetts Foresters for the Birds Service, Northern Forest Experiment Station, McShea, W.J., and J.H. Rappole. 2000. M.R. Burchell II. 2012. “Influence of patch size program, including this document, was adapted Radnor, Pa. “Managing the abundance and diversity of and shape on occupancy by shrubland birds.” from the original program created in Vermont. Hagan, J.M. and A.L. Meehan. 2002. “The breeding bird populations through The Condor 114: 268-278. This was done in consultation with Audubon effectiveness of stand-level and landscape-level manipulation of deer populations.” Small, R.J., and H.D. Rusch. 1989. “The natal Vermont. variables for explaining bird occurrence in an Conservation Biology 14: 1161-1170. dispersal of ruffed grouse.” The Auk 106: industrial forest.” Forest Science 48: 231-242. Niemi, G.J., and M.E. McDonald. 2004. 72-89. Contact your DCR Service Forester or Mass Hagenbuch, S., K. Manaras, N. Patch, J. Shallow, “Application of ecological indicators.” Annual Tittler, R., M.-A. Villard, and L. Fahrig. 2009. Audubon with questions about how to become K. Sharpless, M. Snyder, and K. Thompson. Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics “How far do songbirds disperse?” Ecography involved in the Foresters for the Birds program, 2012. “Managing your woods with birds in 35: 89-111. 32: 1051-1061. or for further assistance, search online for “MA mind: a Vermont landowner’s guide.” Ortega, Y.K., and K.S. McKelvey. 2006. “Invasion Thompson, J., K.F. Lambert, D. Foster, M. DCR Service Forestry” or visit http://masswood- Audubon Vermont and the Vermont of an exotic forb impacts reproductive success Blumstein, E. Broadbent, and A. Zambrano. landsinstitute.org/programs/foresters-for-the- Department of Forests, Parks, and Recreation. and site fidelity of a migratory songbird.” 2014. “Changes to the land: four scenarios birds. Holmes, R.T. and S.K. Robinson. 1981. “Tree Oecologia 149:340-351. for the future of the Massachusetts species preferences of foraging insectivorous Rodewald, A.D., and A.C. Vitz. 2005. “Edge- Landscape.” Harvard Forest. Harvard Work Cited birds in a northern hardwoods forest.” and area-sensitivity of shrubland birds.” University. Petersham, Massachusetts. Anders, A.D., J. Faaborg, and F.R. Thompson Oecologia 48: 31-35. Journal of Wildlife Management 69: 681-688. Vitz, A.C., and A.D. Rodewald. 2006. “Can III. 1998. “Postfledging dispersal, habitat use, Holway, D.A. 1991. “Nest-site selection and the Rosenberg, K.V., R.S. Hames, R.W. Rohrbaugh regenerating clearcuts benefit mature-forest and home-range size of juvenile Wood importance of nest concealment in the Jr., S. Barker Swarthout, J.D. Lowe, and songbirds? An examination of post-breeding Thrushes.” The Auk 115: 349-358. black-throated blue warbler.” The Condor 93: A.A. Dhondt. 2003. “A land manager’s guide ecology.” Biological Conservation 127: 477-486. Askins, R.A., B. Zuckerberg, and L. Novak. 575-581. to improving habitat for thrushes.” The 2007. “Do the size and landscape context of Howell, C.A., W.D. Dijak, and F.R. Thompson Cornell Lab of Ornithology. Photo Credits forest openings influence the abundance III. 2007. “Landscape context and selection for Schlossberg, S., and D.I. King. 2007. “Ecology Forest and habitat photos were provided courtesy and breeding success of shrubland songbirds forest edge by breeding Brown-headed and management of scrub-shrub birds in of Aaron Worthley, Kristen Sharpless, Steve in southern New England?” Forest Ecology Cowbirds.” Landscape Ecology 22: 273-284. New England: a comprehensive review.” Hagenbuch, Roy Pilcher, Charley Eiseman, Mark and Management 250: 137-147. Ingold, J.L., and M.J. Craycraft. 1983. “Avian Report submitted to the U.S. Department Thorne, Jeffrey Ritterson, and Wendy Sweetser Chalfoun, A.D., M.J. Ratnaswamy, and F.R. frugivory on honeysuckle (Lonicera) in of Agriculture Natural Resource Ferris. Thompson III. 2002. “Songbird nest southwestern Ohio in fall.” The Ohio Journal Conservation Service, Resource Inventory predators in forest-pasture edge and forest of Science 83: 256-258. and Assessment Division. Sheila Carroll: Wood Thrush (3); Gerard interior in a fragmented landscape.” Ecological Litvaitis, J.A. 2006. “Looking Beyond Property Schlossberg, S., and D.I. King. 2008. “Are Dewaghe: Mourning Warbler (4) Heather F: Applications 12: 858-867. Boundaries – Landscape and Regional shrubland birds edge specialists?” Ecological Cowbird chick with Song Sparrow (3) / CC DeCalesta, D.S. 1994. “Effect of white-tailed deer Considerations for Managing Early- Applications 18: 1325-1330. BY-NC-SA 2.0; John Harrison: Deer (16); on songbirds within managed forests in Successional Habitats” in J.D. Oehler et al., Schmidt, K.A., and C.J. Whelan. 1999. “Effects of David Larson: Canada Warbler (3); Paul Pennsylvania.” Journal of Wildlife editors. Managing Grasslands, Scrublands, and exotic Lonicera and Rhamnus on Songbird McCarthy: Northern Bobwhite (3); Howard Management 58: 711-718. Young Forest Habitats for Wildlife: A Guide Nest Predation.” Conservation Biology 13: Patterson: Black-throated Green Warbler with DeGraaf, R.M., and M. Yamasaki. 2003. for the Northeast. The Northeast Upland 1502-1506. nesting material (18) / CC BY-NC-SA 2.0; “Options for managing early-successional Habitat Technical Committee, Massachusetts Shake, C.S., C.E. Moorman, and M.R. Burchell Patricia Pierce: Brown Thrasher (3) / CC BY 2.0; forest and shrubland bird habitats in the Division of Fisheries and Wildlife. II. 2008. “Cropland edge, forest succession, and Michael Ross: Wood Thrush nest (7); Kenneth northeastern United States.” Forest Ecology Marshall, M.R., J.A. DeCecco, A.B. Williams, landscape affect shrubland bird nest Cole Schneider: Eastern Wood-pewee on and Management 127: 41-54. G.A. Gale, and R.J. Cooper. 2003. “Use of predation.” Journal of Wildlife Management branch (19); Sandy Selesky: Pileated Woodpecker DeGraaf, R.M., M. Yamasaki, W.B. Leak, and regenerating clearcuts by late-successional bird 75: 825-835. cavity nest (13); Matt Tillet: male Brown-headed J.W. Lanier. 1992. “New England Wildlife: species and their young during the post- Cowbird (8). Management of Forested Habitats.” General feldging period.”

24 25 Recreated by Mass Audubon from Silviculture with Birds in Mind: Options for Integrating Timber and Songbird Habitat Management in Northern Hardwood Stands in Massachusetts and Forest Bird Habitat Assessment: A Guide to Integrating Bird Habitat Data into a Massachusetts Forest Inventory ©2014.

Mass Audubon 208 South Great Road, Lincoln, MA 01773 781-259-2100 www.massaudubon.org [email protected]

In partnership with Massachusetts Woodlands Institute PO Box 450, Shelburne Falls, MA 01370 413-625-9151 http://www.masswoodlandsinstitute.org/ And Massachusetts Department of Conservation and Recreation Amherst Regional Headquarters, PO Box 484, Amherst, MA 01004 413-545-5993 www.mass.gov/eea/agencies/dcr/ [email protected]

Editors/Contributors Wendy Sweetser Ferris Massachusetts Woodlands Institute [email protected] Jennifer Fish Massachusetts Department of Conservation and Recreation [email protected] Pete Grima Massachusetts Department of Conservation and Recreation [email protected] Jeffrey Ritterson Mass Audubon [email protected] Margo Servison Mass Audubon [email protected] Joan Walsh Mass Audubon [email protected] Alison Wright-Hunter Massachusetts Department of Conservation and Recreation [email protected]