Volume 3, Issue-12(2), December, 2016 International Journal of Academic Research
Published by Office Address Sucharitha Publications Dr.T.V.Ramana, (9948440288) Visakhapatnam – 530 017 46-8-10/B1, Near ,Aditya School Andhra Pradesh – India Jagannaickpur, Kakinada- 533002 website :www.ijar.org.in Andhra Pradesh-India e-mail: [email protected]
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Special issue on
“ENERGY, ENVIRONMENT AND ECONOMY -The Nexus, Implications and Initiatives”
Edited by P.RamaKrishnamRaju A.V.NagaVarma
INVITATION
UGC Sponsored Two day National Seminar on “ENERGY, ENVIRONMENT AND ECONOMY -The Nexus, Implications and Initiatives” On9th& 10th, December 2016 Organised by Departments of Economics (PG & UG)
Departments of Economics (PG & UG) D.N.R. College (Autonomous) Bhimavaram – 534 202 West Godavari District, Andhra Pradesh.
UGC Sponsored Two Day National Seminar on
ENERGY, ENVIRONMENT AND ECONOMY -The Nexus, Implications and Initiatives” On9th& 10th, December 2016 SEMINAR ORGANIZING COMMITTEE CHIEF PATRONS Sri G.V.Narasimha Raju, President, Sri G. Satyanarayana Raju, D.N.R. College Association Secretary & Correspondent, D.N.R. College Association Patrons: All Members of the Governing Body, D.N.R. College Association Chair Person Seminar Convener: Sri P.Rama Krishnam Raju, Dr. A.V.Naga Varma, Principal (FAC) Head, Dept. of PG Economics Seminar Hon’ry Chairman: Dr.J.Chandra Prasad, Retd Principal Co-Conveners Sri M.Lakshminarayana Raju, Sri M.V.Raghupathi Raju Head, Dept. of Economics Vice Principal Dr. K.A.S.P.Rama Raju, Vice Dr. K.V.V.A.P.T.Surya Rao, Principal Reader & Former Director, PG Courses Members Dr. A. Krishna Mohan, Reader, P.G.Dept., of Commerce Dr. A. Naga Raju, P.G.Dept., of Commerce Smt. D.Surya Prabha, P.G.Dept of Economics Sri. G.Milton, P.G.Dept of Economics Dr.D.R.K.Subba Raju, HoD of PG Social Work Dr.A.V.Narasimha Raju, PG Dept of Social Work Smt Ch.Jhansi Lakshmi, PG Dept of Social Work Dr.M.V.S.N.Raju, HoD of PG Telugu Dr.A.K.Chandra Sekhar Rao, HoD of Maths Sri A.Surendra, HoD of Geology Dr.G.David Livingstone, HoD of Politics Sri S.V.Narasimha Raju, HoD of Statistics Sri P.V.Rama Raju, HoD of Commerce Sri P.Hari Krishnam Raju, Dept of Commerce Sri K.G.Krishnam Raju, HoD of Physics EDITORIAL BOARD Editor-in-Chief Dr. T. V. Ramana Andhra University Campus, Kakinada - Andhra Pradesh, India, 533 005
ADVISORY COUNCIL Prof. M. SundaraRao, Chairman, Board of Dr.V.Mahipal, Formerely Executive Director Studies, Dept. of Economics, Andhra University, (plg) & Associate Professor, Assosa University Visakhapatnam Ethiopia Prof. R.SudarshanaRao, Dept. of Economics, Andhra University, Visakhapatnam and member of Dr.K.VictorBabu, Guest Faculty, Department of State Finance Commission, Govt. of Andhra Philosophy, Andhra University – Visakhapatnam; Pradesh Chief Editor of IJMER and Associate Editor of Dr.P.SubbaRao, Director (i/c), Centre for Study IJAR of Social Inclusion and Exclusive Policy, Andhra Dr.J.Chandra Prasad, Director, S.V. Institute of
University, Visakhapatnam Technology, Tanuku, West Godavar District, AP
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Prof. Roger Wiemers, Professor of Education, Dr Leo O.N. Edegoh, Department of Mass Lipscomb University, Nashville, USA Communication, ChukwuemekaOdumegwuOjukwu University, Uli, Dr.A.Heidari,Faculty of Chemistry, California Anambra State, Nigeria
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Philosophy Department Russian Philosophical China
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Russia Dr. Zoran Vu, ISI Rector, St. Gregory Nazianzen Orthodox Institute Universidad Rural de Guatemala, GT,U.S.A
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Prof. M. SundaraRao, Chairman, Board of Prof. J.V.K.V. Pandit, Dept. of. Political Science Studies, Dept. of Economics, Andhra University, &Public Adnm, Andhra University Campus, Visakhapatnam Kakinada Prof.P.DakshinaMurty, Prof.in Physics, Dr. A. Srinivas, Rajiv Ganghi Institute of Law University College of Engineering, Jawaharlal College & Dept. of Humanities, JNTUK Nehru Technological University, Kakinada Dr.K. RadhaPushpavathi,Dept. of Economics,
S.K.S.D.MahilaKakalasalaTanuku, West Godavari Dr. T.Ashok, Dept. of English, Andhra University District, AP Campus, Kakinada, AP Dr. KompellaVenkataRamana; Prof. D. Satyanarayana, BVC Institute of Dept. of Technology & Science, Amalapuram, AP Computer Science and Systems Engineering, Andhra University; India Dr.K. RadhaPushpavathi,Dept. of Economics, S.K.S.D.MahilaKakalasalaTanuku, West Godavari Dr. K. V. RamanaMurty, Dept. of Management District, AP Studies, Andhra University Campus, Kakinada
Dr. B. Naga Padmavathy, Dept. of History, Dr.V.V.S.Rama Krishna, Dept. of Economics, S.K.S.D.MahilaKakalasalaTanuku, West Godavari Andhra University Campus, Kakinada, AP District, AP
Dr.D.Thirupathaiah, Dept. of Economics, Dr. SudhansuRanjanMohapatra, Centre for S.K.R.B.R College, Narasaraopet, Guntur, district, Juridical Studies, Dibrugarh University, A.P Dibrugarh, Assam Dr. E. Ashok Kumar, Department of Education Santanu Kumar Das ,Department of Business North- Eastern Hill University, Shillong Administration, Kalam Institute of Technology, Dr. R. Dhanuja, PSG College of Arts & Science
Berhampur, Odisha Coimbatore
Dr. Vidya. H.N, Department of History, Dr. BipashaSinha, S. S. Jalan Girls’ College Government Arts College, Hassan, Karnataka University of Calcutta-Calcutta Dr. C. Jaya Subba Reddy, Department of Mathematics, SVU College of Sciences, Tirupati Prof. S. MahendraDev, Vice- Chancellor, Indira
Gandhi Institute of Development Research Dr.K.JohnBabu, Department of Journalism & Mumbai Mass Comm. Central University of Kashmir, 1.
Kashmir 2. Dr.D.K.Prabhakar, Department of Telugu,
Jnanabharathi Campus, Bangalore Dr.J.RatnaPrabhakar, Dept. of Commerce, University,Bangalore Government City College,(aff) Osmania University, Hyderabad Prof. (Dr.) Sohan Raj Tater, Former Vice Chancellor, Singhania University, Rajasthan
Editor-in-Chief, IJAR – December, vol.3, issue 12(2), 2016 Typeset and Printed (Sucharitha publications) in India: IJAR, concentrates on critical and creative research in Multidisciplinary and multiple languages Academic Research. This journal seeks to promote original research and cultivate a fruitful dialogue between old and modern thought. Views expressed in the articles is exclusively of the authors, thus, journal is not responsible of it in any case Visit:www.ijar.org.in E mail: [email protected] December, 2016
C O N T E N T S Volume 3 Issue 12(2) December, 2016
Sl. Paper Title Pg.No No 1 Renewable Source of Energy is sine qua non for India’s 1 Development: Shankar Chatterjee 2 The Indian Energy Sector – Emerging Scenario: Surya Rao. 10 Kappagantula
3 Environment and Climate Change - India’s Perspective: Issues 18 and intricacies: P.Ramakrishnam Raju 4 Solar Energy and Economic Development in India: Issues and 28 intricacies: J.Chandra Prasad 5 Energy and Environment - An approach to effective assessments 33 in low data Environment: Evidence from Sikkim, India: Ch.Jhansi Lakshmi 6 India’s intended nationally determined contributions: renewable 42 energy and the pathway to Paris: A.V.Nagavarma and B.P.Naidu
7 The Geopolitical dimension of Maritime Security: Policies and 50 Challenges: M.L.N.Raju, G.Milton and M.V.S.N.Raju 8 Environment and fairness in International Trade Negotiations: 58 Developing Countries in the GATT & WTO: G.Moses and K.Mallikarjuna
9 Climate change legislation in India: Policies and programmes: 63 D.Surya Prabha, D.Saroja Babu and S.Sanyasamma 10 Environmental effects on public health: An economic perspective: 68 J.S Prabhkara Rao 11 Energy for cooking in developing Countries: Issues and highlights: 75 Alluri Nagaraju
12 India’s intended nationally determined contributions - Balanced 80 and comprehensive: Policies and initiatives: M.V.Raghupathi Raju and K.G. Krishnam Raju 13 The Geopolitics of Energy in the Asia-Pacific - Energy and 86 Protection: G. David Livingstone and B.Santha Kumari 14 India’s trade liberalization - environmental impact: P.Hari 90 Krishnam Raju and P.V.Rama Raju 15 Fuelling India’s Potential: Issues and Challenges: B.Santha 94 Raju and V.V.Ramana 16 The rise and implications of the water-energy-environment: Food 99 nexus in Southeast Asia : S.V.Narasimha Raju 17 Clean Cold Sits at the Nexus of Sustainable Social and Economic 106 Progress: The Nexus: A.V.Narasimha Raju 18 Economically and Ecologically effective Energy Resources: A.V.R. 112 Gajapathi Raju and Dr. N. Vijaya Kumar
19 Climate Change & Aviation Growth in India: Issues and 117 Challenges: M. Venkateswara Rao and D.V.R.Srininivas 20 Global connectivity of Solar Energy to meet comprehensive 121 demand at Global: A way to better world: T.V.Ramana and I.V.S.Murty
21 An overview on Climate Change and Renewable Energies: Issues 128 and Challenges in India: K. Radha Pushpavathi 22 Trade and Environment: Doha Round of Negotiations and India : 146 V. V. S. Rama Krishna and K.V.Ramana Murty
23 Energy and Sustainable development: K. Lalitha and 141 K.Subbalakshmi 24 Environment and International Trade: D. Venkatpathi Raju 153 and U Madhuri 25 Status of Environment and Wetlands in India - A Review of 157 Extent, Ecosystem Benefits: Threats and Management Strategies: S.Nageswara Rao 26 Ambient air quality status over Vijayawada – A Case Study: G. 166 Aravind, U. Monika, K. Himana, M. Akhila Priya, G. Jyothsna, P.Devi Priya and CH. Srinivasa Reddy
27 Solarizing India – for Energy generation and Conservation: 171 B.V.L.A. Manga
International Journal of Academic Research ISSN: 2348-7666; Vol.3, Issue-12(2), December, 2016 Impact Factor: 4.535; Email: [email protected]
Renewable Source of Energy is sine qua non for India’s Development Dr. Shankar Chatterjee Professor& Head (CPME) NIRD &PR, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad-500 030 Abstract: The pressure on Indian power sector has been snowballing in recent years because of population growth and industrial development. The analysis revealed that the Government of India is serious to provide electricity across India and launching of Deen Dayal Upadhyaya Gram Jyoti Yojana is a laudable step but it is suggested that more measures should be taken to promote renewable sources of energy like more use of solar energy, wind energy, biomass etc. as data reveal many states many biomass energy has not been promoted at all. Key words: fossil fuels, renewable resources, Biomass, ground temperature
The research paper has been prepared for presentation as Key Note paper for the UGC Sponsored National Seminar on “Energy, Environment And Economy -The Nexus, Implications and Initiatives” to be held on 9th& 10th December 2016at the P.G and U.G Departments of Economics, D.N.R College(Autonomous), Bhimavaram – 534 202, Andhra Pradesh, India
Introduction requirements of the country. Its need The pressure on Indian power sector has was felt long ago. The way back in 1981 been snowballing in recent years because Commission for Additional Sources of of population growth and industrial Energy (CASE) was created, after that development. Although India is in the Department of Non-Conventional Energy sixth position in the world energy market Sources (DNES) in 1982. Subsequently, after the United States, Russia, China, Ministry under the banner of Ministry of Japan and Germany, its energy sector is Non-Conventional Energy Sources highly dependent on the use of fossil (MNES) was set up in 1992 and later on fuels, mainly coal. As compared to Ministry of Non-Conventional Energy population against the size of the Sources (MNES) renamed as Ministry of economy the domestic energy production New and Renewable Energy (MNRE) in is low. “India’s share of global energy 2006 (mnre.gov.in/mission-and-vision- production is 2.3% compared with the 2/mission-and-vision). The role of new United States 21% and Europe 12%” and renewable energy has been assuming (Aruna 2011). In view of this renewable increasing significance in recent times sources of energy which are having with the growing concern for the enormous scope may be tapped. The country's energy security. Energy self- Ministry of New and Renewable Energy sufficiency was identified as the major (MNRE) is the nodal Ministry of the driver for new and renewable energy in Government of India for all matters the country in the wake of the two oil relating to new and renewable energy. shocks of the 1970s. The sudden increase Themain objective of the Ministry is to in the price of oil, uncertainties develop and deploy new and renewable associated with its supply and the energy for supplementing the energy adverse impact on the balance of www.ijar.org.in 1 International Journal of Academic Research ISSN: 2348-7666; Vol.3, Issue-12(2), December, 2016 Impact Factor: 4.535; Email: [email protected] payments position led to the wind, water, plants, animals and many establishment of the Commission for more. Some of these are renewable and Additional Sources of Energy in the some are non-renewable. The difference Department of Science & Technology in is that some renew at faster rates than March 1981. The Commission was others, making them more sustainable charged with the responsibility of than those that do not renew very fast. formulating policies and their For benefit of readers, few lines about implementation, programmes for renewable and non-renewable sources of development of new and renewable energy are mentioned here. energy apart from coordinating and Renewable and Non-renewable intensifying R&D in the sector. Resources: Renewable Resources: a natural resource The Mission of the Ministry is to ensure that can be used to benefit people and Energy Security: Lesser then can be replaced for others. dependence on oil imports through Non-Renewable Resources: A resource development and deployment of that is in limited supply and cannot be alternate fuels (hydrogen, bio-fuels and replaced once it has been extracted and synthetic fuels) and their applications to used. Sometimes generations together contribute towards bridging the gap may require replenishing. between domestic oil supply and demand; The natural resources such as coal, gas/ Increase in the share of clean oil that once consumed cannot be power: Renewable (bio, wind, hydro, replaced immediately. Most energy solar, geothermal & tidal) electricity to resources presently in use in India are supplement fossil fuel based electricity non-renewable while the renewable ones generation; (such as wind solar power etc.) are non- Energy Availability and Access: renewable. Supplement energy needs of cooking, Renewable resources are an important heating, motive power and captive aspect of sustainability. According to the generation in rural, urban, industrial U.S. Energy Information Administration, and commercial sectors; the most frequently used renewable Energy Affordability: Cost- resources are biomass, water, competitive, convenient, safe, and geothermal, wind and solar. Unlike fossil reliable new and renewable energy fuels, we can regenerate or replenish supply options; and these resources. With the rising cost and Energy Equity: Per-capita energy decreasing availability of non-renewable consumption at par with the global fossil fuels, renewable resources are average level by 2050, through a receiving increasing attention. Some of sustainable and diverse fuel- mix. these renewable-resources are presented In India coal is the major source of below: providing energy which is obviously a Renewable Resources: non-renewable source. The power from Biomass: Biomass resources include renewable energy source is only around trees, food crops, algae, agricultural and 12 per cent so there is enormous scope to forestry by-products, and even Methane harness this sector. It is pertinent to fumes from landfills. These biomass mention that sources of energy are many resources provide fuels, power such as minerals, wood, coal, natural gas, production and products typically made www.ijar.org.in 2 International Journal of Academic Research ISSN: 2348-7666; Vol.3, Issue-12(2), December, 2016 Impact Factor: 4.535; Email: [email protected] from non-renewable fossil fuels. Such bio generated little power in the United products include plastics, insulation, States in 2009, it is the fastest-growing adhesives and fabric. Energy production source of new electric power, according from biomass is important because it can to U.S. Energy Information help reduce dependence on foreign oil. In Administration. addition, it has the potential to reduce Solar: The sun has produced energy in greenhouse gas emissions. The the form of heat and light since the agricultural and forestry industries also Earth formed. Solar energy systems do benefit from the demand for biomass. not produce emissions and are often not Water: Like wood, water has a long harmful to the environment. Thermal history as an energy source. solar energy can heat water or buildings. Hydroelectric power plants proliferated Photovoltaic devices, or solar cells, with the ability to transmit electricity directly convert solar energy into over longer distances. The release, as electricity. Individual solar cells grouped needed, of water stored in reservoirs into panels range from small applications behind dams produces electricity by that charge calculator and watch spinning turbines as it flows through batteries, to large systems that power pipes. residential dwellings. PV power plants Geothermal: Geothermal energy comes and concentrating solar power plants are from harnessing heat from the earth. It the largest solar applications, covering is pertinent to mention that geo means acres. Most renewable energy comes earth and thermal means heat so the either directly or indirectly from the sun. word is Geothermal. A large utility Sunlight, or solar energy, can be used company, for example, can directly use a directly for heating and lighting homes geothermal reservoir to drive generators and other buildings, for generating and produce electricity for their electricity, and for hot water heating, municipality. In contrast, residential solar cooling, and a variety of commercial heat pumps use the shallow ground and industrial uses. The sun's heat also temperature of the earth to heat and cool drives the winds, whose energy, is a home on a smaller scale. The shallow captured with wind turbines. Then, the ground temperature remains between 50 winds and the sun's heat cause water to and 60 degrees Fahrenheit. Other evaporate. When this water vapour turns applications put geothermal heat to use into rain or snow and flows downhill into in commercial buildings, roads, rivers or streams, its energy can be agriculture and industrial factories. captured using hydroelectric power. Wind: Wind is just moving air created as the sun heats the earth's surface. As long Other sources: Hydrogen also can be as the sun is shining, the wind remains found in many organic compounds, as an infinite, renewable resource. Wind well as water. It's the most abundant power is clean energy because wind element on the Earth. But it doesn't turbines do not produce any emissions. occur naturally as a gas. It's always The classic Dutch windmill harnessed combined with other elements, such as the wind's energy hundreds of years ago. with oxygen to make water. Once Modern wind turbines with three blades separated from another element, dot the landscape today, turning wind hydrogen can be burned as a fuel or into electricity. Although wind only converted into electricity. www.ijar.org.in 3 International Journal of Academic Research ISSN: 2348-7666; Vol.3, Issue-12(2), December, 2016 Impact Factor: 4.535; Email: [email protected]
Not all renewable energy resources come Local pollution around coal plants are a from the sun. Geothermal energy taps problem. the Earth's internal heat for a variety of • Dangerous to Mine: Coal mining uses, including electric power production, is a very dangerous job. In addition, and the heating and cooling of buildings. mining has negative environmental And the energy of the ocean's tides come effects, including flooding, increased from the gravitational pull of the moon erosion, and release of methane gasses. and the sun upon the Earth. • Highest Energy Output Likely In fact, ocean energy comes from a Reached: While efficient, the maximum number of sources. In addition to tidal potential has likely already been reached energy, there's the energy of the ocean's in energy available to draw from coal waves, which are driven by both the tides compared to other technologies that have and the winds. The sun also warms the potential for increased efficiency. surface of the ocean more than the ocean • Finite Source: While currently depths, creating a temperature difference plentiful compared to other sources of that can be used as an energy source. All energy, it is a limited supply likely to be these forms of ocean energy can be used exhausted within a couple centuries to produce electricity. unless other alternatives are explored. Non-renewable Resources: Some important non-renewable energy Petroleum: It is widely used worldwide resources are for fuel and even in non-energy uses like Coal: Coal is one of the oldest and most making plastics. Petroleum is not as plentiful forms of non-renewable energy common for power plants, but is a very used by humans. It is relatively cheap, common fuel source for transportation provides a high amount of energy in like automobiles, airplanes, boats and relation to its weight. However it is also trains. one of the dirtiest forms of fossil fuels Pros and Cons: • Well Developed and mining it is fairly dangerous. Infrastructure: Many countries produce Pros and Cons of coal: and refine oil and global distribution is • Plentiful: Its cost to use is lower already in place. Gas stations to refuel than other forms of energy. personal vehicles are plentiful, compared • Fairly Efficient: Out of the to a more limited infrastructure like potential energy present in coal, a high recharging stations for electric vehicles. percentage of it is utilized when coal is • Easy to Transport: Being a liquid burned. it can be transported through pipelines • Safe Power Plants: Compared to meaning a large amount of oil can be nuclear power, coal plants are much transported long distances relatively safer. quickly. • Relatively Cheap: It is a mature • Efficient: According to the U.S. industry and relatively cheap source of Energy Commission, no other kind of energy to set up. fuel contains as much energy per unit of • Dirty: Out of all the fossil fuels, volume as diesel and gasoline does. coal burns the dirtiest. Burning it • Dangerous to Environment: Like releases high levels of carbon dioxide into coal, burning oil releases carbon dioxide the atmosphere. Coal plants also release into the atmosphere in addition to dangerous levels of mercury and arsenic. nitrous oxide and methane. Spills at drill www.ijar.org.in 4 International Journal of Academic Research ISSN: 2348-7666; Vol.3, Issue-12(2), December, 2016 Impact Factor: 4.535; Email: [email protected] sites or pipelines also cause negative • Renewable: If you can grow it, it effects to the surrounding environment can be used in biomass energy and wildlife. production. This makes it a highly • Limited Supply: Like all fossil renewable source. fuels, it takes potentially millions of • Carbon Neutral: This is one of years to produce more. The demand for the few forms of energy that is oil is so high, that based off currently considered to be carbon neutral. It does known oil deposits in 2013, the U.S. have a carbon impact, but it is considered Energy Commission estimates we will to be part of the natural carbon cycle on deplete our supplies by approximately the planet and causes no additional 2063. burden on the atmosphere. Natural Gas: Primarily composed of • Cost-Effective: Compared to the methane, natural gas can be used for fossil fuels, biomass energy is almost 1/3 heating, cooking and generating cheaper to produce. Over 10 to 15 years electricity. of use, the average user will see a Pros and cons:• Cleanest of Fossil significant savings in energy cost. Fuels: Burning natural gas releases 45 • Abundant: Wherever you can percent less carbon dioxide than coal and grow you can create biomass energy. 30 percent less than petroleum. It also There is no need for extra transport such leaves almost no waste like ash or other as pipelines to deliver it to areas. residues after being burned. • Expensive: This can be one of the • Easy to Transport: Can be sent more expensive energies to produce as it via pipeline to homes for heating and is dependent on a growing and cooking. harvesting cycle. • Cheap: Cheaper than other fossil • Extensive Footprint: While new fuels. In addition gas appliances in the technologies are being developed to allow home tend to be cheaper than their for plants to used smaller spaces, right electric counterparts. now extensive space is needed to grow • Toxic & Flammable: Natural gas enough of the biomass to produce energy. is very flammable and potentially • Resource Drain: Growing explosive, making leaks problematic. It is requires water and that can be a problem also dangerously toxic to inhale and in some areas of the world and would completely odourless in its natural state. limit the effectiveness of biomass energy • Needs More Processing: In order production. to be usable as a fuel, natural gas Hydro power: Hydro power harnesses requires more processing compared to the power of water flow to generate coal or oil. The process of refining it electricity by using the flow to turn creates several by-products like sulphur, turbines. In many ways this is one of the hydrocarbons, water vapour, etc. cleanest technologies, but it also has a Biomass cost that has to be considered. Biomass energy uses the natural process Pros and cons of photosynthesis and other biological • Reliable: Compared to the other energy production that occurs with “clean” powers such as geothermal, solar organic subjects. and wind; hydro power is far more Pros and Cons reliable as the water is more predictable in its amounts and delivery. www.ijar.org.in 5 International Journal of Academic Research ISSN: 2348-7666; Vol.3, Issue-12(2), December, 2016 Impact Factor: 4.535; Email: [email protected]
• Clean: Using hydro power used by the power plant can hurt the reduces the need to burn fossil fuels. The fish population by changing the output from the plant also has a very currents in the water and interrupting light carbon and air pollutant emission feeding and spawning patterns. rate. • Natural Occurrences: This is the • Cost Effective: While costly to term used to describe such factors as build and having a high maintenance drought that can change the expected budget, the long term cost of a capacity of a hydro power plant. As of hydropower system is much cheaper than yet, there is little man can do to control traditional power plants. certain natural occurrences that can • Renewable: Water exists on the reduce the plant’s output. Earth and in the atmosphere. It is List of Examples of Renewable constantly renewing itself so this makes Commodities hydro power a renewable energy source. • Major grains such as Wheat, Rice • Multipurpose Raw Material: If and Corn you view water as a raw material, and • Leather and meats supplied by the reservoir as the holder for that animals material than you can see that there are • Fruits and vegetables multiple uses for the water at the same • Paper, furniture and oxygen all time it is used for power. It can host supplied by trees wildlife, irrigate farmland, provide • Bio based chemicals such as drinking water and be a point of butanol and acetone recreational activities for the Sources of Power Generation in India- community. Discussion: In this section main sources • Marine Life Endangerment: of power generation along with other While building a dam creates a reservoir scopes are discussed. As may be seen that becomes a marine habitat, it only from the table-1, coal is the major does so by destroying the natural one source of power generation followed by that exists. This can interrupt the hydro-electricity. ecology of the area. Also, the turbines Table1: Main sources of Power Generation in India
Source Utilities Capacity (MW) % Coal 164,635.88 61.51 Hydroelectricity 41,267.43 15.42 Renewable energy source 3,692.14 11.84 Natural Gas 23,062.15 8.61 Source: www.google.co.in/different+soruces+of+power+generation+in+india (dt.15/11/16) In table-2, gives an idea about the achieved by the year 2022 are Andhra sources of non-renewable energy in Pradesh (9834 MW), Haryana (4142 India. Among the sources solar power is MW), Rajasthan (5762MW), the major one followed by wind power. Punjab(4772MW), Uttar Pradesh As per the Ministry of New and (10697MW), Gujarat (8020MW), Renewable Energy, Government of Maharashtra(11926MW), Tamil Nadu India, the renewable power target to be (8884MW) and West Bengal(5336MW) . www.ijar.org.in 6 International Journal of Academic Research ISSN: 2348-7666; Vol.3, Issue-12(2), December, 2016 Impact Factor: 4.535; Email: [email protected]
In case of wind power, Andhra Pradesh, and Telangana are in the list– highest Rajasthan, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Tamil Nadu with 11900 MW and lowest Maharashtra, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu Telangana (2000MW).
Table 2: Scheme wise Physical Progress of Non-renewable sources in 2016-17 (upto September 2016) Sector 1. 2016-17 Target Achievement (April- September 2016) I. GRID – INTERACTIVE POWER (CAPACITIES IN MW) Wind Power 4000.00 1305.50 Solar Power 12000.00 1750.38 Small Hydro Power 250.00 49.40 Bio Power (Biomass & Gasification 400.00 51.00 and Bagasse Cogeneration) Waste to Power 10.00 7.50 Total 16660.00 3163.78 II. OFF-GRID/ CAPTIVE POWER (CAPACITIES IN MW) Waste to Energy 15.00 2.24 Biomass (non-bagasse) Cogeneration 60.00 0.00 Biomass Gasifiers Rural 2.00 0.00 Industrial 8.00 2.40 Aero-Generators/ Hybrid systems 1.00 0.20 SPV Systems 100.00 48.13 Water mills/ micro hydel 1 MW + 500 Water 0.10 MW + 100 Water Mills Mills Total 187.00 53.07 III. OTHER RENEWABLE ENERGY SYSTEMS Family Biogas Plants (in Lakhs) 1.00 0.17 Source: Ministry of New & Renewable Energy, Government of India
Wind energy was not generated in other Perumangalam hamlet, Kodavasal block, states so if possible scope may be found Thiruvarur district Tamil Nadu. Out of out. In case of biomass power, power total population 453 (134 households) at target to be achieved by the year 2022 for Perumangalam, 308 were scheduled the leading states are Uttar Pradesh caste (SC) and 145 other caste. All the (3499 MW), Maharashtra (2469 MW) and SC households were landless. The male Karnataka (1420 MW). Here also scope members of the hamlets for their may be exploited for generation of livelihood go to nearby town (Kovasal) biomass power for other states. and work as non-agricultural activities like mason helper to mason etc. The Use of Solar Light: A Case from Tamil women members in the village Nadu: The case was studied by the sometimes work as agricultural author atAnnavasal village of labourers. In this village for the use
www.ijar.org.in 7 International Journal of Academic Research ISSN: 2348-7666; Vol.3, Issue-12(2), December, 2016 Impact Factor: 4.535; Email: [email protected] women and children, solar light was Durga Devi (35 years), Ms. Kodiarasi (36 installed under a programme of years), Ms. Madhumati (34), Ms. Government of India in a sanitary Nagavalli (40), Ms. Renuka (30), Ms. complex. Ramamirdham (36), Ms. Sudha (27), Ms. This solar light is a part of a sanitary Satya Vani (40) and Ms. Challamma (44). complex used by SC women. A sanitary All in unison told they were fully complex in 2002-03 was constructed for satisfied with the installation of solar the use of SC women in the hamlet from light project. Earlier at night they were the State’s fund. Altogether 10 toilets - 8 scared to go to sanitary complex because for adults and one each for the children of darkness but the issue with the and persons with disability and 4 installation of solar light was addressed. bathrooms were constructed for the use Now at any time complex was used by of women with an amount of Rs. 2.5 the women and children of the locality. lakh. From panchayat fund one bore well with pump set was installed for Government of India’s initiative of power continuous availability of water by supply in rural India: costing Rs. 1.80 lakh as without water The Prime Minister Shri Narendra Modi sanitation and bathing are meaningless. has launched Deen Dayal Upadhyaya Since the users were women so at the Gram Jyoti Yojana (DDUGJY) on th night women had to face problem to use 25 July 2015. The DDUGJY is one of latrines or bathrooms and lighting the flagship programmes of the Ministry arrangement was the felt ad demanded. of Power and will facilitate 24x7 supply To address the issue under PMAGY, two of power. The DDUGJY Scheme solar lights costing Rs. 80,000 (each approved by the Union costing Rs 40,000) were installed in the Government draws its inspiration from sanitary complex in 2011-12 and thus the similar pioneering scheme problem was neutralized to a great implemented by the Government of extent. While carrying out the field Gujarat. This scheme will enable to study it was observed that the sanitary initiate much awaited reforms in the complex was used by the members of 5 rural areas. It focuses on feeder SHGs (30 members)viz. i) Mullai SHG ii) separation (rural households & Tamarai SHG iii) Anandam SHG, iv) agricultural) and strengthening of sub- Mettili SHG and v) Arpothan SHG. As transmission & distribution user charge each family had to pay at the infrastructure including metering at all rate of Rs. 20 per month and thus it was levels in rural areas. This will help in reported that a sum of Rs. 600 per month providing round the clock power to rural was collected as those only use the households and adequate power to latrine and bathroom pay the cost. With agricultural consumers.The earlier the money they purchase bleaching scheme for rural electrification viz. Rajiv powder and other items required for Gandhi Grameen Vidyutikaran Yojana cleaning the complex. The SHG members (RGGVY) has been subsumed in the new every month on rotation basis at free scheme as its rural electrification service charge maintain the complex. To component. get an idea about the utility of the The major components of the scheme complex after installing of solar light few are feeder separation; strengthening of persons were contacted. They were Ms. sub-transmission and distribution www.ijar.org.in 8 International Journal of Academic Research ISSN: 2348-7666; Vol.3, Issue-12(2), December, 2016 Impact Factor: 4.535; Email: [email protected] network; Metering at all levels (input As per the data till February 2016, points, feeders and distribution 5855 villages in India were electrified in transformers); Micro grid and off grid 11 months. distribution network & Rural "253 villages were electrified across the electrification- already sanctioned country during February 8-14, 2016 projects under RGGVY to be completed. under Deen Dayal Upadhyaya Gram The Scheme has an outlay of Rs Jyoti Yojana," the power ministry said in 76000 crore for implementation of the a statement. Again, out of 253 villages, projects under which Government of 111 were in Odisha, 81 in Assam, 40 in India shall provide Grant of Rs 63000 Jharkhand, 13 in Rajasthan, 4 in Bihar, 3 crore. A total of Rs 14680 crore worth in Madhya Pradesh and 1 in Uttar projects have already been approved out Pradesh,. of which projects amounting to Rs 5827 Conclusion and suggestions: crore have been approved for Bihar state. It is evident from the above that Under this scheme, an Agriculture Government of India is serious to provide intensive state like Bihar shall benefit electricity across India and launching of from works of feeder separation. Deen Dayal Upadhyaya Gram Jyoti Thousands of kilometres of new lines Yojana is a laudable step but it is shall be laid and hundreds of new suggested that more measures should be substations have been planned. The taken to promote renewable sources of implementation of this scheme shall energy like more use of solar energy, ensure the improvement in agricultural wind energy, biomass etc. as data reveal productivity and electrification of all the many states many biomass energy has households. not been promoted at all. So scope may Benefits from the scheme be found outin this regard along with All villages and households shall otherrenewable sources. be electrified Increase in agriculture yield References: Business of Small and household Aruna Jayamani R. and S K enterprises shall grow resulting Sathyaprabha, “Decentralized into new avenues for employment Renewable Energy in Odanthurai Improvement in Health, Panchayat, Coimbatore District, Tamil Education, Banking (ATM) Nadu”. Asia-Pacific Journal of Social services Sciences, Special Issue No.2, December Improvement in accessibility to 2011, P 1-11 radio, telephone, television, internet and mobile etc. http://mnre.gov.in/mission-and-vision- Betterment in social security due 2/mission-and-vision. to availability of electricity http://indiatoday.intoday.in/education/sto Accessibility of electricity to ry/deen-dayal-upadhyaya-gram-jyoti- schools, panchayats, hospitals and yojna dt. 22/11/2016 police stations etc Rural areas shall get increased opportunities for comprehensive development
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The Indian Energy Sector – Emerging Scenario
Dr. Surya Rao. Kappagantula, Former Director, P.G. Courses & Research Centre, D.N.R. College, Bhimavaram Abstract: Energy plays an important role in the process of economic development of a country. It is because, energy requires in every sphere of activity. Hence, achieving energy security is of fundamental importance not only to India’s economic growth, but also for the human development objectives that aim at alleviation of poverty, unemployment and meeting the Millennium Development Goals. Indian share in the World consumption of coal is more than its production to the extent of 123.3 million tonnes of oil equivalent and thus imports of coal account for 43 per cent of Indian production of coal. Indian share in the World consumption of oil is more than its production by 3283 thousand barrels per day. Hence, India is noticed to import 3283 thousand barrels per day and thus import of oil recorded for 375 per cent of Indian production of oil. Indian share in the World consumption of natural gas is more than its production by 21.4 billion cubic meters and thus, import of natural gas recorded for 73 per cent of Indian production of oil. India is found to consume nuclear energy to the extent of 8.6 million tonnes oil equivalent (1.5 percentage of share in World), 28.1 million tonnes oil equivalent (3.2 percentage share in World) hydroelectricity and 15.5 million tonnes oil equivalent (4.2 percentage in World) of renewable energy. The analysis implies that based on the projected estimates of availability and requirement of energy by 2030, a change in the mix of generation of energy by fuel source is observed. Renewable sources will account for 9 per cent of power generation in 2017, up from 6 per cent in 2012; they will then increase again to 16 per cent in 2030. On the other hand, power from hydro-capacity is expected to fall from 15 per cent in 2012 to 11 per cent in 2030, and nuclear power generation to increase from 3 per cent in 2012 to 5 per cent in 2017, then to 12 per cent in 2030. Overall, the renewable sector is expected to increase from 26 per cent in 2012 to 39 per cent in 2030. Further, wind power accounts nearly 8.6 per cent of India's total installed power generation capacity and generated 28,604 million KWh (MU) during year 2015-16 which is nearly 2.5 per cent of total electricity generation. The capacity utilisation factor accounts for nearly 14 per cent. Hence, it is better for the India to concentrate more on the generation of energy from wind power.
Key words: energy, economic development, Millennium Development Goals
Introduction: energy consumption can be considered as a barometer of economic development of Energy plays an important role in a country. Definitely after food, energy the process of economic development of a can be regarded as most important country. It is because, energy requires in requirement for economic development of every sphere of activity. Energy is a country and for improving the quality required right from primary sector to of life of the people. Hence, every secondary manufacturing sector and even economy should plan to ensure sharp in service sector. Hence, the per capita increase in the production of energy. www.ijar.org.in 10 International Journal of Academic Research ISSN: 2348-7666; Vol.3, Issue-12(2), December, 2016 Impact Factor: 4.535; Email: [email protected]
Achieving energy security in this within just 45 years and 65 years strategic sense is of fundamental respectively, while coal reserves are likely importance not only to India’s economic to last a little over 200 years. Although, growth but also for the human 80 percent of the world’s population lies development objectives that aim at in the developing countries, their energy alleviation of poverty, unemployment and consumption amounts to only 40 percent meeting the Millennium Development of the world total energy consumption. Goals (MDGs). However, the The high standards of living in the development of energy source is highly developed countries are attributable to capital intensive and as a result, attracts high-energy consumption levels. Also, the major allocations in various plans. rapid population growth in the However, despite such large investments developing countries has kept the per in energy sector, it is pertinent to note capita energy consumption low compared that there is a growing shortage of energy with that of highly industrialized in all sectors of our economy. developed countries.
India and Global Energy Reserves: India and Global Production and Consumption of Energy: The global coal reserves1 were estimated to be at 8,91,531 million tonnes by the The World coal production5 by 2015 stood end of 2015. The USA had the largest at 3830.1 million tonnes of oil equivalent, share of the global reserve (26.6 per cent) while China stood first among the World followed by Russia (17.6 per cent), China producers of coal with 1827 million (12.8 per cent), Australia (8.6 per cent) tonnes of oil equivalent (47.7 per cent) and India (6.8 per cent). The global oil followed by USA with 455.2 million reserves2 were estimated to be 1700 tonnes of oil equivalent (11.9 per cent), billion barrels by the end of 2015. India 283.9 million tonnes of oil Venezuela had the largest share of the equivalent (7.4 per cent), Australia 275 reserve with 17.7 per cent followed by million tonnes of oil equivalent (7.2 per Saudi Arabia (15.7 per cent), Canada cent) and Indonesia 241.1 million tonnes (10.1per cent), Iran (9.3 per cent), Iran of oil equivalent (6.3 per cent). Among (8.4 per cent), Russia and Kuwait each the World consumers of coal, China with 6 Per cent. However, India has a topped the list with 1920.4 million tonnes reserve capacity of only 0.2 per cent. The of oil equivalent (50 per cent) followed by global natural gas reserves3 were India with 407.2 million tonnes of oil estimated to be 187 trillion cubic metres equivalent (10.6 per cent), USA 119.4 by the end of 2015. Iran had the largest million tonnes of oil equivalent (10.3 per share of the reserve with almost 18 per cent), Japan 119.4 million tonnes of oil cent followed by The Russian Federation equivalent (3.1 per cent), Russia 88.7 (17.3 per cent), Qatar (13.1 per cent), million tonnes of oil equivalent (2.3 per Turkmenistan (9.4 per cent), USA (5.6 cent), South Korea and South Africa each per cent). However, the natural gas with 85 million tonnes of oil equivalent reserves in case of India accounted for (2.2 per cent). It is clear that Indian only 0.3 per cent. share in the World consumption of coal is more than its production to the extent of As per expert estimates, World oil and 123.3 million tonnes of oil equivalent and gas reserves4 are estimated to deplete
www.ijar.org.in 11 International Journal of Academic Research ISSN: 2348-7666; Vol.3, Issue-12(2), December, 2016 Impact Factor: 4.535; Email: [email protected] thus imports of coal account for 43 per to be the second largest producer of cent of Indian production of coal. natural gas with 573.3 billion cubic meters (16.1 percentage share in World) The World oil production6 by 2015 and second largest consumer with 197.3 recorded as 91670 thousand barrels per billion cubic meters (11.2 percentage day. Among the countries, USA stood share in World). China is found to the first among the World producers and third largest consumer of natural gas consumers of oil with 12704 thousand with 197.3 billion cubic meters (5.7 barrels per day (13.85 percentage share percentage share in World) against in World) and 19396 thousand barrels per production of 138 billion cubic meters of day (19.7 percentage share in World) natural gas (5th largest producer with 3.9 respectively. Thus, USA is noticed to be percentage share in World). However, net importer of oil by 6692 thousand India is observed to be the 6th largest barrels per day and thus accounted for 53 consumer and producer of natural gas per cent of US production of oil. with 50.6 billion cubic meters (1.5 However, China is noticed to be the percentage share in World) against the second largest consumer with 11968 production of 29.2 billion cubic meters thousand barrels per day (12.9 (0.8 percentage share in World) percentage share in World) against respectively. It is clear that Indian share production of 4309 thousand barrels per in the World consumption is more than day (4th biggest producer with 4.9 its production by 21.4 billion cubic percentage share in World) followed by meters and thus, import of natural gas India with 4159 thousand barrels per day recorded for 73 per cent of Indian (4.5 percentage share in World) against production of oil. India is found to import production of 876 thousand barrels per natural gas in liquefied gas form from day (5th biggest producer with 0.9 Qatar, Nigeria, Australia, Oman, Yemen percentage share in World). Thus, it is and Malaysia. clear that Indian share in the World consumption is more than its production The Nuclear energy8 consumption of by 3283 thousand barrels per day. Hence, World by 2015 is noticed to be 583.1 India is noticed to import 3283 thousand million tonnes oil equivalent, while USA barrels per day and thus import of oil is observed to be the first largest recorded for 375 per cent of Indian consumer with 189.9 million tonnes oil production of oil. India has been equivalent (32.6 percentage share in importing oil from Middle East, West World) followed by France 99 million Africa, South & Central America, Mexico, tonnes oil equivalent (17 percentage North Africa and other Asia Pacific. share in World), Russia 44.2 million tonnes oil equivalent (7.6 percentage The World natural gas7 production by share in World) and China 38.6 million 2015 stood at 3538.6 billion cubic meters. tonnes oil equivalent (6.6 percentage Among the countries, USA stood first share in World). However, India is found among the World producers and to consume nuclear energy to the extent consumers of natural gas with 767.3 of 8.6 million tonnes oil equivalent (1.5 billion cubic meters (22 percentage share percentage of share in World). in World) and 778 billion cubic meters (22.8 percentage share in World) The Hydro Electricity9 consumption of respectively. Further, Russia is noticed World by 2015 is noticed to be 892.1 www.ijar.org.in 12 International Journal of Academic Research ISSN: 2348-7666; Vol.3, Issue-12(2), December, 2016 Impact Factor: 4.535; Email: [email protected] million tonnes oil equivalent of which World) and India 362 thousand tonnes oil China is observed to be the first largest equivalent (0.5 percentage share in consumer with 254.9 million tonnes oil World) respectively. equivalent (28.5 percentage share in The global primary energy12 consumption World) followed by Canada with 86.7 by the end of 2015 was equivalent to million tonnes oil equivalent (9.7 13147.3 million tonnes of oil equivalent. percentage share in World), Brazil 81.7 Among the countries, China is noticed to million tonnes oil equivalent (9.1 be the highest primary energy consumer percentage share in World), USA 57.4 with 3014 million tonnes of oil equivalent (6.4 percentage share in World) and (22.9 per cent share in World) followed by Norway 31.1 million tonnes oil equivalent the USA with 2280.6 million tonnes of oil (3.5 percentage share in World). equivalent (17.3 per cent share in World), However, India is found to consume 28.1 India 700.5 million tonnes of oil million tonnes oil equivalent (3.2 equivalent (5.3 per cent share in World), percentage share in World) Russia 666.8 million tonnes of oil hydroelectricity. equivalent (5.1 per cent share in World), The World Consumption10 of Renewable Japan 448.5 million tonnes of oil energy (which includes wind, geo- equivalent (3.4 per cent share in World) thermal, solar, biomass and waste) stood and Canada 329.9 million tonnes of oil at 364.9 million tonnes oil equivalent and equivalent (2.5 per cent share in World). USA with a consumption of 71.7 million Thus, India is said to be 3rd largest tonnes oil equivalent (19.7 percentage in primary energy consumer next only to World) is noticed to be largest consumer China and USA. in the World. China is the second largest Energy Crisis: producer in the World with 62.7 million tonnes oil equivalent (17.2 percentage in The crisis is not only related to India World) followed by Germany with 40 alone, but can be considered as a global million tonnes oil equivalent (11 crisis. However, the impact of crisis percentage in World) and India with 15.5 would be much more on an economy like million tonnes oil equivalent (4.2 India, which is striving to achieve percentage in World). development, besides heavy population pressures. Shortage of oil, coal and power The World Bio fuels11 production by 2015 affects the Indian economy to a large stood at 74847 thousand tonnes oil extent due to linkages. For example, oil equivalent. Among the countries, USA shortage affects not only the transport topped the tally with producers of 30983 sector directly, but also industrial sector thousand tonnes oil equivalent (41.4 as movement of raw materials from the percentage share in World) followed by source to the factory and finished goods Brazil with 17636 thousand tonnes oil from the factory to the markets depend equivalent (23.6 percentage share in on transport sector. In 2009, India was World), Germany 3130 thousand tonnes the sixth largest net importer of oil in the oil equivalent (4.2 percentage share in world, importing nearly 2.1 million World), China 2430 thousand tonnes oil barrels per day, or about 70 percent, of its equivalent (3.2 percentage share in oil needs. The EIA expects India to World) , Indonesia 1344 thousand tonnes become the fourth largest net importer of oil equivalent (1.8 percentage share in www.ijar.org.in 13 International Journal of Academic Research ISSN: 2348-7666; Vol.3, Issue-12(2), December, 2016 Impact Factor: 4.535; Email: [email protected] oil in the world by 2025, behind the the world’s population, India is a United States, China, and Japan. EIA significant consumer of energy resources. expects approximately 100 thousand In 2009, India was the fourth largest oil barrels/day of annual consumption consumer in the world, after the United growth through 2011. In a similar States, China, and Japan. Despite the manner, coal shortage affects not only global financial crisis, India’s energy the industrial sector as an agent of heat, demand continues to rise. According to but also the electricity generation and the International Energy Agency (IEA), thus, hampers the economic by 2007 coal/peat account for nearly 40 development. Coal consumption in India percent of India’s total energy is expected to increase from 359 million consumption, followed by nearly 27 tonnes in 2000 to 430 million tonnes by percent for combustible renewable and 2010. Power shortage in turn not only waste. Oil accounts for nearly 24 percent hampers industrial production, but also of total energy consumption, natural gas agricultural production. 6 percent, hydroelectric power almost 2 percent, nuclear energy nearly 1 percent, Indian Energy Sector: and other renewable energy with less India is the world’s sixth largest than 0.5 percent14. Although nuclear energy consumer. However the per capita power comprises a very small percentage energy consumption in India is still one of total energy consumption at this time, of the lowest in the world. The per capita it is expected to increase in the light of consumption of energy in the country is international civil nuclear energy found to be 510 KG Oil equivalent cooperation deals. (KGOE)/day against, the per capita Table 1 furnishes information consumption of 803 KGOE/day in about estimates relating to 12th Plan Indonesia, 1191 KGOE/day in Brazil, energy estimates15. India’s twelfth five 1433 KGOE/day in China and 1702 year plan estimates that an additional KGOE/day in Mexico. At the same time, capacity of 75,785 MW is required over the world average per capita consumption the plan period, giving a total capacity of of energy is noticed to be 1818KGOE/day. approximately 276,000 MW. Of this Further, Per capita consumption of added capacity, the Plan estimates that energy in India was only 6.5 percent of thermal energy derived from coal and that in the USA, 7.3 percent of Singapore lignite will account for 79 per cent, up and 8.6 percent of Australia.13 Although from 76 per cent in the previous plan. commercial energy consumption in India Hydro-power is expected to generate has been steadily increasing over the last 10,897 MW (about 14 per cent of the two decades, yet it is much lower than estimated additional capacity), and that of the developed and even developing nuclear capacity 5,300 MW (about 7 per countries. Further, urban areas are cent). Energy imports from Bhutan are consuming 80 percent of total energy expected to total 1,200 MW (1.36 per with only 28 percent of the population, cent). In the renewable sector, the while rural areas consume only 20 planned total addition to capacity of percent with 72 percent of population. 30,000 MW comprises wind power With economic growth rate of account for 15,000 MW (50 per cent), about 7 per cent and over 15 percent of while solar power account for 10,000 MW
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(33 per cent) and small-hydro power is account for 11,000 MW (36 per cent), expected to provide 2100 MW (7 per cent) while solar power account for 16,000 MW and the remaining 2900 MW (about 10%) (52 per cent) and small-hydro power is is expected to produce from biomass. expected to provide 1500 MW (5 per cent) Thus, the projected growth rate in power and the remaining 2900 MW (about 7%) generation over the period 2012-2017 is is expected to produce from biomass. expected to be 9.8 per cent. The estimates also reveal that Table 2 presents information based on expected growth rate of 6 per about the estimates of availability and cent, the estimated availability of energy requirements relating to 13th Plan period for the period (2022 – 2030) increased 2017 – 2022 and up to 203016. The from 13,50,970 MW to 17,49,042 MB, estimates are based on projected growth while the requirement increased from rate 6 per cent and 9 per cent. Thus, 14,75,694 MW to 19,12,633 MW. At the based on expected growth rate of 6 per same time, based on expected growth rate cent, the estimated availability of energy of 9 per cent, the estimated availability of for the 13th Plan period increased from energy increased from 14,75,557 MW to 151,570 MW to 177,571 MB, while the 21,01,358 MB, while the requirement requirement increased from 164,801 MW increased from 15,63,417 MW to to 191,467 MW. At the same time, based 21,92,571 MW. Thus, based on expected 6 on expected growth rate of 9 per cent, the per cent of growth rate, the availability of estimated availability of energy increased energy during the period 2022 – 2030 is from 157,483 MW to 191,597 MB, while expected to grow at an annual rate of 22 the requirement increased from 169,876 per cent, while at an expected growth MW to 203,506 MW. Thus, the analysis rate of 9 per cent, the availability of implies that based on expected 6 per cent energy is expected to increase at annual of growth rate, the availability of energy rate of 42 per cent. during the 13th Plan is expected to grow Conclusion: at an annual rate of 17 per cent, while at an expected growth rate of 9 per cent, the The analysis implies that based on the availability of energy is expected to projected estimates of availability and increase at annual rate of 29 per cent. requirement of energy by 2030, a change in the mix of generation of energy by fuel Table 3 presents information source is observed. Renewable sources relating to expected capacity Expansion will account for 9 per cent of power for 13th Plan (2017 – 22)17. The generation in 2017, up from 6 per cent in Plan estimates an expected additional 2012; they will then increase again to 16 capacity of 93,400 MW of which thermal per cent in 2030. On the other hand, energy will be expected to generate power from hydro-capacity is expected to 63,400 MW (about 68 per cent), Hydro- fall from 15 per cent in 2012 to 11 per power is expected to generate 12,000 MW cent in 2030, and nuclear power (about 13 per cent of the estimated generation to increase from 3 per cent in additional capacity), and nuclear capacity 2012 to 5 per cent in 2017, then to 12 per 18,000 MW (about 19 per cent). In the cent in 2030. Overall, the renewable renewable sector, an additional capacity sector is expected to increase from 26 per of 30,500 MW is planned to generate, out cent in 2012 to 39 per cent in 2030. of which wind power is planned to www.ijar.org.in 15 International Journal of Academic Research ISSN: 2348-7666; Vol.3, Issue-12(2), December, 2016 Impact Factor: 4.535; Email: [email protected]
Further, wind power accounts nearly 8.6 per cent. Hence, it is better for the India per cent of India's total installed power to concentrate more on the generation of generation capacity and generated 28,604 energy from wind power. million KWh (MU) during year 2015-16 which is nearly 2.5 per cent of total electricity generation. The capacity utilisation factor accounts for nearly 14 Table 1: 12th Five Year Plan Estimate of Energy (2012 – 2017) Total Installed Capacity at Start of Plan Period 1,99,877 MW Estimated Demand Over Plan Period 2,76,000 MW Planned Expansion Type wise: Thermal (inc. coal & lignite) 59,870 MW (79%) Hydro 10,897 MW (14%) Nuclear 5,300 MW (7%) Total 76,067 MW (100%) Planned Expansion of Renewable Energy Type: Wind 15,000 MW (50%) Solar 10,000 MW (33%) Small Hydro 2,100 MW (7%) Biomass 2,900 MW (10%) Total 30,000 MW (100%) Source: Meeting India’s Energy Requirements in 2030
Table 2: Estimates of Energy for 13th Five Year Plan (2017 – 22) and up to 2030
6% GDP Growth 9 % GDP Growth Year Availability Requirement Availability Requirement (MWh) (MWh) (MWh) (MWh) 2017-2018 1,51,570 1,64,801 1,57,483 1,69,876 2018-2019 1,57,806 1,71,225 1,65,370 1,77,716 2019-2020 1,64,218 1,77,810 1,73,706 1,85,953 2020-2021 1,70,805 1,84,557 1,82,357 1,94,470 2021-2022 1,77,571 1,91,467 1,91,597 2,03,506 2022-2023 13,50,970 14,75,694 14,75,557 15,63,417 2023-2024 13,98,593 15,38,556 15,44,625 16,43,502 2024-2025 14,61,028 15,84,480 16,32,590 17,09,702 2025-2026 15,08,974 16,53,073 17,10,152 18,03,428 2026-2027 15,63,755 17,17,948 17,96,590 18,95,032 2027-2028 16,29,881 17,73,016 18,98,458 19,80,141 2028-2029 16,83,787 18,47,725 19,92,190 20,89,603 2029-2030 17,49,042 19,12,633 21,01,358 21,92,571 Source: Meeting India’s Energy Requirements in 2030
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Table 3: Capacity Addition for 13th Five Year Plan (2012 – 2017)*
Planned Expansion Type wise: Thermal 63,400 MW (68%) Hydro 12,000 MW (13%) Nuclear 18,000 MW (19%) Total 93,400 MW (100%) Planned Expansion of Renewable Energy Type: Wind 11,000 MW (36%) Solar 16,000 MW (52%) Small Hydro 1,500 MW (5%) Biomass 2,000 MW (7%) Total 30,500 MW (100%)
Source: Meeting India’s Energy Requirements in 2030 Notes & References: 1.BP Statistical Review of World Energy, June 2015, P30 2.ibid P6 3.ibid P20 4. Arun Prabhudesai @track.in 5.BP Statistical Review of World Energy, June 2015 pp 32-33 6.ibid pp 8-9 7.ibid pp 22–23 8.ibid p35 9.ibid p 36 10.ibid p 38 11.ibid p 39 12.ibid p 40 13. Arun Prabhudesai @track.in 14.India Energy Data, Statistics and Analysis - Oil, Gas, Electricity, Coal, P1 Meeting India’s Energy Requirements in 2030, Lindsay, Hughes, Strategic Analysis Paper, 20,June 2013, P22 15.Ibid pp 18-19 16.Ibid P8
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Environment and Climate Change - India’s Perspective: Issues and intricacies
P.Ramakrishnam Raju, Principal, D.N.R. (A) College, Bhimavaram-534 202
Abstract: Climate Change is a serious global environmental concern. It is primarily caused by the building up of Green House Gases (GHG) in the atmosphere. The global increases in carbon dioxide concentration are due primarily to fossil fuel use and land use change, while those of methane and nitrous oxide are primarily due to agriculture. Global Warming is a specific example of the broader term „Climate Change‟ and refers to the observed increase in the average temperature of the air near earth’s surface and oceans in recent decades. Its effect particularly on developing countries is adverse as their capacity and resources to deal with the challenge is limited. Scientific studies have shown that the global atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide which are the most important Green House Gases, have increased markedly as a result of human activities since 1750 and now far exceed pre- industrial values. Key words: Climate Change, Green House Gases, fossil fuel,
Introduction Climate Change. The IPCC is currently engaged in the preparation of Fifth Climate Change is a serious global Assessment Report on Climate Change environmental concern. It is primarily through three working group’s viz. caused by the building up of Green House Working Group I on Climate Change will Gases (GHG) in the atmosphere. The present the physical science basis; Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Working Group II on Climate Change Change is a specialized body jointly deals with impacts, adaptation and established by the United Nations vulnerability; and Working Group III Environmental Programme (UNEP) and deals with assessment for mitigation of the World Meteorological Organisation Climate Change. mandated to prepare scientific assessments on various aspects of Impacts Of Climate Change On India Climate Change. The key environmental challenges in Intergovernmental Panel on Climate India have been sharper in the past two Change (Ipcc) decades. Climate change is impacting the natural ecosystems and is expected to The Intergovernmental Panel on have substantial adverse effects in India, Climate Change is a specialized body mainly on agriculture on which 58 per jointly established by the United Nations cent of the population still depends for Environmental Programme (UNEP) and livelihood, water storage in the the World Meteorological Organisation Himalayan glaciers which are the source mandated to prepare scientific of major rivers and groundwater assessments on various aspects of recharge, sea-level rise, and threats to a www.ijar.org.in 18 International Journal of Academic Research ISSN: 2348-7666; Vol.3, Issue-12(2), December, 2016 Impact Factor: 4.535; Email: [email protected] long coastline and habitations. Climate Climate Change. The Convention takes change will also cause increased this into consideration by accepting that frequency of extreme events such as the share of Green House Gas emissions floods, and droughts. These in turn will produced by developing nations will grow impact India’s food security problems and in the coming years. Nonetheless, in the water security.2 interests of fulfilling its ultimate goal, it seeks to help such countries limit The International Response to Climate emissions in ways that will not hinder Change their economic progress. The United Nations’ Framework The Kyoto Protocol: Convention on Climate Change (UNFCC) The Kyoto Protocol is an The UNFCCC entered into force international agreement linked to the on 21 March 1994. The 195 countries United Nations Framework Convention that have ratified the Convention are on Climate Change, which commits its called Parties to the Convention. The Parties by setting internationally binding UNFCCC is a “Rio Convention”, adopted emission reduction targets. Recognizing at the “Rio Earth Summit” in 1992. The that developed countries are principally ultimate objective of the Convention is to responsible for the current high levels of stabilize Green House Gas concentrations GHG emissions in the atmosphere as a "at a level that would prevent dangerous result of more than 150 years of anthropogenic (human induced) industrial activity, the Protocol places a interference with the climate system." It heavier burden on developed nations states that "such a level should be under the principle of "common but achieved within a time-frame sufficient to differentiated responsibilities." allow ecosystems to adapt naturally to Climate Change, to ensure that food The Kyoto Protocol was adopted production is not threatened, and to in Kyoto, Japan, on 11 December 1997 enable economic development to proceed and entered into force on 16 February in a sustainable manner." The 2005. The detailed rules for the Convention puts the onus on developed implementation of the Protocol were countries to lead the way. The idea is adopted at COP 7 in Marrakesh, that, as they are the source of most past Morocco, in 2001, and are referred to as and current Green House Gas emissions, the "Marrakesh Accords." Its first industrialized countries are expected to commitment period started in 2008 and do the most to cut emissions on home ended in 2012. ground. They are called Annex I Under the Protocol, countries countries and belong to the Organization must meet their targets primarily for Economic Cooperation and through national measures. However, the Development (OECD). They include 12 Protocol also offers them an additional countries with "economies in transition" means to meet their targets by way of from Central and Eastern Europe. three market-based mechanisms: (i) Industrialized nations agree under the International Emissions Trading (IET); Convention to support Climate Change (ii) Clean Development Mechanism activities in developing countries by (CDM); and (iii) Joint implementation providing financial support for action on (JI). www.ijar.org.in 19 International Journal of Academic Research ISSN: 2348-7666; Vol.3, Issue-12(2), December, 2016 Impact Factor: 4.535; Email: [email protected]
The mechanisms help to Plan, which charts the course for a new stimulate green investment and help negotiating process designed to tackle Parties meet their emission targets in a Climate Change. The Bali Action Plan is cost-effective way. In Doha, Qatar, on 8 a comprehensive process to enable the December 2012, the "Doha Amendment full, effective and sustained to the Kyoto Protocol" was adopted. The implementation of the Convention amendment includes: through long-term cooperative action, now, up to and beyond 2012, in order to New commitments for Annex I reach an agreed outcome and adopt a Parties to the Kyoto Protocol who decision. All Parties to the Convention agreed to take on commitments were involved in crafting the Bali Road in a second commitment period Map. The COP decided that the process from 1 January 2013 to 31 would be conducted under a subsidiary December 2020; body under the Convention, the Ad Hoc A revised list of Green House Working Group on Long-term Gases (GHG) to be reported on by Cooperative Action (AWG-LCA). The Bali Parties in the second Action Plan is divided into five main commitment period; and categories: shared vision, mitigation, adaptation, technology and financing.5 Amendments to several articles of the Kyoto Protocol which The Copenhagen Accord: specifically referenced issues The 15th session of the pertaining to the first Conference of the Parties to the commitment period and which UNFCCC and the 5th session of the needed to be updated for the Conference of the Parties serving as the second commitment period. Meeting of the Parties to the Kyoto During the first commitment Protocol took place in Copenhagen, period, 37 industrialized countries and Denmark in 2009. It produced the the European Community committed to Copenhagen Accord. The Copenhagen reduce GHG emissions to an average of Accord contained several key elements on five percent against 1990 levels. During which there was strong convergence of the second commitment period, Parties the views of the Governments. This committed to reduce GHG emissions by included the long-term goal of limiting at least 18 percent below 1990 levels in the maximum global average the eight-year period from 2013 to 2020. temperature increase to no more than 2 degrees Celsius above pre-industrial The Bali Road Map: The Bali Road Map levels, subject to a review in 2015. It also was adopted at the 13th Conference of included a reference to consider limiting the Parties and the 3rd Meeting of the the temperature increase to below 1.5 Parties in December 2007 in Bali. The degrees - a key demand made by Road Map is a set of forward-looking vulnerable developing countries. decisions that represent the work that Developed countries promise to fund needs to be done under various actions to reduce Green House Gas negotiating “tracks” that is essential to emissions and to adapt to the inevitable reaching a secure climate future. The effects of climate change in developing Bali Road Map includes the Bali Action countries. Developed countries promised www.ijar.org.in 20 International Journal of Academic Research ISSN: 2348-7666; Vol.3, Issue-12(2), December, 2016 Impact Factor: 4.535; Email: [email protected] to provide US$30 billion for the period atmosphere at a level that will prevent 2010-2012, and to mobilize long-term our dangerous interference with the finance of a further US$100 billion a year climate system and at the same time will by 2020 from a variety of sources. The preserve the right to sustainable work of the two central negotiating development. The developing countries, groups, the AWG-LCA and the AWG-KP especially the poorest and most was extended by the COP.6 vulnerable, will need much more support to adapt to the change that is already The Cancun Agreements: embedded in the global climate system. The Cancun Agreements form The Durban outcomes looked to the pillars of the largest collective effort address these challenges in a more the world has ever seen to reduce connected way by embodying a road map emissions, in a mutually accountable for implementation. On this map, four way, with national plans captured main areas of coordinated and formally at international level under the complementary action and banner of the UNFCCC. The Cancun implementation, designed also to build Agreements, reached on December 11 in and preserve trust among countries, were Cancun, Mexico, at the 2010 United agreed viz. (i) Second commitment period Nations Climate Change Conference, of the Kyoto Protocol; (ii) The launch of a represented key steps forward in new platform of negotiations under the capturing plans to reduce Green House Convention to deliver a new and Gas emissions and to help developing universal Green House Gas reduction nations protect themselves from climate protocol, legal instrument or other impacts and build their own sustainable outcome with legal force by 2015 for the futures. The main objectives include: (i) period beyond 2020; (iii) Conclusion in Mitigation; (ii) Transparency of actions; 2012 of existing broad-based stream of (iii) Technology; (iv) Adaptation; (v) negotiations; and (iv) To scope out and Forests; (vii) Capacity building; and (viii) then conduct a fresh global Review of the Finance. The objectives also include emerging climate challenge, based on the setting up the Green Climate Fund to best available science and data disburse $100 billion per year by 2020 to developing countries to assist them in The Doha Climate Gateway: mitigating Climate Change and adapting At the 2012 UN Climate Change to its impacts. Conference in Doha, Qatar (COP18/ The Durban Agreement: CMP8), and Governments consolidated the gains of the last three years of The United Nations Climate international Climate Change Change Conference at Durban in 2011, negotiations and opened a gateway to delivered a breakthrough on the necessary greater ambition and action on international community's response to all levels. Among the many decisions Climate Change. All Governments taken, Governments: committed in Durban to a comprehensive plan that would come closer over time to delivering the ultimate objective of the Strengthened their resolve and Climate Change Convention: to stabilize set out a timetable to adopt a Green House Gas concentrations in the www.ijar.org.in 21 International Journal of Academic Research ISSN: 2348-7666; Vol.3, Issue-12(2), December, 2016 Impact Factor: 4.535; Email: [email protected]
universal climate agreement by leaders in 2014 to mobilize political will 2015, which will come into effect to help ensure the 2015 deadline is met. in 2020. Climate change and India’s actions: Streamlined the negotiations, India’s emissions are estimated to completing the work under the be of the order of 1331.6 million tones of Bali Action Plan to concentrate the carbon dioxide equivalent Green on the new work towards a 2015 House Gas (GHG) emissions in 2007. The agreement under a single emissions indicate an annual growth of negotiating stream in the Ad hoc 4.2% from the levels in 1994. Whereas Working Group on the Durban India’s CO2 emissions are only about 4% Platform for Enhanced Action of total global CO2 emissions and much (ADP). less if the historical concentrations are Emphasized the need to increase taken into account. Still India has been their ambition to cut Green conscious of the global challenge of House Gases (GHGs) and to help Climate Change. vulnerable countries to adapt. In pursuance of the obligations Launched a new commitment cast on parties to the United Nations period under the Kyoto Protocol, Framework Convention on Climate thereby ensuring that this Change (UNFCCC), India has treaty's important legal and undertaken to communicate information accounting models remain in about the implementation of the place and underlining the Convention, taking into account the principle that developed countries common but differentiated lead mandated action to cut responsibilities and respective Green House Gas emissions. capabilities and their specific regional and national development priorities, Made further progress towards objectives and circumstances. The establishing the financial and elements of information provided in the technology support and new communication include a national institutions to enable clean inventory of anthropogenic emissions by energy investments and sources and removals by sinks of all sustainable growth in developing Green House Gases, a general description countries. of steps taken to implement the So that the world has a chance to Convention including an assessment of stay below an agreed maximum 2 degrees impacts and vulnerability and any other Celsius temperature rise, beyond which relevant information. India has even more serious Climate Change submitted the Second National impacts will occur, the Governments Communication (NATCOM) to the agreed to find ways to scale up efforts UNFCCC in 2012. The first National before 2020 beyond the existing pledges Communication was submitted in 2004. to curb emissions. Also in Doha, the UN As per the Second national Secretary General Ban Ki-moon Communication submitted by India to announced that he would convene world the UNFCCC, it is projected that the annual mean surface air temperature rise
www.ijar.org.in 22 International Journal of Academic Research ISSN: 2348-7666; Vol.3, Issue-12(2), December, 2016 Impact Factor: 4.535; Email: [email protected] by the end of the century ranges from 3.5 Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC) c to 4.3 c whereas the sea level along the coordinated by the Ministry of Indian coast has been rising at the rate of Environment and Forests is being about 1.3 mm/year on an average. These implemented through the nodal climate change projections are likely to Ministries in specific sectors/areas. On impact human health, agriculture, water June 30, 2008, Prime Minister, Dr. resources, natural ecosystems, and Manmohan Singh released India‟s first biodiversity. India’s strategy for National Action Plan on Climate Change addressing Climate Change is reflected in (NAPCC) outlining existing and future many of its social and economic policies and programs addressing climate development programmes. mitigation and adaptation. The plan identifies eight core “national missions” National Environment Policy: National viz. National Solar Mission, National Environment Policy, 2006 outlines Mission for Enhanced Energy Efficiency, essential elements of India’s response to National Mission on Sustainable Habitat, Climate Change. These, inter-alia, National Water Mission, National include adherence to principle of common Mission for Sustaining the Himalayan but differentiated responsibility and Ecosystem, National Mission for a respective capabilities of different “Green India”, National Mission for countries, identification of key Sustainable Agriculture, National vulnerabilities of India to Climate Mission on Strategic Knowledge for Change, in particular impacts on water Climate Change. Emphasizing the resources, forests, coastal areas, overriding priority of maintaining high agriculture and health, assessment of the economic growth rates to raise living need for adaptation to Climate Change standards, the plan “identifies measures and encouragement to the Indian that promote our development objectives Industry to participate in the Clean while also yielding co-benefits for Development Mechanism (CDM). addressing Climate Change effectively.” Prime Minister’s Council on Climate The NAPCC also describes other ongoing Change: The Prime Minister, Dr. initiatives, including: (i) Power Manmohan Singh, has set up a High Generation; (ii) Renewable Energy; and Level advisory group on climate change (iii) Energy Efficiency issues which include: Government All national missions have been Representatives and Non-Government approved by the Prime Minister’s Council Members. The Council coordinates on Climate Change and are at different National Action Plans for assessment, stages of implementation. Under advice adaptation and mitigation of Climate of the Central Government, State Change. It also advises the Government Governments are also preparing State on pro-active measures that can be taken Action Plans on Climate Change that are by India to deal with the challenge of aimed at creating institutional capacities Climate Change. It will also facilitate and implementing sect oral activities to inter-ministerial coordination and guide address Climate Change. So far, 21 States policy in relevant areas. namely Andaman and Nicobar, Andhra The National Action Plan on Climate Pradesh, Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Change (NAPCC): The National Action Delhi, Jammu & Kashmir, Kerala,
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Karnataka, Lakshadweep, Madhya different perspective on the issue of Pradesh, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Climate Change and mitigation methods. Nagaland, Odisha, Punjab, Rajasthan, Climate Change Action Programme Sikkim, Tripura, Uttarakhand, and West (CCAP): Bengal have prepared document on State Action Plan on Climate Change Various other science initiatives (SAPCC).11 are planned by the Ministry as part of the Climate Change Action Programme Parliamentary Forum on Global (CCAP). These include National Warming and Climate Change: The Carbonaceous Aerosols Programme Forum was constituted for the first time (NCAP), Long Term Ecological in 2008 and since then has been involving Observatories (LTEO), and Coordinated parliamentarians to interact with Studies on Climate Change for North specialists working on Global Warming East region (CSCCNE). The NCAP is a and Climate Change. Shri Girish Sant, major activity involving multi- Co-Founder of Prayas, Pune and institutional and multi-agency study. e- Coordinator of the Energy Group along Action Programme (CCAP). These with representatives of the Ministry of include National Carbonaceous Aerosols Environment and Forests and the Programme (NCAP), Long Term Ministry of Science and Technology had Ecological Observatories (LTEO), and been invited for giving a presentation on Coordinated Studies on Climate Change the Road Map for 20-25% Reduction in for North East region (CSCCNE). The the emission intensity of Indian GDP by NCAP is a major activity involving multi- the year 2020 as communicated by institutional and multi-agency study Government of India to the UNFCCC”. launched in 2011. In this initiative, About specific plans of the Government Ministry of Environment and Forests will in regard to Climate Change, Shri Sant collaborate with the Ministry of Earth apprised that Government was doing two Sciences, the Indian Space Research major things, one the NAPCC and second Organization, the Ministry of Science and the low carbon strategy for inclusive Technology and other associated agencies growth. to enhance the understanding of the role The Members of the Forum have of Black Carbon in climatic change been taking a lot of interest in the through monitoring and assess the meetings by participating in the impacts of black carbon through various discussions. Presentations on various modeling techniques. The work subjects relating to Climate Change like: programme envisages three Working Impact of Climate Change on Groups namely Long term Monitoring of Agriculture; Population, Resources & Aerosol (Working Group-I), Impact of Biodiversity with reference to Climate Aerosol on Himalayan Glaciers (Working Change; Technology and Climate Change; Group-II) and Modeling of Black Carbon National Solar Mission and related emissions inventory India and initiatives under the National Action assessment of its impacts (Working Plan on Climate Change; National Group-III). Mission on Sustainable Habitat, etc. have take en place. These give insight into
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Indian Network for Climate Change Programme (CCAP) ‟ - a new Assessment (INCCA): thematic/umbrella Scheme has been approved by the Planning Commission Steps have also been taken to for implementation during the 12th Five increase capacity at the institutional level year Plan. The scheme aims at advancing for conducting research into Climate scientific research, information and Change science and making necessary assessment of the phenomenon of assessments. The Ministry has already Climate Change, building an institutional set up a network, namely the Indian and analytical capacity for research and Network for Climate Change Assessment studies in the area of Climate Change, (INCCA) comprising of 127 research and supporting domestic actions to institutions tasked with undertaking address Climate Change through specific research on the science of Climate programmes and actions at the national Change and its impacts on different and state level. The scheme comprises of sectors of economy across various regions eight activities, of which, three relate to of India. INCCCA has helped the scientific studies on Climate Change, two Ministry put together its Green House to institution and capacity building and Gas (GHG) Emissions Inventories and in three others to domestic and carrying out other scientific assessments international actions. at more frequent intervals. Other Initiatives: Twelfth Five-Year Plan and Climate Change: The Government has a domestic The year 2012 was also marked mitigation goal of reducing emissions by several parallel international intensity of Gross Domestic Product initiatives on Climate Change. India (GDP) by 20-25% by 2020 in comparison organized the Xth BASIC Ministerial with 2005 level. The energy intensity of Meeting on Climate Change in New Delhi India‟s output has shown a declining during 13-14 February, 2012 to facilitate trend owing to improvements in energy exchange of views on outcomes of the efficiency, autonomous technological Durban Conference and evolution of changes and economical use of energy. common BASIC position on key issues in This domestic goal and the objectives of Climate Change. Besides the BASIC the National Action Plan on Climate countries comprising of Brazil, South Change are proposed to be achieved Africa, India and China, representatives through a sustainable development of Swaziland, Singapore and Qatar were strategy under the Twelfth Five-Year also invited to the meeting. During the Plan. Several thrust areas have been year three more meetings of the BASIC identified in the Twelfth Five-Year Plan group were held in different locations in for this purpose and a coordinated South Africa, Brazil and China. India also initiative to identify Nationally participated in the meetings of the Major Appropriate Mitigation Actions and Economies Forum and the organized by implement them towards this end will be the United States of America (USA) and taken during the Plan period. At the the Petersburg Dialogue initiated by initiative of the Ministry, Planning Germany. At the sub-regional level, India Commission has recognized Climate partnered with Bhutan, Nepal and Change as a major area of environmental Bangladesh for cooperation to address intervention. „Climate Change Action adverse effects of Climate Change www.ijar.org.in 25 International Journal of Academic Research ISSN: 2348-7666; Vol.3, Issue-12(2), December, 2016 Impact Factor: 4.535; Email: [email protected] through adaptation actions in the four mitigation work programme proposed to thematic areas of Food, Water, Energy be launched at the global level. and Biodiversity. 16 Conclusion: Renewable Energy Procurement The World Bank Report “Turn Obligation (RPO) has been the major Down the Heat: Climate Extremes, driving force in India to promote the Regional Impacts, and the Case for renewable energy sector. However, the Resilience” published in June 2013, NAPCC has not set any target for RPO. projects that a scenario of 4o C rise in The Mission Document on Jawaharlal global temperature, would result in Nehru National Solar Mission has increased climate extreme events such as indicated that RPO is the key driver for heat waves, sea level rise, more storm promoting solar power. Further, the surges, droughts and flooding in the National Tariff Policy (NTP) 2006 was South Asian region including India. The amended in 2011 to prescribe that solar- coastal and deltaic regions of India are specific RPO be increased from a reported to be particularly vulnerable to minimum of 0.25% in 2012 to 3% in 2022. the risks of flooding including two Indian The Government closely works cities of Mumbai and Kolkata. The with its partner countries in the Ganges, Indus, and Brahmaputra—are international negotiations on Climate also vulnerable to the effects of climate Change. Negotiations in this regard are change due to the melting of glaciers and being conducted under the auspices of loss of snow cover resulting in significant United Nations Framework Convention risk of flooding. The Government is on Climate Change (UNFCCC). At the implementing the National Action Plan Doha Conference, India pursued the on Climate Change (NAPCC) with a view strategy of working together with the to enhance the ecological sustainability of Group of77 & China in order to protect India’s development path and address the overall interests of developing Climate Change. The Government countries. During the Conference, India regularly reviews the progress under the raised the issues of equity in Climate National Action Plan on Climate Change Change related actions and (NAPCC), based on the information commitments, technology-related provided by the concerned nodal Intellectual Property Rights (IPRs) and Ministry. The Government has also unilateral measures taken by some constituted an Executive Committee on countries in the name of Climate Change Climate Change in January, 2013, under and succeeded in having these issues the chairmanship of Principal Secretary included in the ongoing work of various to Prime Minister to assist the Prime bodies of the Convention. India Minister‟s Council on Climate Change in successfully defended the nature of its evolving a coordinated response to issues voluntary domestic goal of reducing relating to Climate Change at the emissions intensity of its Gross Domestic national level and to monitor the Product (GDP) by 20-25% by 2020 in implementation of the eight National comparison with 2005 level and ensured Missions and other initiatives under the that agriculture, a sensitive sector of our NAPCC.19 economy, was not included in the
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References 1. India, Ministry of Environment and Forest, Annual Report, 2012-13, p. 349 2 India, Ministry of Finance, Economic Survey, 2012-13, pp. 256-57. 3 http://unfcc.int/essential_background/c onvention 4 http://unfcc.in/kyoto_protocol/ 5 http://unfcc.int/key- steps/bali_road_map 6 http://unfccc.int/meetings/copenhagen _dec_2009/meeting 7 http://unfcc.int/key- steps/durban_outcomes 8 http://unfcc.int/key- steps/doha_climate_gateway/ 9 op.cit, Annual Report, p. 349. 10 op.cit, Economic Survey, 2012-13, p. 257. 11 op.cit, Annual Report, pp. 350-52 12 http://164.100.47.134/committee/For um_informations 13 op.cit, Annual Report,, p.352 14 Lok Sabha Unstarred Question No. 2091, dtd. 11.03.2013
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Solar Energy and Economic Development in India: Issues and intricacies
Dr. J.Chandra Prasad, Former Principal, D.N.R. College (A), Bhimavaram-534 202, Director & Administrative Officer, S.K.S.D.Mahila Kalasal, Tanuku
Abstract: Shortage of electricity prompted the countries to give a momentum to renewable energy resources. Renewable energy refers to energy resources that Aries naturally and repeatedly in the environment and can be harnessed for human benefits. It includes solar, wind and geothermal energy. We also get renewable energy from tree and plants, rivers and even municipal solid waste. We discuss in this paper about solar energy. In rural areas the major problem is deficiency of electricity and because of this these areas are still far behind then urban areas in case of development.. India’s grid system is considerably under developed, with major section of its populace site surviving in deficiency for electricity. As per the record of 2006, there are 80,000 un- electrified villages in the country, out of which 18,000 villages are not electrified till now. Indian government in the budget of 2010- 11 has allocate Rs. 1000 crore approx for Jawaharlal Nehru National Solar Mission including clean energy fund establishment. It can give satisfactorily result towards the development and enhancement of solar energy equipment. In this paper we discuss an overview of global solar energy, Indian solar energy, economic development and solar energy potential.
Keywords: Renewal Energy, solar energy, thermal Energy, solar PV
I. Introduction: volatile, that’s why alternative approach has to be done to explore and developed Source of reliable renewable energy other sources of energy. Solar energy is production and development become a one of these alternative sources. India is major challenge to the most of the part of densely populated and has high solar the world. For human development insolation, an ideal combination for using renewable energy source specially solar solar power in India. power can have positive effect, since energy is one of the important factor for Ii. Renewable energy: the development of country as well as Renewable energy source also called non- individuals, also as we all know that conventional source of energy that are many other renewable energy plants are continuously recycled by nature. For of large scale. For the development of example wind energy, solar energy, hydro country energy sector plays an important power, bio fuel etc. Directly or indirectly role. renewable energy comes from either sun As the country’s expenditure on the or wind and these can never be conventional products like petroleum exhausted, that’s why these are called product increase and the availability of renewable source of energy. A renewable these products in future in insecure and energy system converts the energy we get
www.ijar.org.in 28 International Journal of Academic Research ISSN: 2348-7666; Vol.3, Issue-12(2), December, 2016 Impact Factor: 4.535; Email: [email protected] from wind, sunlight, falling water, eneryc includes space cooling and heating geothermal heat, sea waves, or bio mass through solar architecture, day lightning in to a form we can use as electricity or using solar panel, and industrial purposes heat. However most of the world’s energy like high temperature process heat, solar sources are derived from conventional hot water and solar cooking. sources fossil fuels such as oil, coal and We can broadly classify solar technologies natural gases. These sources are termed in to two types as active technology and as non-renewable energy resources. passive technology depending upon the Although the quantities of these fuels are method how we can capture, convert and very large, they are finite and hence in distribute the energy coming from the future they will be run out some time. In sun. In active solar techniques solar 2008, renewable energy has a thermal collector and photovoltaic panels contribution of 19% in the total energy are used to extract the solar energy from consumption globally, in which about sun. In passive solar techniques includes 13% of energy contribution is from a building oriented to the sun, material traditional biomass, 3.2% of energy selection wit favorable light dispersing contribution from hydroelectricity and properties or thermal mass and designing 2.7% of energy contribution is from other naturally circulating air spaces. The source of renewable energy like wind captured solar energy can also be linked power, hydro power, solar power, to research which involves carbon dioxide geothermal energy. As on 31 March 2012 reduction and water splitting for solar the total potential coming from fuel or artificial photosynthesis renewable source in India is about development. The International Energy 89774MW. Agency in 2011 said that “for longer-term There are many application of solar benefits it is essential to develop of clean, energy the main applications are: water inexhaustible and affordable solar energy heating, space heating, solar air technologies. Thus countries’ energy conditioning, solar distillation of water, security can be increased by this through solar ponds for the production of salt, reliance on an inexhaustible, indigenous cooking, electricity production etc. Total and mostly import independent resource, Renewable Energy Installed Capacity in reduction in pollution, enhance India (October 2013): Source Total sustainability, cost reduction in Installed Capacity (MW) Wind Power mitigating changes in climate condition, 19,933.68 Solar Power (SPV) 2,079.97 and keep the price of fossil fuels lower Small Hydro Power 3,746.75 Biomass than otherwise. Power 1,284.80 Bagasse Cogeneration Iv. Solar energy in India: 2,392.48 Waste to Power 99.08 Total 29,535.76 III. SOLAR ENERGY Solar India was the first country in the world energy is the energy coming from the sun to set up a ministry of non-conventional in the form of solar radiation for heat or energy resources, in early 1980s. India to generate electricity. Solar powered already becomes a leader in wind power electricity generation uses either production. In the field of solar energy photovoltaic or heat engines production, some large scale projects (concentrated solar power). The other have been proposed, and a 35,000 km2 important application which uses solar area of the Thar Desert has been set
www.ijar.org.in 29 International Journal of Academic Research ISSN: 2348-7666; Vol.3, Issue-12(2), December, 2016 Impact Factor: 4.535; Email: [email protected] aside for solar power projects, sufficient V. Solar energy in the world: to generate 700 GW to 2,100 GW. Also Germany is the world's top photovoltaic India's Ministry of New and Renewable (PV) installer, with a solar PV capacity as Energy has released the JNNSM Phase 2 of December 2012 of more than 32.3 gig Draft Policy, by which the Government watts (GW). The German new solar PV aims to install 10GW of Solar Power and installations increased by about 7.6 GW of this 10 GW target, 4 GW would fall in 2012 and solar PV provided 18 TWh under the central scheme and the (billion kilowatt-hours) of electricity in remaining 6 GW under various State 2011, about 3% of total electricity. Some specific schemes. market analysts expect this could reach According to a 2011 report by BRIDGE 25 percent by 2050. Germany has a goal TO INDIA and GTM Research, India is of producing 35% of electricity from facing a perfect storm of factors that will renewable sources by 2020 and 100% by drive solar photovoltaic (PV) adoption at 2050. As of April 2013, the largest a "furious pace over the next five years individual photovoltaic (PV) power plants and beyond". From August 2011 to July in the world are Agua Caliente Solar 2012, India went from 2.5 MW of grid Project, (Arizona, over 250 MW connected photovoltaics to over 1,000 connected - to increase to 397 MW), MW. India's theoretical solar power California Valley Solar Ranch (CVSR) a reception, with about 300 clear, sunny 250 megawatt (MW) solar photovoltaic days in a year, on only its land area, is power plant, by Sun Power in the Carrizo about 5000 Petawatt-hours per year Plain, northeast of California Valley, (PWh/yr) (i.e. 5000 trillion kWh/yr. The Golmud Solar Park (China, 200 MW), daily average solar energy incident over Welspun Energy Neemuch Project (India, India varies from 4 to 7 kWh/m2 with 150 MW), Mesquite Solar project about 1500– 2000 sunshine hours per (Arizona, 150 MW), Neuhardenberg Solar year (depending upon location), which is Park (Germany, 145 MW), Templin Solar far more than current total energy Park (Germany, 128 MW), Toul-Rosières consumption. However, India is ranked Solar Park (France, 115 MW), and Perovo number one in terms of solar energy Solar Park (Ukraine, 100 MW). Solar production per watt installed, with an power in the People's Republic of China is insulation of 1,700 to 1,900 kilowatt one of the biggest industries in mainland hours per kilowatt peak (kWh/KWp) also China. Chinese solar panel production 25.1 MW was added in 2010 and 468.3 reportedly quadrupled between 2009 and MW in 2011. The Charanka Solar Park, 2011 to surpass the entire global demand. at 221 MW the largest in the world, was As a result, the EU accused China of commissioned on April 19, 2012, along dumping its solar panels in Europe at with a total of 605 MW in Gujarat, below-cost prices, involving20 billion U.S. representing 2/3 of India's installed dollars of trade between the two powers. photovoltaic. Large solar parks have also Solar thermal power stations include the been announced in the state of 354 megawatt (MW) Solar Energy Rajasthan. The 40 MW Dhirubhai Generating Systems power installation in Ambani Solar Park was commissioned on the USA, Solnova Solar Power Station March 31, 2012. (Spain, 150 MW) and Andasol solar power station (Spain, 150 MW). The 370 MW
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Ivanpah Solar Power Facility, located in North Africa more than 100 MW of California's Mojave Desert, is the world’s concentrating solar thermal power largest solar thermal power plant project capacity was in operating mode. The currently under construction. The Solana industry of CSP is expanding in to Chile, Generating Station is a 280 MW solar Australia, India China, South Africa and power plant which is under construction the MENA regions. In Spain, for about 70 miles (110 km) southwest of concentrating solar thermal power Phoenix, Arizona. There are plans to developers and manufacturers an build many other large solar thermal uncertainty has been created due to the plants. a) Solar PV: Led by Europe, the falling price of natural gas and total operating capacity globally of solar Photovoltaic, policy changes and the photovoltaic reached up to 100 GW downfall of global economy. milestones, including last year significant Vi. Energy and economic development: increment in Asia. The market of solar photovoltaic is increasing day by day in For social as well as economic almost all the region in the world like development of a country power sector Africa, Asia, and Latin America. This can plays an important role. However for the be due to the decrement in the price of development it is essential to improve solar PV. In 2012, there is an increment efficiency of the energy generation and in self- generation and community owned avoiding too much dependency on fossil systems, but scale of solar PV projects fuels, as the use of fossil fuel plays a key and the number of these projects also role for pollution and undesirable change increases. in climate conditions. The power sector is the essential part of a country’s economy Many European, Chinese and United as well as it contain the interaction of State manufacturer have to go out from demand and supply of energy. Almost the business, due to the decrease in the every economic activity requires energy. margin and prices sparred more For the continuous production and final industries consolidation. Also the consumption supply of energy is essential manufacturer of module and cell has to need, hence enhancement of power sector struggle as the competition is very is important for the economic extreme in the market. The production of development. But the economic factors thin film’s decreases 15% to 4 GW which like prices of energy, costs of capital, further decreases the PV production infrastructure etc affect the development globally. b) Concentrating Solar Thermal and enhancement new technologies of Power (CSP): An increment of more than power generation system. In concern to 60% has been seen lately in total the environment, demands of energy concentrating solar thermal power should be combined with the effect on capacity globally which is about 2,550 ecological system locally as well as MW approx. In which more than 75% of globally. Hence the economic and the world’s capacity of concentrating environmental factors are considered in solar thermal power was added in Spain. the planning and preparation of the While about 1,300 MW in US is under energy generation to meet the demand of construction process no increment in energy for the development of that concentrating solar thermal power region. India faces a significant challenge capacity has been seen in last year. In in providing access to adequate,
www.ijar.org.in 31 International Journal of Academic Research ISSN: 2348-7666; Vol.3, Issue-12(2), December, 2016 Impact Factor: 4.535; Email: [email protected] affordable and clean sources of energy, consumers. A preliminary assessment of especially cooking fuel to a large section the status of solar power development in of the population, most of who live in potential states of India indicates that rural areas. As per the 2011 Census, there should be a stable and uniform almost 85% of rural households were policy to make solar power projects dependent on traditional biomass fuels financially attractive across the country. for their cooking energy requirements. An extension of off-grid relates to rural National Sample Survey 2009-10 reveals electrification. Over 40% of the country’s the continued dependence on firewood in population is currently denied energy rural areas for cooking. Solar energy is access. This has become a major problem also a sustainable source of energy which and, inspite of large investments under is produced without any type of pollution, the RGGVY for rural transmission, it has greenhouse effect or other affect to the been found increasingly difficult to environment. The development of low provide this access, especially in certain cost solar technologies can be a potential identified areas, partly because of alternative with distributed energy continuing supply constraints. But generation consisting of a cluster of local biomass and Solar PV based solutions are grid of electricity network. It could be a possible. cheap and environment friendly References and notes: alternative to the centralized power grid system having long distance, expansive [1 ] http://mnre.gov.in/ wires delivery system. Fuel consumption [2 ] http://www.mospi.gov.in/ in the vehicles can be reduced by using solar panel for air conditioning purpose. [3 ] Ministry’s Strategic Plan for Growth of Renewable Energy in India Vii. Conclusion: [4] Ministry of statistics and programme In India renewable energy sources are in implementation large quantity which can contribute significantly in the increasing demand of [5] government of India (Energy Statics- electricity. In this paper solar energy 2013) growth in India is reviewed since its [6 ] Renewable Global Status Report 2013 beginning in 1980’s. Solar energy technology is currently making a major [7 ] http:// contribution in the field of economic en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_power_in_In development of country. A brief dia/ assessment of global status of solar [8] http:// energy in this paper indicates that a en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_power_by_co minimum level of maintenance appears untry/ necessary to encourage solar power deployment. At present there are several [9] http:// en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ municipal incentive provided to the Renewable_energy_in_In solar power producer from state government and central government. In improving the level of villages, in this paper we have discussed to provide electricity on a cheap base to the
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Energy And Environment - An approach to effective assessments in low data Environment: Evidence from Sikkim, India
Smt.Ch. Jhansi Lakshmi, Lecturer (S.G), P.G.Dept. of Social Work, D.N.R. (A) College, Bhimavaram-534 202.
Abstract: Program evaluations for conservation interventions have to take into account the complex interrelationships of various components in an ecosystem. Measuring direct impact can be difficult, given that changes are often the result of complex systemic interactions and can take a long time to evolve. Therefore, the focus of the paper is to bring forth the importance of designing an effective program evaluation in low data environments by adopting a multi-disciplinary approach. The paper illustrates this by identifying a framework to evaluate specific measurable ecological and societal outcomes that also assist in reviewing relevance and importance of implemented policy. For this, the paper uses learning’s from an ongoing research project on evaluation of grazing exclusion policy in West district of Sikkim. The findings of study would serve as an input to further impact assessment studies on grazing ban. The paper reveals how program impacts can be established by using a mix method approach. It identifies precise measurable environmental outcomes that also assist in reviewing relevance and importance of implemented Key words: conservation policy, impact assessment, grazing ban, effective assessment
Introduction: fact that livestock numbers have been increasing exponentially, but technology Pastoralism is an age-old practice and a and management practices have not kept livelihood strategy adopted by many up with the increased pressure on communities across the globe. In India resources. With environmental itself there are many indigenous pastoral degradation concerns rising, the outlook tribes still practicing traditional pastoral of central government has shifted to forms supported by community norms: adoption of conservation-centric policies. Gujjars and Dhangars in North India, Under the conservation-based approach, Gaddis in Himachal Pradesh, Bakarwals long term policies balancing economic in Kashmir, Toda and Kuruba in development and conservation are being southern India and Gurungs and Monpas formulated. In the forestry sector, the in North East to state a few. However of paradigm shift towards environmental late, there is a rise in cases of conflicts conservation and social focus was between the pastoral communities and brought in with the revision of National the governing regimes over the resource Forest Policy, 1988. The emergence of use issue. This can be largely attributed Wild life population provides an to lack of transparency in explicit opportunity for the degraded forest property rights regime and absence of ecosystems to recover from degradation. robust institutional arrangements and Considering the high dependency of the rapid increase in resource exploitation rural population on forest resources, rate. The problem is compounded by the
www.ijar.org.in 33 International Journal of Academic Research ISSN: 2348-7666; Vol.3, Issue-12(2), December, 2016 Impact Factor: 4.535; Email: [email protected] policy implementation is a difficult task. to the one after the completion of There are contrasting perspectives on the the intervention. Such an suitability and appropriateness of such assessment can be resource policy majors. Conservationists on one intensive, particularly when new hand feel the need of such conservation data sets need to be collected. centric policies while social scientists on These are difficult to carry out in the other hand are skeptic of them. the absence of baseline data. The Measuring direct impact can be difficult, exercise is most applicable for given that changes are often the result of programs that are regularly complex systemic interactions and can monitored and where baseline take a long time to evolve. Therefore, the information is available. focus of the paper is to bring forth the Ex-post impact assessment- importance of designing an effective Comprises of comparing an area program evaluation in low data or a group that has received the environments by adopting a multi- intervention to a similar area or disciplinary approach. The paper group from whom the illustrates this by identifying framework intervention was withheld. Such to evaluate specific measurable ecological an assessment is characterized as and societal outcomes that also assist in summative evaluation and cross reviewing relevance and importance of sectional data sets suffice the implemented policy. For this, the paper data need. The challenge in this uses findings from an ongoing research case lies in establishing the project on evaluation of grazing exclusion “similarity” of the treatment and policy in West district of Sikkim. control groups – our ability to This section briefly describes the attribute current differences design alternatives for impact assessment between the “treatment” and type of exercise for conservation “control” group to the intervention and the challenges intervention being studied associated in applying them to low data depends on how sure we can be environments. Subsequently, we discuss that the two areas were similar an effective framework that can be used before the intervention. to measure the impacts of conservation Adopting any of the above type of interventions. The area of conservation evaluation approach requires / policy evaluation is still evolving and the necessitates a rich repository of available rationale behind discussing the data sets which is usually difficult in real framework provided life projects. Establishing clear control Available impact assessment frameworks: sites or control groups is the crucial step in the ex-post assessments. For Based upon when the program evaluation conservation intervention in the forestry is conducted, the two broad types of sector that would mean identifying a site evaluation approaches for impact that has similar environmental, social, assessment type of studies are: and economic characteristics as the Before and after assessment - proposed study site, but where the Comprises of comparing a implementation of the conservation scenario before the intervention intervention differs from the study site.
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Quantitative strategies using either of approach. For a robust design inputs are experimental, quasi experimental or non- needed from a variety of fields such as experimental designs can then be applied ecology, pedology, hydrology, imagery & to attribute the causal relationship. social sciences. Besides these, local Experimental designs require complete experts having in-depth knowledge and random assignment of subjects to the understanding of the area are also control group and hence are tricky to essential. Getting a multi-disciplinary apply in field situations for conservation team for small scale projects is an interventions. Quasi experimental enormous challenge. designs are relatively easier than Resource constraints: This is an experimental designs but they too require overriding in most of the impact establishing a comparison group and assessments constraint. Impact their effectiveness depends a lot on the assessment studies are time and cost way the comparison group is established. intensive. The scope of the study and In real life situations, the resource and design that can be employed depends to a time constraints are overriding factors great extent on the type of budget and that affect conducting such in-depth time available for the study. Typically evaluations. Also, such evaluation shows limited gets and time are available for the impact on a single entity i.e. such studies as policy makers or dependent variable which could be governmental bodies who mostly variable on deforestation rate or species commission such studies require rapid specific. Such evaluations rarely capture and informative assessments. or provide an explanation for the change in the ecosystems due to the Mismatch of scales: The boundary of intervention. protected area network does not match with the administrative boundaries of Prolonged interval between intervention districts and states. For example in and the impacts: Indian Forestry, the records might be Conservation interventions take available at a forest circle or forest substantial time for the ultimate impacts division level which would not correspond to show. Usually the policy interventions with administrative boundary of a are designed for short to medium time district. So it becomes to inter-link the frames. While the time taken by socio-economic and ecological variables in ecosystem to reflect the impacts of the such cases. Also sometimes the study is intervention could be considerably more conducted at the micro level and than that. In such cases, the evaluations secondary information is available only at conducted immediately after the district level. It becomes difficult in intervention would not be able to capture either case to utilize the data as micro the ultimate impacts. In such cases level site could differ significantly from selecting appropriate associative the larger landscape such as district in parameters to measure the intermediate many ways. outcomes and to gauge the direction of the impact becomes a crucial step. Blanket policy prescriptions: Forming Expert knowledge: Conservation control groups is an essential approach in interventions require a multidisciplinary most of impact evaluation designs. For
www.ijar.org.in 35 International Journal of Academic Research ISSN: 2348-7666; Vol.3, Issue-12(2), December, 2016 Impact Factor: 4.535; Email: [email protected] conservation projects, to ascertain the grazing pressure on forests could lead to causal relationship this translates to change in species composition in the finding a control site and a control group long run due to selective lopping and similar to the study site (treatment) but cutting of preferred fodder and firewood which differs in implementation of the species. Also, this may cause increased conservation policy. Usually policy abundance of unpalatable species and prescriptions in conservation are brought introduction of nonnative invasive in for a larger landscape (national or species. Other than grazing by livestock state level) and they usually cover all the the vegetation is also impacted by the protected forest areas and reserved forest activities of the herders. Also, increase areas. Thus, establishing control site or a in livestock densities leads to control group becomes in these contexts. competition between wild herbivores and domestic livestock. Some of the Evaluation design components for issues could be site specific and it is effective assessment: The various important to understand and include elements in an ecosystem are inter-linked those vegetative parameters in the with each other. A change in the status of evaluation. Table1. Presents a list of one is bound to cause an alteration in important parameters that should be some of the other elements. Accordingly, considered for a grazing related successful implementation of the ban is evaluation study. Physical component: supposed to improve the condition of the degraded forest dscape, but it is necessary Overgrazing is a common phenomenon to fully understand what aspects of the in pasturelands and forest areas and forest it helps more than others as well as consequently it leads to deterioration where its impact could be strengthened. in land quality and creation of Evaluations can also help understand wasteland. Typically an area subjected other, potentially confounding, influences to overgrazing becomes more on forest health. Restricting the analysis susceptible to threats like soil erosion, to ecological characteristics in such a soil compaction and loss in moisture study can provide highly misleading holding capacities besides other. While policy inputs as it would overlook the overgrazing could be a problem, opportunity costs of livelihood foregone available literature also shows by local communities. Thus, indicators instances where controlled grazing is referring to impact on welfare of people beneficial to the site and has helped in and ecology, both should be used as the improving the fertility of the area. basis of designing a holistic & effective Study of edaphic factors and hydrology program evaluation of the conservation constitutes a challenging task. Table 2 intervention. presents some main parameters to capture the soil stability and Vegetative component: hydrologic functions for grazing One of the prominent and observable affected forest lands. changes induced due to grazing is on
vegetation in an area. When the density of domestic livestock increases, it leads to overgrazing of an area. Continued
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Table: 1 Identified Vegetative parameters for evaluation of grazing related studies
Par Description Recommended Indicators ame ter Forests are characterized by vertical layers Percentage of canopy density, typically consisting of ground floor, Presence and status of forest layers, understory, and middle storey and over DBH distribution, tree height storey. Lopping and cutting of trees introduce distribution alterations in the forest structure by making forests more open. And sometimes the pressures are felt more by a particular age- Forest structure Forest class distribution of trees. Grazing and associated activities Three most common species as possibly could alter the vegetative percentage of total growing composition of an area via activities like stock, Ten most common species
selective grazing, lopping etc. It is important aspercentage of total growing stock, to examine the extent of change brought Diversity indices, Species at risk, about mainly in key species & medicinal Fodder species as percentage of total plants from ecosystem and community needs growing stock, Fuel wood species as a point of view. percentage of total growing stock, Existence and distribution of medicinal plants, litter distribution, presence and Speciescomposition distribution And distribution of medicinal plants
Wild animals are extremely sensitive to changes and disturbances in their habitat. Area of plantations for habitat It is a measure to predict the impact on improvement works
Wildlife sightings wildlife in the area Number of sightings of wildlife /calls Regeneration is one of the most important functions that are hampered by
grazing. It is a measure to observe the status of recovery via regeneration Species wise number of saplings, Regenera tion Coppice Regeneration It is important to examine the extent of Presence of domestic livestock change brought about by disturbance such as Percentage of vegetation affected by
Forest Forest grazing, fire, cutting, lopping and grazing, introduction of nonnative and invasive Area affected by forest fire, species. This measure captures the vegetative Percentage of area affected by disturbances disturbances health of the ecosystem lopping, cutting etc Species affected by the disturbance, Percentage of area under non native or invasive species
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Social component: than its actual impact. The sustainability of any changes depends on In order to do a holistic impact the policy being either enforced or evaluation, the study of the impact of incentive compatible with the local conservation policy (in this case grazing community. Third, the social component exclusion) on the local economy and the may help to develop a more robust lives of dependent local communities is strategy if credible historical data based essential. The significance of this aspect on peoples’ recollections can be is for several reasons: first, the social gathered. Such data must be handled component is important for assessing with care, but it could help us do some successful proliferation of the intended limited before-and-after comparisons, outcomes of the conservational policy i.e. which would in turn strengthen grazing exclusion. Second, peoples’ confidence in our results. perceptions of the impact of a ban can be as important, if not more important, Table 2 : Identified physical parameters for evaluation of grazing related studies
Parameter Description Recommended Indicators
Soil constitutes a basic element of Percentage of Moisture
forest ecosystems. Health of the Water holding capacity vegetation in an area is directly Bulk Density Particle dependent on the health of the soil at a Density
place. This measure attempts to Porosity Soil texture Soil composition, textureand structure capture the soil properties in the area Nutrient rich soil aids vegetative Level of acidity (or growth and in turn assists in alkalinity)
improving habitat quality. Fertility of Soil Nutrients ( N,P,K)
soils is a significant factor especially in Soil Organic Carbon content hilly areas. Controlled grazing is Cation exchange capacity Soil considered beneficial for improving the chemical
composition soil quality at a place. This parameters gauges the effect of grazing on the nutrient levels Vegetative cover or presence of Soil stability test results Soil organic matter in the top layer of the erosion status Soil soil binds the soil particles together, in compaction Gullies and Rills turn decreasing the erosion potential. formation The other factor is the Structure of the top layer of soil itself. Loosely bind soils are more prone for erosion. In hilly terrains having steep slopes, water flow increases gullies Soil and rills formation, which in turn stability accelerates soil degradation
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Livestock tracks tend to result in gully formation especially in mountainous regions. This parameter classifies the erosive properties and degradation at site. Water Quality of water in a catchment is a Status of Water streams quality function of many factors. (seasonal/perennial), water Undisturbed catchments will tend to quality tests have better water quality than the ones with disturbance. This parameter evaluates the water attributes. Water Quality of water in a catchment is a Status of Water streams quality function of many factors. (seasonal/perennial), water Undisturbed catchments will tend to quality tests have better water quality than the ones with disturbance. This parameter evaluates the water attributes. Recharge pressures hamper the hydrological Status of Water streams of regime by impacting infiltration rates (seasonal/perennial), water aquifers and percolation rates and increasing quality tests surface run off. This parameter average ground water level attempts to capture any change in in water bodies in the hydrological properties after the ban vicinity of forests during past on grazing 3-5 years
Evolution of pastoral practices: breeds), and sheep. In the area, the pattern of domestic livestock composition has changed a lot over the last 7 decades. Sikkim is a small peaceful State in the Until mid-1970’s, the livestock ownership Himalayan Ranges with total was more for subsistence purpose and geographical area of about 7096 sq. km. was mainly composed of a few cows or About 80% percent of its geographic area buffaloes or sheep. is notified as recorded forest area (FSI, 2009). The State plays a vital role in biodiversity conservation at the global With Sikkim becoming part of Republic of level as it is located in Eastern India in 1973, and the markets opening, Himalayan Region, one of the 34 global the subsistence model started changed to biodiversity hotspots (DFEWM, Sikkim, commercial scales. Around this time yak 2011). In the study area, local herding was introduced in the landscape communities such as Gurungs, Bhutias, and this led to the advent of heavier Limboo, Chettri and Sherpas have been animals such as yak, dee, urang & dzo traditionally practicing agro-pastoral (yak-cow hybrids) grazing in the form of livelihood. The livestock landscape. Over the next two decades, the composition of the area included cow, livestock population (of yak, dee, urang, yak, dee, dzo & urang (yak and cow cross dzo) increased exponentially while that of
www.ijar.org.in 39 International Journal of Academic Research ISSN: 2348-7666; Vol.3, Issue-12(2), December, 2016 Impact Factor: 4.535; Email: [email protected] sheep and buffalo reduced drastically. fodder from the forests every day. It was The increased livestock density started this with increasing anthropogenic affecting the health of forest ecosystems pressure that led to rapid degradation of and subsequently the State government the forest areas. Consequently a ban was of Sikkim laid a ban on open grazing of implemented in order to stop the domestic livestock in reserved forests in degradation further. 1998. The ban was implemented phase- Evaluation of socio-economic aspects– our wise and now covers all the protected approach: forest areas in the State. The key aspects studied under socio- Impacts of pastoral life style: need for economic aspects include livelihood conservation centric approach: strategies, resource use, asset ownership Prior to the ban, pattas (permits) were with details from this section a total of given to herders for grazing their 100 households were surveyed with 50 ex- livestock in forest areas. As part of the herders and 50 non–herders. A livestock management system, a goath combination of techniques was used to (cattle-shed) would be established in the capture the data. Focused group forest area where the herder would reside discussions (FGD) and key informant sometimes accompanied by family or interviews were conducted at each of the caretaker. Average herd size in the region sites. Members from Eco development was 20-25 cattle. Vegetation in and committees and Joint Forest around the cattle-shed would be cleared Management Committees were present to create kharka (open space for grazing). for the FGDs. Most of the members were Also in adjacent areas of the cattle-shed ex-herders. Evolution of pastoral trees would be heavily lopped off for practices in the area, livestock fodder and cut for firewood and timber. composition and population change Herders would stay in one location till dynamics over the years, fodder and there was sufficient grass in the area to firewood preferences, distribution of key support the livestock. After grass species before the imposition of grazing depletion in an area, they would move to ban across forest types and their the next location. The movement of the perceptions on the policy were the key herders depended upon availability of points that were covered during these fodder, water, livestock type and hence discussions. Also, resource maps were was seasonal in nature. During summer, prepared for the forest types depicting particularly from April to September, important grazing areas and water cows were left to graze freely in forests in sources. Thus, a rich repository of the temperate zones while movement of information was generated through these yaks, urang and dzo was restricted to sub participatory methods. The study has alpine zone. During winter, cows would adopted the framework discussed in the be brought back to the agricultural fields earlier section to carry out a rapid and while other livestock types would proceed robust assessment of the grazing to lower altitudinal mixed coniferous exclusion issue at the study sites. While forest and temperate forests. Each herder designing the evaluation framework for would lop on an average two head load of impact assessment, we encountered huge firewood (1 head load is approximately 40 data gaps. There was no baseline data for kgs) and minimum 2 equal quantity of the given study areas. Alternatively
www.ijar.org.in 40 International Journal of Academic Research ISSN: 2348-7666; Vol.3, Issue-12(2), December, 2016 Impact Factor: 4.535; Email: [email protected] selecting a control site was a most References : challenging task. As the policy Bhasin, V. (2011). Pastoralists of implementation was done simultaneously Himalayas. Journal of Human Ecology , across the district, it was difficult to Vol. 33 (3), pp.147-177. establish robust control site and control group. The study has been carried out in Brown, K. A., & Gurevitch, J. (2004). a low data environment and the Long-term impacts of logging on forest framework was designed to provide diversity in Madagascar. PNAS inputs to policy makers on critical (Proceedings of National Academy of parameters. Sciences of the United States of America), Vol. 101 (No.16), pp 6045-6049. Conclusion: Chatterjee, S., Saikia, A., Dutta, P., The purpose of carrying out evaluation of Ghosh, D., Pangging, G., & Goswami, A. conservation policies is to provide the (June 2006). Biodiversity Significance of policy makers with meaningful and North East India. New Delhi: WWF-India reliable information on the outcomes and (Forest Conservation Programme). impacts achieved by the policy on ecosystems as well as on the local communities. The quantitative designs of Condit, R., Foster, R., Hubtell, S., impact assessments are statistically more Sukumar, R., Leigh, E., Manokaran, N., robust and establish casualty but in real et al. Assessing forest diversity on small life conservation projects, it is difficult to plots: calibration using species-individual implement such designs. Also in certain curves from 50-ha plots. Paris, France: cases it is difficult to create treatment UNESCO and Parthenon Publishing. and control groups. In low data environment, using alternative design DFEWM, Sikkim. (2011). Retrieved from options and frameworks using mix Sikkim Biodiveristy Conservation and method approach as presented in the Forest Management Project (JICA paper offer useful insights on policy assisted): relevant parameters. The presented http://sbfpjica.org/About%20Project.htm framework integrates qualitative and FSI. (2009). India-State of Forest Report quantitative techniques, and it serves as 2009. Dehradun: Forest Survey of India. an effectual approach to program evaluation for conservation FSI. (2002). The Manual of Instructions interventions. The quantitative for Field Inventory. Dehradun: Forest techniques provide the necessary logical Survey of India. base and ascertain the relationships Kushwaha, S. S., Padmanaban, P., statistically while the qualitative Kumar, D., & Roy, P. (2005). Geospatial techniques help in substantiating the Modeling of Plant Richness in Barsey findings of the study. Thus it presents a Rhododendron Sanctuary in Sikkim feasible methodology for assessing Himalayas. Geocarto International , 20 impacts in the absence of detailed (2). longitudinal ecological or socio-economic data.
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India’s intended nationally determined contributions: renewable energy and the pathway to Paris
Dr.A.V.Nagavarma, Head, P.G. Dept. of Economics, P.G. Courses & Research Centre, D.N.R.College (A), Bhimavaram-534 202,AP B.P.Naidu, Head, Dept. of Social Work, D.N.R. College (A), Bhimavaram-534 202
Abstract: Countries such as India, likely to be acutely impacted by climate change would need to develop a strategy on two formats: pressing major emitters to increase their mitigation targets; and ramping up its own ambition to reduce the vulnerability of its own population to climate risks. Our analysis suggests that India could push its ambition towards a target of 1,041 billion units of electricity from renewable energy sources by 2030. Therefore, it is imperative that discussions around technology partnerships and financial mechanisms be an important pillar of any new climate agreement.
Key words: Climate Change, vulnerability, renewable energy
Introduction: eq. in 2030. However, this target would require an incremental cost of The 20th Conference of Parties (COP) to approximately INR 39,320 billion (2010, the United Nations Framework INR) (2010, US$ 715 billion) over the Convention on Climate Change next 15 years and could make the (UNFCCC) concluded in the early hours consumption of a threshold level of of 14 December 2014. While some basic electricity unaffordable for the bottom directions on areas of inclusion for the two deciles of Indian households. Intended Nationally Determined Contributions and Actions of Major Contributions (INDCs) have been Emitters: Implications for the Rest of the provided in the COP decision at Lima, for World –In order to assess the fairness of a the most part it still remains an open potential Indian INDC, it is important to ended decision left to individual understand the actions and intended countries. The safe level has been contributions of other major emitters assumed as one that provides greater (the United States, the European Union, than 66% likelihood of staying within a China, Japan, Australia and Canada). 2oC degree rise in temperature above Following an analysis of the pre-industrial levels. 2 Our analysis contributions, this section also analyses suggests that India could push its the carbon space that remains for the ambition towards a target of 1,041 Billion rest of the world including India. Units (BU) of electricity from renewable energy sources by 2030. This would Contributions and Actions of major translate to cumulative emissions of 3.4 Emitters: Implications for the rest of the Gt of CO2 equivalents (CO2 eq.) and per World: In order to limit to a 2oC global capita emissions of 2.25 tonnes of CO2 rise in temperature, various reports www.ijar.org.in 42 International Journal of Academic Research ISSN: 2348-7666; Vol.3, Issue-12(2), December, 2016 Impact Factor: 4.535; Email: [email protected] including Intergovernmental Panel on 2030 to indicate the expected pathway Climate Change’s Fifth Assessment leading up to 2050. The three numbers Report (AR5) and the United Nations were interpolated and resulted in a Environment Programme’s 2013 version straight-line reduction pathway. In of the Emissions Gap Report estimate November 2014, the US and China made that the total budget for CO2 emissions is a joint announcement which would be the approximately 1,000 Gt of CO2 eq. While bases of their respective INDCs. For the the scientific community has broadly US this entails a 26%-28% emissions reached consensus on the global reduction by 2025 over 2005 levels. 7 emissions pathway, allocation of the This Pre-Lima announcement for the US annual budgets to each individual lies on the lower side of the straight line country remains a hotly debated topic. interpolation, hence indicating nothing This brief does not attempt to create an new or ambitious as compared to its equity allocation framework, but merely Copenhagen announcement. The Kyoto lists out the actions undertaken, the Protocol target for the first commitment pledges that the major emitting countries period is not indicated in the graph below have made and how these translate to the for reasons that the United States did not carbon space available for remaining ratify to the protocol. However, as per the countries. GHG inventory submissions made to the UNFCCC, the United States had actually European Union: increased its GHG emissions by 4.3% in During the 15th COP in Copenhagen, the 2012 as compared to 1990 levels EU had declared a 20% reduction target (excluding LULUCF). 8 Further, this by 2020 below 1990 levels. Additionally, it accounted for a net increase of 0.28 Gt of also had a target of 30% reduction by CO2 eq. in 2012 from 1990 as opposed to 2020, conditional on commitments made what should have been a net decrease of by other countries in proportion to the 0.70 Gt of CO2 eq. as per the KP-I one made by EU. These two numbers targets. were used to create straight line China: China, still a developing country, projections of reduction pathways for the has not declared any absolute emissions region . Consequently, the grey band reduction target so far. Prior to indicates the maximum and minimum Copenhagen, China announced a carbon extent of the region’s ambition (the intensity reduction target of 40%- 45% by former subject to global commitments). 2020 over 2005 level. Most recently, In late October 2014, the EU announced alongside the US, China announced its its intention of reducing the region’s peaking target around 2030 and 20% GHG emissions by 40% over 1990 levels contribution of non-fossil fuel in its total by 2030 and 80%-95% by 2050 (indicated primary energy consumption mix by as Pre-Lima). 2030. While the increase in the share of United States: In 2009 at Copenhagen, primary energy consumption sounds the US announced its reduction targets of ambitious, a straight-line projection 17% and 83% for 2020 and 2050, over including previous domestic targets 2005 levels, respectively. Additionally, indicates that the declared target of 20% the announcement also included a may be lower than what the country tentative reduction target of 42% for could achieve with a constant rate of
www.ijar.org.in 43 International Journal of Academic Research ISSN: 2348-7666; Vol.3, Issue-12(2), December, 2016 Impact Factor: 4.535; Email: [email protected] growth of non-fossil fuel consumption intensity, are a function of beginning in 2013. macroeconomic policies, advancing technologies and industrial policies India and china: differences in scale and (which in turn are driven by a multitude nature of emissions of factors). On the other hand, the thrust Any submission made by India as its on increasing renewable energy INDC is bound to get compared with that generation is a clearer indicator of the of China. This is largely due to that the two countries’ climate ambitions. fact the two countries rank as the fourth Further, since both India and China largest and largest emitters respectively, house mammoth populations, energy and have been members of the same needs feature high in their list of negotiating groups within the UNFCCC. priorities. Renewable energy contribution Consequently, it is important to to electricity was negligible in 2000 in understand the differences in scale and both India and China.18 However, in context that exist between the two 2010, its share in India increased to 4.4%, countries before analyzing components of leaving China far behind at 1.7%. If large India’s INDC that would qualify as fair hydropower were included, China’s share and ambitious. Table 2 provides economy of renewable energy was only marginally and energy related information for India more than India’s in 2010 and would be and China at different levels of slightly higher in 2020. For India, with a development (2000, 2010 and 2020). much smaller overall electricity India’s and China’s emissions have generation capacity and a vast electricity differed both in quantum and nature in deficit, share of more expensive the past While the story of incredible renewable energy is a more commendable growth in both countries is well known, achievement. Consequently, In 2009, what is discussed less are the differing China and India came together with pathways of the respective development South Africa and Brazil to form the in the two countries. Specifically, India BASIC. More recently in 2012, the two witnessed a growth in per capita GDP countries joined ranks with ten other (PPP) of 121% between 2000 and 2010, countries to form the group of Like but this occurred with a concomitant Minded Developing Countries on Climate growth in absolute emissions of 69%. Change (LMDC) China on the other hand, grew at almost Renewable energy here does not include twice India’s growth rate at 216 % but hydro projects, as most of the hydro registered more than double the growth projects in both countries are classified as rate in emissions (143%). This difference large. India and China: Differences in in the nature of growth is reflected in Scale and Nature of Emissions in the both their emissions intensities. While Past, Present and Future India will need both India and China aim to reduce their to rapidly increase its installed capacity emissions intensities, and have done so, to provide electricity access to a quarter China’s emission intensity has been of its population. However, even in 2020, higher in the past and is projected to be as per GCAM projections (as well as higher than that of India even in 2020. respective government publications), India’s and China’s actions to curb India will continue to march ahead of growth in emissions have been different China in terms of renewable energy at comparable levels of income Emissions www.ijar.org.in 44 International Journal of Academic Research ISSN: 2348-7666; Vol.3, Issue-12(2), December, 2016 Impact Factor: 4.535; Email: [email protected] contribution to electricity (GCAM appropriate balance between ambition projects 13.8% share of renewable energy and fairness, which in turn, will drive in India’s and 3.0% in China’s electricity their climate targets. The following mix). The nature of emissions will remain section therefore analyses the renewable different for both India and China in the contribution of India’s climate targets as decades to come Growth in China has part of its INDC submission. Despite the chiefly been driven by manufacturing and fact that it is unlikely for most developing industry, evidenced by the sector’s countries to commit to an absolute contribution of 44% to the total GDP in emissions reduction in 2030, it is critical 2013.20 This sector has been the major that the various forms of ambitions be contributor to the country’s emissions translatable to an absolute emissions and is responsible for the increased number. This will help in assessing the demand for energy. Considering that adequacy of the communicated targets in China was already at a GDP per capita limiting the rise to 2oC. Consequently, (PPP) of $11,907 in 2013, the country the final part of this section translates may not witness large growth in its the suggested target to an overall already massive industrial sector in the emission number for India in 2030. This years to come. In contrast, the industrial section forms the basis of point 14 of sector in India contributed a mere 25% to Decision -/CP.20, the Lima Call for the national economy in 2013, with a Climate Action document, which calls for much larger services sector accounting parties to justify the ambition and for 57% of GDP.23 At GDP per capita fairness of their INDCs.25 It specifically (PPP) of $5,412, India still requires many outlines three aspects of the targets – years of rapid growth to combat its Ambition – the extent to which India can development challenges. With an already push its ambition for increasing dominating service sector, it is likely that domestic funding, creating facilitating the country will turn to industry to environment and ultimately make sustain its growth. The country’s new binding commitments for increasing the government has similar plans of use of clean energy and decline that of transforming India into a global fossil fuels Fairness – how these targets manufacturing hub. 24As a result, will be attained alongside India’s primary although currently at a much lower level, goal of achieving inclusive growth and the future rate of growth in emissions eliminating the extant development may be significantly more for India than challenges. An assessment of affordability China. This underscores the need for an of electricity in 2030 is presented in this adequate carbon space to accommodate sub-section. Reconciling Ambition, India’s industrial growth and energy Fairness and Overall Emissions – needs. includes the target, the appropriate India’s contributions: balancing ambition context that deems the target ambitious and the implications for India’s emissions and fairness: in 2030. The information provided by the Lima Ambition: In April 2014, an Expert Call for Climate Action on form and content of the INDCs can be described as Group on Low Carbon Strategies for Inclusive Growth submitted its report to vague guidance at best. It is now up to the Planning Commission. The Expert individual countries to decide upon the www.ijar.org.in 45 International Journal of Academic Research ISSN: 2348-7666; Vol.3, Issue-12(2), December, 2016 Impact Factor: 4.535; Email: [email protected]
Group estimated the potential share of above stated target of 1,041 billion units. non-fossil sources in India’s electricity By way of comparison, Germany achieved mix, drawing on solar, hydropower, wind, similar growth from 1990 to 2012. 28 biomass and nuclear energy. For the India has to meet its targets in a much purposes of this analysis, we include shorter timeframe. This indicates the renewable energy sources as solar, scale of India’s ambitions but also hydropower, wind, biomass and others recognizes that renewable energy prices (including geothermal, tidal etc.). have fallen rapidly, technologies have Including large hydropower, renewable moved along learning curves and new energy contribution to electricity in India business models have developed. The was already at 16.3% in 2020. The aggressive renewable energy targets current pace of growth in renewables and would not be easy to achieve but are not recently announced increase in targets outside the realm of possibility either. indicate the presence of both ambition The assumptions used to estimate growth and enabling environment required to aid rates for each renewable energy the acceleration of this contribution.26 technology, and the supporting However, aggressive targets for justifications for these assumptions –are renewable electricity generation sources outlined below. imply that tremendous growth rates in Solar: All the discussions surrounding an installation would be required in the aggressive target for solar are based on years ahead. It would be useful to ground the recent announcements by the the expectations of such rapid growth in Government of India. While the the realities associated with programmatic details of these targets are environmental clearances, acquiring of yet to be announced, given the land for the projects and project financing performance of the industry in the last cycles. For this reason, we conducted a four years, reaching 100 GW of solar by bottom-up analysis as opposed to the 2022 will be more than a challenging feat extant modeling results that project to accomplish. Although India is growth of renewable endogenously based endowed with a large potential, the issues on macro-level growth patterns and of grid connectivity for large solar parks projected demand in energy. Our analysis and for roof-top systems is far from studies industry-specific growth patterns, certain. Additionally, with a minute government policies announced and are domestic manufacturing capacity, based on discussions held with industry ramping up installations will require experts and practitioners. Tables 4 and coordinated effort across policymakers, summarize the results of our analysis and manufacturers, engineering contractors include a comparison with the Low and other stakeholders. A National Wind Carbon Inclusive Growth (LCIG) scenario Mission to have 100 GW by 2022 was one numbers from the Planning Commission trigger for the industry to express that Report. confidence in installations is rebounding. India generated almost 140 billion units Discussions with industry stakeholders of renewable energy in 2010. are being conducted to explore the Consequently, renewable-based power possibility of increasing the target to 200 generation needs to increase by more GW by 2030. Our assumptions of annual than seven times by 2030 to reach the installations of between 10 and 12 GW
www.ijar.org.in 46 International Journal of Academic Research ISSN: 2348-7666; Vol.3, Issue-12(2), December, 2016 Impact Factor: 4.535; Email: [email protected] per year for a good part of the next indicates 2,246 kWh of per capita decade are in line with these aggressive electricity consumption. In contrast, targets. Wind (unlike solar) is already consumption in China was already at cheaper than thermal generation in many 3,298 kWh per capita. 38 These numbers states, if the Feed-in-Tariffs provided are represent economy-wide consumption. any indication. 4. Nuclear – The 2006 However, for reasons of political and Integrated Energy Policy envisaged that development concerns, actual residential India would have up to 63 GW of consumption and affordability of the installed capacity by 2032.34 In electricity would form the cornerstone of December 2011 this was revised down to the country’s policy decisions on 27 GW. In addition to the 4.3 GW that is increasing renewable energy generation. under construction, 22 units have been Therefore, we assessed the affordability proposed (with identified sites and of electricity in 2030 among household technology) amounting to 21 GW of income deciles of the country. We studied capacity35. Assuming suitable lead times the twin challenges of affordability and for projects and accounting for the fact aggressive renewable targets through that more than half this proposed multiple scenarios. capacity is using ‘imported’ technology; India would not be in a position to an added lag is expected to account for declare peaking targets for a considerable negotiation and cost finalization. time to come. Consequently, alternative Spreading the proposed projects and formulations have been included in the under construction projects over the next list below to ensure that while India fifteen years results in an annual tackles its development challenges, addition of about 1.1 GW per year. ambition in climate change remains Fairness: With nearly 60% of its rooted in its actions: 1. Convergence in population surviving on less than USD 2 Income and Electricity Consumption – a day, India faces mammoth development Along with periodic commitments on challenges in the decades to come.36 renewable energy targets, India could despite the fact that the country is one of commit to declaring a peaking year when the biggest economies, the fact remains threshold levels for per capita GDP (PPP) that India has more in common with and electricity consumption reach some of the least developed nations in $10,000 and 4,000 kWh respectively. terms of growth needs. India’s climate Strength this formulation would allow targets need to be consonant with its India to ensure sustained ambition in development needs. While this need not renewable energy growth, while allowing cap India’s ambition in increasing flexibility on the actual structure of the renewable energy generation, it could economy (for instance, relative growths have ramifications on the extent of in manufacturing versus services sector). renewable energy contribution in the It also avoids locking India into a peaking total electricity mix. Our estimated target year, which would have no relation to of 1,041 billion units from renewable how the overall economic development of energy translates to more than 30% of the country is progressing. the total electricity generation in 2030 Convergence in Human Development from renewable energy.37 further; the index (HDI) – In addition to periodic cumulative electricity generation number commitments on renewable energy www.ijar.org.in 47 International Journal of Academic Research ISSN: 2348-7666; Vol.3, Issue-12(2), December, 2016 Impact Factor: 4.535; Email: [email protected] targets, peaking year commitments could despite housing nearly a fifth of the be made contingent to India reaching a world’s population. 0.70 value (against the 2013 value of Conclusion: 0.56) on its HDI. Strength There is many advantages to using HDI instead of GDP. The INDCs present an important First, HDI along with incorporating opportunity for India to showcase its income also looks at other aspects of climate leadership through the social welfare of the population. Further, communication of its past, present and actions on adaptation and increasing future ambitions in the climate arena. It resilience to climate change are better is clear that leadership in climate change captured by the HDI. Finally, UNDP has has not been forthcoming from some of plans in the pipeline to link climate the largest emitters. Therefore, countries change impacts with the human such as India, likely to be acutely development index, which would further impacted by climate change would need strengthen the applicability of this to develop a strategy on two formats: indicator. Weakness linking a peaking pressing major emitters to increase their year with the achievement of HDI may mitigation targets; and ramping up its delay reduction in absolute emissions. own ambition to reduce the vulnerability Since the HDI is a relative value, of its own population to climate risks. dependent upon observed maximum Our analysis suggests that India could values, in the remote event that rate of push its ambition towards a target of growth of the most developed country 1,041 billion units of electricity from outpaces that of India’s, achievement of renewable energy sources by 2030. This 0.70 value may take longer than would be greater than the cumulative expected. Assuming an annual increase of generation from all sources in 2013-14. 1%, India’s HDI is expected to reach 0.75 43 However, this ambitious target would in 2038 as compared to 0.586 in 2013. add a significant burden to the economy Finally, we translated the renewable and may even make electricity energy target of 1,041 billion units in unaffordable to a large section of its 2030 into absolute emissions, using population. Therefore, it is imperative GCAM numbers. A cumulative amount of that discussions around technology 3.38 Gt of CO2 eq. is projected to be partnerships and financial mechanisms emitted by India; 2.25 metric tonnes of be an important pillar of any new climate CO2 eq. in terms of per capita emissions. agreement. Additionally, it may be useful We assumed an overall generation of to formulate a comprehensive framework 3,373 TWh, with renewable energy to assess the capacity of developing accounting for over 30% of the total countries to commit to peaking targets electricity generation. Coal still and similar climate commitments. dominates amongst the fossil fuels References: accounting for nearly 50% of total electricity generation, followed by gas at Arunabha Ghosh (2015) 'India US 15%. When compared with the EU, the Strategic Economic Compass' Business US and China, even in 2030 India’s per Standard, 20 January. Available at capita emissions are a fraction of these http://ceew.in/pdf/ag-india-us-strategic- countries’ per capita emissions. This is economic-compass-bscolumn-21jan15.pdf
www.ijar.org.in 48 International Journal of Academic Research ISSN: 2348-7666; Vol.3, Issue-12(2), December, 2016 Impact Factor: 4.535; Email: [email protected]
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The Geopolitical dimension of Maritime Security: Policies and Challenges
M.L.N.Raju, Head, Dept. of Economics, D.N.R. (A) College, Bhimavaram-534 202. G.Milton, Lecturer, Dept. of Economics, D.N.R. (A) College, Bhimavaram-534 202. Dr.M.V.S.N.Raju, Head, P.G.Dept. of Telugu, D.N.R. (A) College, Bhimavaram-534 202
Abstract: This research article discusses the geopolitical dimension of maritime security, which has been neglected by scholars despite the growing number of studies devoted to a variety of aspects related to maritime security. The first step consists in clarifying the definitions of the two concepts; ‘geopolitics’ and ‘maritime security’. Then the article introduces the geopolitical dimension of maritime security from a conceptual perspective, and then analyses three practical examples of maritime security geo-strategies released in 2014. The results demonstrate that states’ and international institutions’ maritime security objectives and interests are indirectly and directly influenced by geographical and geopolitical considerations, although this link is only tacitly acknowledged in official documents. Scholars and practitioners interested in maritime security are encouraged to further engage with this dimension. Keywords: Maritime security, Geopolitics, Maritime security strategy, Projection. 1. Introduction: terrorist acts against ships (USS Cole in 2001, French tanker Limburg in 2002 Maritime security is a fairly recent and Filipino passenger ship Super Ferry expression, which has become a buzzword 14 in 2004), and 3) the rise of piratical in the past decade, especially within the attacks in the Strait of Malacca at the maritime community. Maritime security beginning of the century. Then the surge can be understood as a concept referring of piracy at the Horn of Africa between to the security of the maritime domain or 2007 and 2012 largely contributed to as a set of policies, regulations, measures generating academic debates beyond and operations to secure the maritime strategic and security studies, with domain. In academia, the term ‘maritime scholars from various disciplines security’ was almost absent from the discussing the legal, criminal, cultural, debates about the security of the economic, military, environmental and maritime domain until the beginning of energy dimensions of piracy in particular s. Since 2002, the number of׳the 2000 and maritime security in general. references to maritime security in the academic literature has increased Between 1989 and 2014, Google linearly. This increase in academic Scholars lists more than 16,000 literature on maritime security can be references comprising the exact phrase explained by the conjunction of the three ‘maritime security’ compared to only 218 following factors: 1) the impacts of the between 1914 and 1988. However, 9/11 terrorist attacks (notably the launch despite this academic interest, the of counter-terrorist operations at sea), 2) geopolitical dimension of maritime the occurrence of three high visibility security has been overlooked by
www.ijar.org.in 50 International Journal of Academic Research ISSN: 2348-7666; Vol.3, Issue-12(2), December, 2016 Impact Factor: 4.535; Email: [email protected] practitioners and scholars alike. Only a example, in the case of illegal handful of scholars have started to immigration by sea, Italy is more directly discuss the link between maritime impacted than (for instance) the United security and geopolitics, mainly focusing Kingdom, because of its very geographical on the Indian Ocean, the European location. Sicily and especially the island Union (EU). The aim of this article is to of Lampedusa are located directly on the shed light on this overlooked dimension main (and one of the shortest) and to propose ways to integrate it within immigration route from North Africa to the emergent field of maritime security the EU and has thus sustained a constant studies. The first step consists in flow of illegal migrants for the past clarifying the definitions of the two decades. In other words, even if Britain, concepts; ‘geopolitics’ and ‘maritime France or Germany may be the ultimate security’, since both of them are open to destination goal of illegal migrants various, often divergent and modular, crossing the Mediterranean on small interpretations. Then the article boats, Italy, Spain (through the Gibraltar introduces the geopolitical dimension of Strait) and Malta are more easily, quickly maritime security from a conceptual (and relatively safely) accessible by boat perspective and analyses three practical than the UK or even France, due to examples of maritime security geo- evident geographical factors. As a result strategies released in 2014, which Italy has to spend more resources on demonstrate the importance of counter-immigration than many other geographical and geopolitical EU states, which explains its recent considerations for maritime security request for the EU’s assistance in dealing studies. with counter-immigration at sea in central Mediterranean, leading to the Geography and maritime security: launch of FRONTEX operation Triton in Geographical ‘permanence’ such as the November 2014. This example illustrates length of a country’s coastline or the that simple geographical realities have absence of direct access to the high seas constraining impacts on states’ maritime constrains sea power in general and security policies, notably when it comes maritime security policies in particular, to regulating human activities at sea. “for geography do not argue. This in no The same reasoning works for other way means that politics and policies are types of illegal flow within the maritime determined by geography but that domain. For example, drug smuggling geographical factors need to be taken into directly impacts countries located on the account in the list of explanatory factors main routes, such as Spain through the along with other material, structural and Gibraltar Strait, or those whose coasts ideational factors. are difficult to monitor due to a negative Maritime security has to do with (illegal ratio between the length of the coast to and disruptive) human activities in the police and the resources at the disposal of maritime milieu, that is to say a certain the navy/coast-guard. This can be the geographically delimited space. Thus, case for small states such as for example states are differently impacted by Ireland with limited resources and a maritime security threats depending on rather extended coastline or powerful their actual geographical location. For states such as the United States, which
www.ijar.org.in 51 International Journal of Academic Research ISSN: 2348-7666; Vol.3, Issue-12(2), December, 2016 Impact Factor: 4.535; Email: [email protected] despite the resources at the disposal of its and drug traffickers’ business strategies coast-guard service has such a long coast (privileged destination countries) need to to monitor and is the intended be factored in the explanation. As shown destination goal of so much drug in Table 1, the geographical factor is still trafficking that it still struggles to ‘seal’ very relevant. Despite the US deploying its maritime borders. Here the almost 20 times more coast-guard vessels, geographical factor (length of coasts) is each of those vessels have a theoretical clearly not sufficient to explain the length of coast to monitor that is just burden of counter-narcotics. Material 62 km shorter than the one devoted to power (such as the coast-guard budget) each Irish offshore patrol vessels (OPV). Table 1 Ratio between length of coast and coast-guard resources (comparison Ireland –USA). Length of coast Number of coast-guard Ratio (km of coast (in km) vessels per ship)
Ireland 1500 8 OPV 187
USA 20,000 More than 159 coast- 125 guard vessels
States’ involvement in maritime security also depends on non-geographical factors Due to the global nature of the maritime such as governments’ capabilities and/or domain and to the transnational nature will to tackle maritime security threats. of many of the current maritime security For example, Somalia has not been in a threats (immigration, drug smuggling, position to control illegal activities in its piracy, etc.), countries not directly own territorial waters (hence the need for impacted by the threats coming from the foreign maritime capacity-building sea can nevertheless decide to contribute operations, such as EUCAP Nestor). to the policing efforts, based on the Empowering secessionist Somaliland’s understanding that they will eventually and autonomist Puntland’s own coast- be impacted later. guard forces shows the importance of political will and material realities as Maritime security (geo) strategies: explanatory factors. It has also been States and regional organizations such as argued that in certain South East Asian NATO and the EU have interests linked countries, police or naval forces are to maritime security, which go beyond reluctant to engage in counter-piracy securing the freedom of the seas. Thus activities and could even be “complicit in maritime security concerns integrate these crimes, especially in areas where a within broader geo-strategies. A number culture of corruption (possibly boosted by of states, as well as the EU, have recently underpaid maritime security forces or elaborated specific maritime security smuggling activities) has evolved under strategies. These documents tend to years of authoritarian governments”. include a geopolitical dimension,
www.ijar.org.in 52 International Journal of Academic Research ISSN: 2348-7666; Vol.3, Issue-12(2), December, 2016 Impact Factor: 4.535; Email: [email protected] although sometimes rather tacitly. This versus an explicit approach, and 2) the section analyses three maritime security ‘extent to which geopolitical strategies, all released in 2014: the UK considerations inform policy objectives’, National Strategy for Maritime Security for which two categories are defined; a (NSMS), the EU Maritime Security direct versus indirect influence. The Strategy (EU MSS), and the EU Strategy indicators employed for the coding are on the Gulf of Guinea (GoG). This choice exposed in Table 2. They are then applied of text responds to the need to discuss to the analysis of the three above- current narrative practices, since the mentioned strategies (codes in brackets). concept of maritime security has only The presence of an explicit link between recently been broadened (as discussed maritime security and geopolitics is above). The texts are located in different measured by the occurrence of planes, since the first was elaborated by a unequivocal references to the concept of state (the UK) whereas the second and geopolitics and to the fact that geography the third by a supranational actor (the influences maritime security. The direct EU). This allows conducting a influence of geopolitical factors on comparison between the UK (that is to maritime security objectives is measured say a state with pro-active security by the occurrence of unequivocal policies and substantial material power to references to geopolitical interests in the back it) and the EU Two variables are maritime domain and to geographical under scrutiny: 1) the ‘geopolitical locations when referring to maritime approach towards maritime security’, for security objectives. which two categories are defined; a tacit
Table 2: Indicators for coding. Indicators Tacit link between Geographical definition of Recurrent geographical maritime security and MS risks and threats references throughout geopolitics (Tgeopol1) the text (Tgeopol2) Explicit link between Reference to the concept of Reference to the maritime security and geopolitics (Egeopol1) influence of geography re geopolitics MS (Egeopol2) Indirect influence of Reference to the need to Reference to the need to geographical and/or tackle MS threats beyond police the ‘global’ geopolitical factors on one’s boundary and/or maritime domain maritime security territorial waters (IgeoInfl2) objectives (IgeoInfl1) Direct influence of Direct reference to Mention of geographical geographical and/or geopolitical interests in locations when referring geopolitical factors on the maritime domain to MS objectives maritime security (DgeoInfl1) objectives
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The UK National Strategy for Maritime approved version, which reflect member Security (NSMS): states’ reservations about the deployment of the EU’s sea power. The EU stresses The NSMS stresses that the UK is “an its will, interests and responsibility to island trading nation” with overseas contribute to promoting “better maritime territories and global interests. governance”, for example by launching Consequently, maritime security is very maritime capacity building missions important for Britain both in terms of (such as EUCAP Nestor at the Horn of economic and national security: fisheries Africa or EUBAM in Libya) focusing on protection in the territorial waters and coast-guard and maritime governance EEZs of Great Britain and overseas capabilities (IgeoInfl2). But beyond the territories, security of sea lanes of stewardship of the oceans, the EU’s communication, energy security, and maritime security strategy is informed by drug-interdiction represent vital interests geopolitical elements. Maritime areas in (Tgeopol1). Some regions are specifically the periphery of Europe and beyond have described as prone to maritime security a “strategic value” to the EU (Tgeopol1, issues and of interest to the UK’s Tgeopol2 and DgeoInfl2): Some maritime security: the Arctic, the South and East zones or areas within the global maritime China seas, the Horn of Africa, the Gulf domain are, because of their strategic of Guinea and the Caribbean. The UK value or potential for crisis or instability, NSSM explicitly acknowledges the UK’s of particular importance to the EU and political will and capabilities to protect its Member States. The Mediterranean, British maritime security interests the Atlantic and the global network of wherever needed, i.e. with no shipping lanes to and from Asia, Africa geographical limitation. and the Americas are of critical We deploy Royal Navy ships acting importance. This Strategy takes independently or as part of an particular regard of each of the European international force to maintain vital sea and subsea basins, namely the Baltic trade routes and ensure freedom of Sea, the Black Sea, the Mediterranean navigation, including a persistent and the North Sea, as well as of the forward presence in the Atlantic, Indian Arctic waters, the Atlantic Ocean and the Ocean and the Persian Gulf. We also outermost regions. Contributing to the deploy specialized Naval shipping and security of the seas beyond the EU’s capabilities to key chokepoints in order to jurisdictional waters also serves the understand and influence these areas, Union global geo-strategy, which requires and if necessary to take action to prevent visual presence. The Commission and respond. advocated regular “EU-flagged maritime exercises with third countries in order to The European Union Maritime Security improve the visibility of the EU in the Strategy (EU MSS): global maritime domain” (2014: 7). The EU MSS was drafted by the Without mentioning this very possibility, Commission in March 2014, and then the the Council nevertheless stressed the fact Council adopted a revised version on 24 that the EU has interests to defend over June 2014. The two documents do not the world’s oceans, which are not diverge much, although some important bounded by geographical considerations. omissions are to be found in the Council’s Although they revolve around the
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‘liberal’ notions of the freedom of the sea public power beyond one’s external and the promotion of good governance at boundary within the ‘global’ maritime sea, they are nonetheless informed by domain. The results from the analysis of ‘realist’ power politics considerations. the three above-discussed examples show that geographical and geopolitical The EU Strategy on the Gulf of Guinea considerations do inform states’ and the (GoG): EU’s maritime security objectives and One maritime region which has attracted goals, although geopolitical the EU’s attention is the GoG, for which considerations remain tacit. The fact that the Council has adopted in March 2014 a the EU MSS was approved by 27 member Strategy. This strategy highlights the states allows some generalizations various regional threats, including IUUF, beyond the very EU’s dynamics. Not only illicit dumping of waste, piracy and geography does impact on the boundary armed robbery at sea, trafficking of of what is possible to achieve in terms of human beings, narcotics, arms and freedom of the seas and good governance counterfeit goods, smuggling of migrants, at sea, but states (and the EU) have also as well as oil theft. In other words, the developed maritime geopolitical visions, EU has acknowledged the need to be based on the fact that securing adjacent more active in the GoG due to maritime and distant maritime spaces will security threats (Tgeopol1). This is a positively impact on one’s security on striking example of how maritime land. Furthermore, contributing to global security issues, even very distant from maritime governance may well ‘hide’ home, can engender and justify the need more ‘realist’ policy agendas in the form to take into consideration distant of a justification for power and forces (maritime) regions. In practice, the EU is projection beyond one’s legal zone of committed to “identify geographic and competencies. thematic priority zones to focus the EU It is interesting to note that the response, including in cooperation with difference between the UK and the EU other international actors” (9) and to documents is limited despite the fact that help “states to strengthen their maritime they are very different actors. References capabilities, the rule of law and effective to geopolitical considerations are tacit in governance across the region, including both the UK and EU documents whereas improvements in maritime policy objectives are directly and administration and law enforcement indirectly influenced by geographical through multiagency cooperation by considerations. This shows that, despite police, navy, military, coastguard, its peculiar decision-making process that customs and immigration services”. In often reduces foreign and security policy 2013, the Union launched the Critical decisions to the smaller common Maritime Routes programme (CRIMGO) denominator between member states, “to reinforce regional and international geopolitical considerations have been initiatives against piracy and armed taken into account by the EU. This may robbery at sea in the Gulf of Guinea”. indicate that member states have Discussion: successfully uploaded their strategic and security policy objectives into the Maritime security is intrinsically European Union. In the case of the EU geopolitical, since it is about projecting
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MSS, since it originated in the security beyond their external boundary Commission’s IMP and subsequent into the global maritime domain. Thus, initiatives, it is not surprising to find that zones of interests are defined, which it advocates a global vision for the EU extend beyond one’s legal zone of and thus frames maritime security competencies. In security narratives, objectives within the broader role and those maritime zones are represented as place of the EU as a global actor. vital for one’s security, which justifies power projection activities. In sum, as The fact that geopolitics is only tacitly demonstrated by the analysis of three acknowledged but that it does influence recent maritime security strategies, the states’ and the EU’s policies and geopolitical dimension of maritime objectives shows that the geopolitical security indirectly and directly informs dimension of maritime security exists and states’ and the EU’s maritime security matters but is still not acknowledged policies. Beyond technical, operational, explicitly, which may be due to the legal/judicial, economic, military and enduring negative connotation of the cultural elements, there is a geopolitical term ‘geopolitics’ discussed above. dimension of maritime security, which is Practitioners, especially in the Western tacitly acknowledged by practitioners liberal democratic world tend to negate who are nevertheless still reluctant to their using geopolitical (or simply power talk about geo-strategy. This dimension politics) factors when it comes to foreign is also rather neglected by scholars who and security policy decisions-making. tend to focus on other dimensions due to This can be explained by their the fragmentation of social science in accountability to a (supposedly) peaceful general and of maritime security studies public opinion that will expect ‘liberal’ in particular. When states and regional justifications for the projection of power organizations stress their need, will or into the maritime domain (such as duty to ‘secure the freedom of the seas’, ‘contributing to the security of the global to ‘police the global commons’, to commons’) rather than ‘realist’ ‘promote good governance at sea’, or to arguments (such as ‘the need to control ‘assure the stewardship of the ocean’, space beyond one’s external boundary’). there are geopolitical forces and factors at For their part, academics who overlook play and not only ‘benign’ intentions. the geopolitical dimension of maritime The goal of this article is to initiate security take out of the equation a factor debates within maritime security studies, that contributes to explaining states’ and so as scholars acknowledge the relevance the EU’s maritime security policies. of this geopolitical dimension and further 6. Conclusion: engage with it. Maritime security refers to a References: geographical space, that is to say the sea, Commission of the European which has different characteristics Communities (2012), Blue Growth: compared to the land. The location of opportunities for marine and maritime threats impacts on the way states and sustainable growth. Directorate-General non-sate actors’ security is affected. for Maritime Affairs and Fisheries: States’ maritime security interests result Luxembourg, COM (2012) 494 final. in a practice consisting in projecting
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Commission of the European Cliffs; 1890, Cosimo Classics, New Communities (2007), An York (2007) Integrated Maritime Policy for
the European Union, COM (2007) 575 final, Brussels Commission of the European Communities (2014), Joint communication to the European parliament and the council: for an open and secure global maritime domain: elements for a European Union maritime security strategy, Brussels, 6 March 2014, JOIN (2014) 9 final. Council of the European Union (2014a), EU strategy on the Gulf of Guinea. Foreign Affairs Council Meeting: Brussels, 17 March 2014 Council of the European Union (2014b), European Union Maritime Security Strategy, Brussels, 24 June 2014, 11205/14. FRONTEX. General Report 2013, Warsaw, 〈http://frontex.europa.e u/assets/About_Frontex/Governan ce_documents/Annual_report/201 3/General_Report_EN.pdf〉; 2014 [Accessed 08.06.14]. J.R. Holmes, Tackling Somali piracy ashore: maritime security and geopolitics in the Indian Ocean Strategic Anal, 34 (5) (2010), pp. 717–727 HM Government (2014), The UK National Strategy for Maritime Security, Presented to Parliament by the Secretary of State for Defence by Command of Her Majesty, May 2014, Cm 8829. A.T. Mahan, The influence of sea power upon history, 1660-1783, (Original ed) Prentice-Hall: Englewood
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Environment and fairness in International Trade Negotiations: Developing Countries in the GATT & WTO
G.Moses, Lecturer, Dept. of Statistics, D.N.R. College (A), Bhimavaram,AP
Dr.K.Mallikarjuna, Lecturer, Dept. of Botany, D.N.R. College (A), Bhimavaram,AP
Abstract: Many developing countries feared that open dissent to a motion that a developed country was supporting would result in retaliatory consequences and penalties against them outside of the meeting room, and hence chose to remain silent. Silence, however, was also interpreted as consensus. Third, to facilitate consensus- building, many “Green Room” meetings, which often worked on the invitation of the Director General and resulted in the exclusion of many developing countries from the key discussion and negotiation stages. Of course, one could argue that developing countries could have collectively overridden the norm of consensus decision-making and insisted on majority voting as per the GATT rule-book. However, besides the obvious problems of collective action in employing such a strategy, this strategy would have entailed the risk that developed countries might withdraw their commitment to the GATT and turn to alternative bilateral and regional arrangements. The costs of such arrangements and the decline of the multilateral trading system would have been the highest for developing countries.
Key words: GATT, free-ride, equity
Introduction: own concerns with equity and distributive justice into the GATT and in These would include susceptibility to other parallel forums. Phase I: Emphasis greater bilateral arm-twisting, but also on Equity and Outcomes The agenda of the losses that would result from the end developing countries in the first phase of of the free-ride that they had enjoyed on their participation in the GATT was tariff reductions by developed typified in the eloquent statement of the countries.19 As a result, despite the Indian representative: “Equality of commitment of the GATT to variations treatment is equitable only among 19 Most tariff reductions in the early equals. A weakling cannot carry the days of the GATT were conducted under burden of a giant.”20 In practical terms, the “Principal Supplier Principle” this view translated into the demand for whereby tariff concessions were preferential treatment by developing negotiated bilaterally between the countries in the GATT, which took two principal suppliers and then 13 of forms - special market access for the fairness other than equity, developing products from developing countries, and countries remained members of a forum exemptions from GATT obligations - and that they frequently dubbed “The Rich went back to the days of the ITO Man’s Club”. But in the first phase, negotiations. These demands took more lasting into the launch of the Uruguay concrete shape as the writings of Round, their participation was sullen, economists like Raul Prebisch achieved and they tried hard to incorporate their greater prominence, and fitted well with
www.ijar.org.in 58 International Journal of Academic Research ISSN: 2348-7666; Vol.3, Issue-12(2), December, 2016 Impact Factor: 4.535; Email: [email protected] the economic nationalism of the newly- Payments purposes whenever foreign independent countries of the South. exchange reserves fell below the level Developing countries were convinced that they considered necessary for economic despite its one-member-one-vote system, development. In 1958, the Haberler the GATT was an institution weighted report was issued to provide guidance for against them due to its commitment to the work of the GATT, and recognized liberalization, lack of balancing that “prospects for exports of non- development provisions or special industrial policies in industrial countries, treatment for primary commodities, the and on balance their development will shenanigans of the consensus diplomacy probably fall short of the increase in of the Green Room that worked to their world trade as a whole.” As a result of the exclusion, and negotiating formulae such efforts of developing countries to bring as the Principal Supplier Principle. As a development onto the agenda of the result, they made few attempts to engage international economic organizations, the actively in the give-and-take of GATT 1960s was designated as the UN Decade negotiations, and instead tried to lobby for Development. Dissatisfaction of for a change in the norms of the GATT to developing countries also led to the a qualified liberalization that involved formation of the UNCTAD in 1964, notions of fairness emphasizing equitable which was presented as an alternative to outcomes rather than just equitable the notion of fairness that the GATT had processes by institutionalizing emphasized. The UNCTAD was formed preferential treatment for development pointedly under the auspices of the UN purposes. Given institutional constraints General Assembly to address the trade in the GATT against majoritarian voting and development concerns of developing and coalition-building, many of these countries, to correct, by implication, the lobbying efforts took place outside the failures of the GATT in this area. Faced GATT in forums like the UN General with these epistemic and institutional Assembly and subsequently the alternatives to its own vision, the GATT UNCTAD. multilateralized. incorporated some changes. The Committee on Trade and Development As developing countries were seldom was established in the GATT, and Part principal suppliers or demanders in the IV, devoted specifically to Trade and areas that fell within traditional GATT Development, was added on in 1965. rules, it meant that they could free-ride While much of the language of Part IV on the tariffs thus negotiated. The suggests good intentions rather than downside, however, was that developing obligations (e.g. the recurrent use of the countries found them marginalized from term “there is a need for”, and the agenda-setting process. 20 Quoted by qualifications such as “to the fullest Kock (1969). These demands of extent possible”), the addition was developing countries generated some important and unprecedented as it successes. The only clause in the GATT recognized the principle of non- that had allowed limited infant industry reciprocity for developing countries. protection was Article XVIII. This was Article 8 thus stated: “The developed modified in 1954-55 to include XVIIIb contracting parties do not expect that allowed countries the use of reciprocity for commitments made by Quantitative Restrictions for Balance of them in trade negotiations to reduce or
www.ijar.org.in 59 International Journal of Academic Research ISSN: 2348-7666; Vol.3, Issue-12(2), December, 2016 Impact Factor: 4.535; Email: [email protected] remove tariffs and other barriers to the The waiver meant that developed trade of less-developed contracting countries could, if they so chose, remove parties.” For the first time, developing or reduce trade restrictions on the countries had successfully introduced a specific imports of particular developing concept of fairness into the GATT that countries, but it was not a universal recognized the importance of equity of obligation imposed upon developed outcomes rather than just legitimacy of countries. Developed countries could process as a general principle. unilaterally withdraw concessions Institutionalizing this principle further, granted under the GSP, unlike the in 1968, the UNCTAD passed a commitments to which they had bound resolution in favor of an early themselves in the GATT. As a result, the establishment of a “generalized, non- institutionalization of S&D within GATT reciprocal, nondiscriminatory system of rules was little more than the permission preferences”. The GATT followed in 1971 to have a temporary exception to its norm with a waiver to the 15 MFN principles of reciprocal trade liberalization; what allowing the Generalized System of the GATT treated as fair continued to be Preferences (GSP) for the next ten years. a matter of process and legitimacy, rather The GSP was given a permanent and than outcomes and equity. While the legal basis in the GATT in 1979 when the successes of developing countries in contracting parties to pass the “Enabling inducing norm change in the GATT Clause.” While all these changes might remained limited, their gains from S&D appear to suggest norm evolution in the as institutionalized by the GSP were also GATT to incorporate a notion of fairness few. Martin Wolf, for instance, has as extended to outcomes and equity, and argued that the GSP was used as a bait to preferred by developing countries, a divide the South. For late entrants in an closer look at S&D in the first phase area covered by GSP, the costs were suggests that this might not have been especially high in the form of distorted the case. First, even though the Enabling international markets that were already Clause had been negotiated in the Tokyo occupied by the more advanced The Round, it was accompanied by an official name for this provision is inclusion of the “Graduation Principle”. “Differential and More Favorable The Graduation Principle was an Treatment, Reciprocity and Fuller important qualification to the Enabling Participation of Developing Countries.” Clause that ensured that developing Even for the beneficiaries, the scheme countries would be progressively taken had declining marginal utility as off the GSP lists of particular developed increasing overall trade liberalization countries as they began to show higher undermined the utility of preferences. levels of development. In other words, the And in return for such ad hoc and Enabling Clause was only a stopgap uncertain preferences, developing measure before developing countries countries paid a heavy price. By accepting assumed their “normal” responsibilities schemes such as GSP that represented a of reciprocal trade liberalization. Second, violation of the MFN principle, the Enabling Clause was no more than a developing countries could not waiver to the MFN and reciprocity rules, legitimately demand the end to which continued to be the foundational exceptions on areas that were of key principles of the GATT. exporting interest to them.
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These issues would be picked up by Interviews with developing country developing countries in Phases II and III. negotiators of the time suggest that the Phase II: Equal Process and Reciprocity economic downturn of the 1980s made it By the time of the launch of the Uruguay almost inevitable that they would be Round, notions of fairness that driven to 17 the negotiating table. Rather developing countries appealed to seemed than a choice voluntarily exercised, to be changing. Their most concrete economic liberalization was seen almost manifestation lay in the apparent as inevitability. It was also nearly certain willingness of developing countries to that given their weak BATNA, developing engage on an equal and reciprocal basis countries would have to negotiate on the in the “Grand Bargain” of the Uruguay terms of the developed ones. These terms Round. Developing countries had agreed included an acceptance of the developed to an inclusion of the so-called “new country notion of fairness as defined in issues” (services, TRIPs and TRIMs). In terms of legitimacy and equity in process. return, for the first time, agriculture and While power politics and economic textiles were placed within the imperatives rendered rhetorical appeals multilateral rules of the GATT. This was to equity of outcomes an indulgence that unprecedented and resulted in some few countries could afford, institutional important quid pro quos for developing learning specific to the GATT had thrown countries. It also induced institutional considerable doubt on their old innovations within the GATT, the most strategies. First, it was becoming clear important of which were the creation of even to the most ardent supporters of the Single Undertaking and the S&D that the free-ride on the Principal establishment of the World Trade Supplier Principle had generated heavy Organization. Many economists of a costs, and benefits from the GSP in its liberal disposition have argued that the existing form did not compensate for willingness of developing countries to these costs. Non-tariff barriers in the accept reciprocal exchange was a result of form of various grey-area measures were their ideational conversion to the liberal increasing, and developing countries enlightenment. Hoekman and Kostecki recognized that one of the few defenses trace the changes in the attitudes of that they had against the “aggressive developing countries to the debt crisis, unilateralism” of the developed countries the lessons of the East Asian experience was the multilateralism of the GATT. with export-oriented growth, the failures Developing countries also began to of central planning, and the emergence of realize that they could not influence the export interests within developing expanding rules of the GATT – rules that countries that created new domestic would have far-reaching implications for constituencies for liberalization. them – by standing on the sidelines. However, these accounts omit the Second, the experiments with different significance of power politics in coalition types by developing countries influencing the greater engagement of also revealed the limitations of bloc-type developing countries, their limited coalitions that had stood on a moral high successes in the pursuit of their fairness- horse, emphasized the concept of fairness as-equity agenda in Phase 1, and their in terms of equity, used strict distributive adaptation and learning experiences bargaining tactics, and refused to engage within the institution over the years.
www.ijar.org.in 61 International Journal of Academic Research ISSN: 2348-7666; Vol.3, Issue-12(2), December, 2016 Impact Factor: 4.535; Email: [email protected] in any reciprocal exchange. The euphoria premised upon at least a qualified accompanying the call for the New commitment to economic liberalization International Economic Order had rather than an epistemic alternative. melted into the debt crisis. The last Developing countries have been careful to traditional-type Third World-list coalition frame their demands for equity of process in the GATT was the G10. In the face of and substance in the WTO within the all odds, led by Brazil and India, the G10 norms and rules of the organization. attempted to block the inclusion of References: services into the Uruguay Round, and refused to engage in any trade-offs until Breslauer, George W. and Philip E. its demands were met. In contrast, under Tetlock (1991), Learning in US and the initiative of Colombian Ambassador Soviet Foreign Policy, Boulder: Westview Felipe Jaramillo, and almost Press. simultaneously with the machinations of Cohen, Stephen P. (2001), India: the G10, a counter coalition emerged that Emerging Power, Washington DC: used integrative bargaining tactics. Brookings Institution. Conclusion: Diebold, William, Jr. (1952), The End of In this paper, I have relied on the the ITO, Essays in International Finance, distinction made by Thomas Franck No. 16, Princeton University, Princeton: between the two notions of fairness of International Finance Section, legitimacy and equity. Institutional Department of Economics and Social structures determine, in good measure, Institutions. which particular vision will provide the Finger, Michael (2002), and Philip basis for its rules. I argued that in the Schuler entitled, Implementation of WTO case of the GATT, decision-making and commitments: the Development negotiation processes that led to the Challenge, in Philip English, Bernard effective marginalization of developing Hoekman and Aaditya Mattoo eds., countries in the early years also led to the Development, Trade and the WTO: A dominance of the legitimacy-as-fairness Handbook, Washington DC: World Bank. view. Attempts by developing countries to Franck, Thomas (1995), Fairness in bring equity-based fairness into the International Law and Institutions, mainstream trade discourse generated Oxford: Clarendon Press. poor results. The failures of Phase 1 prompted an extreme swing by Hoekman, Bernard and Michel Kostecki developing countries to Phase II when (2001), The Political Economy of the traditional Third World-ist politics and World Trading System: the WTO and demands for preferential treatment and Beyond, Oxford: Oxford University Press, exceptions took a back seat, and 2nd edition. developing countries seemed to have Hurrell, Andrew (2001), Global converted wholesale to assumptions of Inequality in International Institutions, reciprocal trade concessions. In the wake in Thomas W. Pogge ed., Global Justice, of the disappointments of the Uruguay Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. Round, a more nuanced position is in evidence. Issues of equity have returned to the fore, but this time they are
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Climate change legislation in India: Policies and programmes
D.Surya Prabha, Research Scholar, Dept. of Economics, Andhra University, Visakhapatnam-530 003 D.Saroja Babu, Research Scholar, Dept. of Social Work, Andhra University, Visakhapatnam-530 003 S.Sanyasamma, Research Scholar, P.G.Dept. of Economics, P.G.COURSES & Research Centre, D.N.R. College (Autonomous), Bhimavaram-534 202 Abstract: India is a non-Annex I country under the Kyoto Protocol and thus has no binding target for emissions reduction. It is an active participant in the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) established by the Protocol. It had more than 1,479 registered CDM projects as of February 2014.In 2010 India released a GHG inventory for 2007 (not officially submitted to the UNFCCC), and stated that it would be the first developing country to publish its emissions inventory in a two-year cycle going forward. In 2012, India published its second communication to the UNFCCC, which includes an emissions inventory for the year 2000. The communication also includes a section on vulnerability assessment and adaptation: it presents climate change projections and impact assessments on water, forests, agriculture and human health. Consultations are under way for a third communication.
Key words: Kyoto Protocol, human health, resource conservation
Introduction: of Environment and Forests at the Government of India released India: India has pledged to reduce the emissions Taking on Climate Change – Post intensity of its GDP by 20-25% below Copenhagen Domestic Actions, which 2005 by 2025. Efforts include improved evaluates the progress of the policies energy efficiency, increased use of announced in the 2008 NAPCC. The renewable and nuclear power, expanded forests and human health – in four public transportation and energy pricing critical regions of India – the Himalayan reform. Rather than integrative binding region, the North East, Western Ghats legislation, India is developing a policy and Coastal India. INCCA comprises 127 process to specifically target climate research institutions tasked with change. It adopted a “National Action undertaking research on the science of Plan on Climate Change” (NAPCC) in climate change and its impacts on 2008 outlining existing and future different sectors of the economy across policies and programmes directed at the various regions of India. The Indian climate change mitigation, adaptation Space Research Organization (ISRO) and knowledge management. The focus of plans to launch a satellite to monitor the NAPCC is on promoting GHG emissions later in 2015. Under the understanding of climate change, and new Government elected in 2014, the action on adaptation, mitigation, energy Ministry of Environment and Forests has efficiency, and natural resource become the Ministry of Environment, conservation while pursuing overall Forests and Climate Change. In the economic growth. In 2010, the Ministry
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COP20 in Lima in December 2014, the systems. The Government has Indian Minister, Prakash Javadekar, approved National Mission on Enhanced announced that in ‘the next budget Energy Efficiency (NMEEE) in August session (India is) going to introduce 2014 with an outlay of INR7.75bn comprehensive climate legislation’. (USD125m). It will enhance investments for better technology, creation of a Carbon Pricing: In 2010, India created venture capital with partial risk the National Clean Energy Fund, to guarantee fund, appliance rating system finance and promote clean energy and notification of a new building code initiatives and fund related research. The for energy conservation. corpus of the fund is built on a levy on coal, originally set at the rate of INR50 Energy Supply: The Electricity Act 2003 (USD0.81) per tonne, which will apply to sought to better co-ordinate development both domestically-produced and imported of the power sector and to promote coal. In order to increase the size of the efficient and environmentally benign National Clean Energy Fund (NCEF), the policies. The Act recognizes the role of levy has been increased to INR200 renewable energy in the country’s (USD3.22) per tonne in the 2015 budget. National Electricity Policy (issued in This money will go into a National Clean 2005) and contains key provisions Energy Fund that will be used for relating to renewable energy. This Act research, innovative projects in clean was supplemented by the 2006 National energy technologies and environmental Tariff Policy, which stipulates that the remediation programmes. Until late targets for the Solar RPO (Renewable 2014, Viability Gap Funding of Purchase Obligation) shall be 0.25% by INR165.11bn (USD2.66bn) has been 2012-13 extending to 3% by 2022, which recommended from the NCEF for 46 would require 34GW of installed solar projects. capacity by 2022. The government has announced that it will raise the country’s Energy demand: India’s cabinet approved target for solar power five-fold from the National Mission on Enhanced 20GW to 100GW by 2022. There are Energy Efficiency (NMEEE) in 2010. The separate RPOs for other renewable Mission includes several new initiatives – sources. The 2006 Integrated Energy the most important being the Perform, Policy that received Cabinet approval in Achieve and Trade (PAT) Mechanism, 2008 aims to meet energy demand “at the which will cover facilities that account for least cost in a technically efficient, more than 50% of the fossil fuel used, and economically viable and environmentally help reduce CO emissions by 25m tonnes 2 sustainable manner”. It contains a per year by 2014–2015. A number of number of policies that contribute to regulations and incentives promote avoiding GHG emissions. In 2007, the energy efficiency and the use of cabinet proposed an indicative target of renewable energy, at the Federal and the 20% blending of biofuels, both for State levels. These include a revision in biodiesel and bioethanol, by 2017. A 2007 of the Energy Conservation National Policy on Biofuels outlining the Building Code that sets minimum same target was approved in 2009. In requirements for building envelope order to avoid a conflict between energy components, lighting, HVAC, electrical security and food security, the policy systems and water heating and pumping
www.ijar.org.in 64 International Journal of Academic Research ISSN: 2348-7666; Vol.3, Issue-12(2), December, 2016 Impact Factor: 4.535; Email: [email protected] promotes only fuels derived from non- allowing for the next wave of reforms edible plants, in waste, degraded or such as competition in retail and marginal lands. The policy offers farmers Renewable Purchase Obligations (RPO) and cultivators a minimum support price enforcement. for non-edible oil seeds, as well as a In September 2014 the minister of power, minimum purchase price for fuel. coal and renewable energy said the The National Solar Mission is a large- country is looking to invest USD100bn in scale solar energy programme that runs renewable energy over the next five from 2010 to 2022 and promotes years; additionally, it was announced that electricity generation from both small- 8,000-10,000MW of wind power can be and large-scale solar plants. Presently, generated per year. In 2013, A ‘Green wind farm projects qualify for Energy Corridor’ was announced, with Generation-Based Incentives (GBI) and a USD7.9bn set aside to facilitate flow of tax holiday as infrastructure projects, but renewable energy into the national grid. accelerated depreciation under the Various initiatives taken include: Income Tax Act has been withdrawn allocation of INR1bn (USD16.1m) for the from the 2013-14 Budget. Lots of local development of 1MW Solar Parks on the projects are also being implemented such banks of canals; allocation of INR4bn as the Solar Photovoltaic Programme, the (USD64.5m) for launching a scheme for Solar Water Heating System Programme solar power driven agricultural pump sets and the Village Electrification and water pumping stations. Programme. REDD+ and LULUCF: Budget outlay for renewable has been The National Mission on Sustainable increased by 65.8% (including direct hike Habitats (NMSH) was approved as one of in solar financing by INR10bn the eight National Missions under the (USD161m) primarily for solar water Prime Minister’s National Action Plan on pumps and setting up of ultra-modern Climate Change (NAPCC). A solar power projects. The anti-dumping comprehensive strategic plan is being duty issue has been resolved as well with drafted to implement it. an impetus on “Make in India” solar manufacturing, and a priority for The National Mission for Green India domestic content. (GIM), also one of the eight National Missions under NAPCC, is being The government has also restored finalized. It aims to double the area to be accelerated depreciation benefit to wind- taken up for forestation/eco-restoration power developers to ramp up wind in the next 10 years, taking the total area generation capacity. Ad-hoc termination to be afforested or eco-restored to 20m of this benefit in 2012 resulted in a ha. This would increase the above and nearly 50% fall in capacity installations below ground biomass in 10m ha of in 2013. New directives from the Prime forests/ecosystems, resulting in increased Minister’s office have announced a target carbon sequestration of 43m tonnes CO - for wind-power of 65GW by 2022. 2 equivalent annually. Other regulatory moves such In 2012, India held a national as amendments to the Electricity Act consultation on the preparedness for 2003 and tariff policy have been finalized,
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REDD+. A Technical Group has been set Sub-National Activities: up to develop methodologies and All Indian States have to prepare State procedures to assess and monitor Action Plans for Climate Change REDD+ actions. Additionally, a National (SAPCCs) in line with the objectives of REDD+ Co-coordinating Agency has the National Action Plan on Climate been approved in principle and Change (NAPCC) and ensure its methodologies for National Forest implementation at state level. As of the Carbon Accounting are being end of 2014, 27 states and 4 Union institutionalized. Territories have prepared plans; the A high level committee is currently National Steering Committee on Climate reviewing environmental laws including Change has endorsed the SAPCCs of nine the Forest (Conservation) Act of 1980 states (Andhra Pradesh, Arunachal and the Indian Forest Act of 1927. Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Manipur, Mizoram, Rajasthan, Sikkim, Tripura Adaptation: India’s population depends and West Bengal. The SAPCCs of Assam, greatly on climate sensitive sectors – Meghalaya and Orissa are being agriculture and forestry – for its considered by the Expert Committee on livelihood. India’s climate risk Climate Change. Other states are at assessment in the second communication various stages of preparing the SAPCCs. to the UNFCCC states that climate change, leading to recession of glaciers, State governments are preparing State- decrease in rainfall and increased specific Action Plans on Climate Change, flooding, could threaten food and water which draw upon the National Action security; put at risk natural ecosystems Plan and operationalise state-level including species that sustain the measures in mitigation and adaptation. livelihood of rural households; and Delhi became the first state to complete adversely impact the coastal system due and launch their Action Plans. Most to sea-level rise and increased extreme other States are finalizing their Action events. A National Adaptation Fund was Plans. set up in July 2014 to address the References: impacts of climate change and to develop climate resilient agriculture. INR1bn Bureau of Energy Efficiency, 2011. (USD16.1m) has been allocated for the Indian Bureau of Energy Efficiency “National Adaptation Fund” for climate website [URL: http://www.bee- change. India’s National Bank for india.nic.in/]. Agriculture and rural development Centre for Science and Environment, n.d. (NABARD) has been accredited as a India Environmental Portal website national implementation entity for the [URL: http://www. adaptation fund created by the UNFCCC. The National Mission for indiaenvironmentportal.org.in/node/2552 Sustaining the Himalayan Ecosystem 79].. focuses on evolving suitable management The Energy and Resources Institute, and policy measures to sustain and 2012. Proceedings of the Workshop safeguard the Himalayan glacier and “Preparedness of REDD+ Project in mountain ecosystem. India”, Held on
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23 March 2012 [URL: manager/UserFiles/Status-Note-on- http://moef.nic.in/downloads/publicinform SolarCities.pdf ation/Proceedings%20of%20the%20RED Ministry of New and Renewable Energy, D+%20Worksho18-4-2012.pdf]. 2011. Indian Ministry of New and Indian Renewable Energy Development Renewable Energy website Agency, n.d. Wind Energy section of [URL:http://www.mnre.gov.in/]. website [URL: Ministry of Power, 2011. Indian Ministry http://www.ireda.gov.in/homepage1.asp?p of Power website arent_category=2&category=21]. [URL:http://www.powermin.nic.in/]. International Energy Agency, 2011. Parliament of India, 2011. Parliament of Relation with Member Countries – India. India website [URL: International Energy Agency website http://parliamentofindia.nic.in/]. [URL:http://www.iea.org/country/m_coun try.asp?COUNTRY_CODE=IN]. Pew Centre on Global Climate Change, 2011. Pew Centre on Global Climate Library of Congress, 2004. Country Change website Profile: India. December 2004 [URL: [URL:http://www.pewclimate.org/]. Now http://lcweb2.loc.gov/ Centre for Climate and Energy Solutions frd/cs/profiles/India.pdf]. [URL: http://www.c2es.org/ Ministry of Environment, Forests and Climate Change website. http://envfor.nic.in/media/press-releases Ministry of Environment and Forests, 2010. India: Taking on Climate Change: Post-Copenhagen Domestic Actions, Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India [URL: http://www.indiaenvironmentportal.org.i n/files/India%20Taking%20on%20Climat e%20Change.pdf]. Ministry of Environment and Forests, 2011. Indian Ministry of Environment and Forests website [URL: http://moef.nic.in/]. Ministry of Environment, Forests and Climate Change, December 2014. India’s progressing in combating climate change –Briefing Paper for UNFCCC COP20 Lima, Peru, http://www.ghgsat.com/ Ministry of New and Renewable Energy, January 2015. http://mnre.gov.in/file-
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Environmental effects on public health: An economic perspective
Dr. J.S Prabhkara Rao, Head, Dept. of Economics, K.G.R.L.COLLEGE (A), Bhimavaram-534 201
Abstract: Every minute, five children in developing countries die from malaria or diarrhoea. Every hour, 100 children die as a result of exposure to indoor smoke from solid fuels. Every day, nearly 1,800 people in developing cities die as a result of exposure to urban air pollution. Every month, nearly 19,000 people in developing countries die from unintentional poisonings. This paper provides a review of the literature on valuation studies eliciting monetary values associated with reduced environmental risk and in particular focusing on reduced indoor and outdoor air pollution, enhanced water quality and climate change mitigation. The findings of the valuation studies have important policy implications, since the environmental risk factors that are studied can largely be avoided by efficient and sustainable policy interventions. Key words: reduced indoor and outdoor air pollution, eliciting monetary, environmental risks
Introduction: The environment affects our health in a variety of ways. The interaction between human health and the environment has This paper provides a review of the been extensively studied and literature on valuation studies eliciting environmental risks have been proven to monetary values associated with reduced significantly impact human health, either environmental risk and in particular directly by exposing people to harmful focusing on reduced indoor and outdoor agents, or indirectly, by disrupting life- air pollution, enhanced water quality and sustaining ecosystems. Although the climate change mitigation. The findings exact contribution of environmental of the valuation studies have important factors to the development of death and policy implications, since the disease cannot be precisely determined, environmental risk factors that are the World Health Organization (WHO) studied can largely be avoided by efficient has estimated that thirteen million and sustainable policy interventions. deaths annually are attributable to Minimizing exposure to environmental preventable environmental causes. The risk factors by enhancing air quality and report also estimates that 24% of the access to improved sources of drinking global disease burden (healthy life years and bathing water, sanitation and clean lost) and 23% of all deaths (premature energy is found to be associated with mortality) are attributable to significant health benefits and can environmental factors, with the contribute significantly to the environmental burden of diseases being achievement of the Millennium 15 times higher in developing countries Development Goals of environmental than in developed countries, due to sustainability, health and development. differences in exposure to environmental
www.ijar.org.in 68 International Journal of Academic Research ISSN: 2348-7666; Vol.3, Issue-12(2), December, 2016 Impact Factor: 4.535; Email: [email protected] risks and access to health care. However, Cost of illness studies measure the direct huge economic development and (medical costs, nursing care, drugs) and population growth result in continuing indirect (opportunity) economic costs environmental degradation. associated with a disease and estimate Intensification of agriculture, the potential savings from the eradication industrialization and increasing energy of the disease. Human capital surveys use are the most severe driving forces of estimate the productivity loss measured environmental health problems. For in workdays due to illness. This approach countries in the early stages of also values loss of life based on the development the major environmental foregone earnings associated with hazards to health are associated with premature mortality. The notion is that widespread poverty and severe lack of people should be willing to pay at least as public infrastructure, such as access to much as the value of the income they drinking water, sanitation, and lack of would lose by dying prematurely. health care as well as emerging problems Damage costs estimates from of industrial pollution. Climate change is environmental hazards for the economy also posing risks to human population as a whole are also obtained through health and well-being and thus is general equilibrium macroeconomic emerging as a serious concern worldwide. modeling. These studies assess welfare Economic Valuation Techniques: impacts in a national or international level by examining all the sectors of the Quantifying the impacts of economy and estimating environmental environmental degradation on human health impacts on parameters of the health is essential for the development of economy like income and consumption. well-informed policies by the health sector and consequently many valuation The Quality Adjusted Life Year (QALY) studies have been conducted worldwide studies measure both the quality and the past decades addressing quantity of life. The values for a Life Year environmental risks to public health. The range from 0, implying death, to 1, main approaches for health impact implying a year of perfect health. valuations can be broadly classified into Therefore, QALYs provide an indication revealed and stated preference of the benefits from a healthcare techniques. The first take into account intervention in terms of health-related observable market information which can quality. Combined with the costs of be adjusted and used for revealing an providing different interventions, a cost- individual’s valuation. Revealed effectiveness analysis (cost per QALY) preferences include cost of illness, human can follow to allow for comparisons of capital surveys, hedonic pricing and the different interventions. A monetary value Quality Adjusted Life Year studies. In can also be placed on a QALY to estimate stated preferences studies the market for the dollar benefits of a health the good is ‘constructed’ through the use intervention or policy and allow for a of questionnaires. The two most-well- subsequent cost-benefit analysis. Stated known stated preference methods are the Willingness to Pay, elicited through a Contingent Valuation Method (CVM) and contingent valuation study or a discrete the Choice Experiments (CE). choice study, is often used, to monetize QALYs. Other methods to value a QALY
www.ijar.org.in 69 International Journal of Academic Research ISSN: 2348-7666; Vol.3, Issue-12(2), December, 2016 Impact Factor: 4.535; Email: [email protected] include time-trade-offs, standard gamble Hypothetical bias contends that and the visual analogue scale. Hedonic respondents may be prepared to reveal pricing methods assess differences in the their true values but are not capable of price of housing in polluted or unpolluted knowing these values without areas, or the difference in wages between participating in a market in the first hazardous and non-hazardous jobs. place. Strategic bias occurs when Variations in housing prices and wages respondents deliberately under- or reflect the value of health damages overstate their WTP. Respondents may avoided to those individuals and understate their WTP if they believe that therefore reveal individual’s willingness the actual fees they will pay for provision to pay to avoid damages. of the environmental resources will be influenced by their response to the CV Before valuing the health damage the question. Conversely, realising that establishment of a dose-response function payments expressed in a CV exercise are relating pollutant concentrations to purely hypothetical, respondents may health impacts is required. The impacts overstate their true WTP in the hope that of environmental degradation on this may increase the likelihood of a mortality, expressed as the increase in policy being accepted. Yea-saying bias the probability of premature death, and indicates that respondents may express a quality of life, expressed as reduction of positive WTP because they feel good the morbidity risk, are thus initially about the act of giving for a social good considered. Accordingly respondents are although they believe that the good itself asked to either state their willingness to is unimportant while embedding bias pay for a prevention scenario (stated implies that WTP is not affected by the preference approach) or the benefits are scale of the good being offered. To elicited through the costs that would be address these, the Blue Ribbon Panel saved if the risk was eradicated (cost of under the auspices of NOAA has made illness studies). Benefits are mainly recommendations regarding best practice reported by calculating the Value of a guidelines for the design and Statistical Life (For a review of the implementation of contingent valuation literature calculating the value of a studies. statistical life based on labor and housing market data see Viscusi and Aldy). The Economic Assessment of Environmental Value of Statistical Life (VSL) is Health Impacts: Empirical Evidence: calculated by dividing the value of a small There is increasing recognition that risk change by the actual change in risk linked environment and health impacts and thus captures the effect of small require economic assessment in order to changes in the risk of premature death receive adequate consideration in policy . for a large population of potentially Consequently, a huge increase in the exposed people. number of valuation studies trying to The contingent valuation method (CVM), quantify the environmental impacts on although widely used, has been criticised human health in monetary terms and for its lack of reliability since it is elicit public preferences for health and associated with biases, such as environmental policies that reduce the hypothetical bias, strategic bias, yes- risk of illness or mortality has been saying bias and embedding effect. experienced in recent years.
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In the subsequent sections important they are associated with severe health applications of the valuation techniques damages in monetary terms. that have been conducted to estimate Since then a number of valuation studies social benefits associated with increased have been conducted in developing air and water quality as well as climate countries estimating social benefits from change aversion are reviewed. air pollution reduction in terms of either Limitations of the existing research are averted mortality or averted morbidity addressed in the concluding section and due to air pollution mitigation strategies. directions for future work are suggested. To provide economic estimations of For quick reference a table summarizing health risk reductions authors rely on each study’s main features (that is existing epidemiological studies that author, case study country, establish the relationship between environmental hazard and valuation pollution concentrations and health result) can be found in the Appendix. All hazards. Valuation studies are then valuations have been converted to 2006 conducted to monetize health outcomes euros (2006 average $0.797 = 1 euro). given the number of exposures and the Air Quality: associated risk predicted from the dose- response functions. Air pollution is a major environmental risk to health and is estimated to cause In the literature addressing air pollution approximately two million premature in both developed and developing world, deaths worldwide per year [24]. A contingent valuation studies are mainly reduction of air pollution is expected to implemented. The health consequences reduce the global burden of disease from from alternative pollution abatement respiratory infections, heart disease, and policies are explicitly stated in the lung cancer. As air quality is a major valuation scenario and respondents are concern for both developed and asked their maximum willingness to pay developing countries, a large number of to contribute in the implementation costs empirical studies attempting to monetize of the policy under evaluation. the benefits to health generated by Hedonic studies have been also applied to improved air quality have appeared in the estimate a relationship between housing literature worldwide. prices and housing attributes, including Pearce provides a summary of the main health risks associated with air pollution. studies conducted to that day valuing The value people place on reduced health health damages from air pollution in the risks through improved air quality are developing world. In particular, valuation inferred by their willingness to pay more estimates for health symptoms and risks for houses with better air quality, all else of mortality attributable to particulate being equal. Delucchi et al. [36] provide a matter, lead, nitrogen and sulphur oxides meta-analysis of hedonic pricing studies and low level ozone are reported. The addressing health risks from air main conclusion from the literature pollution. Comparing results with studies review is that some forms of air pollution, applying the damage function approach, notably inhalable particulate matter and authors find evidence that hedonic price ambient lead, are serious matters for analysis does not capture all of the health concern in the developing world since costs of air pollution because individuals
www.ijar.org.in 71 International Journal of Academic Research ISSN: 2348-7666; Vol.3, Issue-12(2), December, 2016 Impact Factor: 4.535; Email: [email protected] are not fully informed about all of the to quantify the health burden from health effects to incorporate them into illnesses associated with exposure to property values. polluted recreational coastal waters. In the former study, health data on illness- Water Quality: related lost activity days and medical care Contact with unsafe drinking or bathing use were used and the economic burden water can impose serious risks (both per gastrointestinal illness was estimated acute and delayed) to human health. at € 31.9, the burden per acute Microbe contamination of groundwater respiratory disease at € 66.94, the burden due to sewage outfalls and high per ear ailment at € 32.95, and the concentration of nutrients in marine and burden per eye ailment at € 23.81. In the coastal waters due to agricultural runoff later, the total estimated impact of the are among the most serious threats. human disease attributable to marine According to the European Commission’s pollution by sewage is about three million (EC) recent statistics, 20 percent of all DALY per year, with an estimated surface water in the EU is seriously economic loss of some11.16 billion euros threatened by pollution. In the per year. infrastructurally disadvantaged In the developing world, health damages developing world the water from drinking water contamination are contamination problem is even more examined by Dasgupta and Maddison et prominent Although epidemiological al. The former study estimates a health studies have provided evidence of severe production function to derive the total morbidity attributed to polluted water cost of illness related to Diarrhoeal the issue has received limited attention in diseases in urban India,. Annual health terms of valuation studies. Only few costs are calculated and aggregated over studies explicitly address health effects of the whole population are found to equal € drinking and bathing water quality to 2,821,587. The latter estimates aggregate inform efficient water resources willingness to pay to avoid health risks, management policies mainly in high including various cancers, associated with income countries. consumption of arsenic contaminated The Bathing Water Quality Directive. groundwater in Bangladesh. Based on Benefits were estimated based on data Value of Statistical Life estimation from from a contingent valuation study and studies in India, authors report an were then related to their costs. Results aggregate WTP of $2.7 billion annually to indicate that mean WTP amounts, avoid mortality and morbidity cases. representing the economic benefits of the Climate Change: revision are of the same order of magnitude as the estimated potential cost An understanding of the likely impacts of increases in average annual household climate change on human welfare is water bills necessary to implement the crucial for making an informed decision revision. about the best response strategy to the enhanced greenhouse effect. Deviating from the contingent valuation Consequently, a number of studies have framework, Dwight et al. apply the cost attempted the evaluation of climate of illness approach and Shuval calculate change-related health hazards. the disability-adjusted life years (DALY),
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Health effects from illnesses associated quality socially justifying the costs for with climate change are also examined in abatement policies. Climate change the developing world by Tseng et al.using effects mitigation is also of great the dengue fever in Taiwan as a case importance in terms of public health study. The relationship between climate benefits. However, certain limitations of conditions and the number of people the existing literature have been infected by dengue fever was first identified. established and the monetary assessment References: was then attempted applying a contingent valuation study. Results 1. World Health Organization Preventing indicate that people would pay € 15.78, € disease through healthy environments: 70.35 and € 111.62 per year in order to Towards an estimate of the reduce the probabilities of dengue fever environmental burden of inflection by 12%, 43%, and 87%, disease. Available respectively. online:http://www.who.int/quantifying_e himpacts/publications/preventingdisease/ Conclusion: en/index.html Environmental degradation poses a 2. Millennium Ecosystem Assessment significant threat to human health . Ecosystems and Human Well-Being: worldwide. Harmful consequences of this Synthesis. Island Press, Millennium degradation to human health are already Ecosystem Assessment Series; being felt and could grow significantly Washington, DC, USA: 2005. worse over the next 50 years [2]. Because environment and health are so intimately 3. Kovats RS, Haines A. Global climate linked, so too should be environmental change and health: recent findings and and health policies. However, health future steps. Can. Med. Assoc. impacts are non-marketed and thus hard J. 2005;172: to quantify in monetary terms. The 4. Cifuentes L, Borja-Aburto VH, Gouveia subsequent risk of being ignored in N, Thurston G, Davis DL. Hidden health policy-making is a major concern benefits of greenhouse gas worldwide. To address this challenge a mitigation. Science. 2001;17:1257–125 number of valuation studies have been conducted in both developing and 5. Tol RSJ. Why worry about climate developed countries applying different change? A research agenda. Environ. methods to capture health benefits from Values. 2008;17:437–470. improved environmental quality. 6. Stern N. The Economics of Climate Valuation results are crucial for the Change: the Stern Review. Cambridge formulation of economic instruments to University Press; New York, NY, USA: internalize the externalities created by 2007. the public nature of environmental resources. Enhancing air quality and 7. Ebi K, Mills DM, Smith JB, Grambsch securing adequate supplies of safe A. Climate change and human health drinking water is associated with impacts in the United States: an update significant benefits for human health and on the results of the U.S. National well-being. Significant benefits are also Assessment. Environ. Health found to be associated with bathing water
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Perspect. 2006;114:1318–1324.[PMC free reefs: a meat-analysis. Ecol. article] [PubMed] Econ. 2007;63:209–218. 8. Fankhauser S. The economic costs of 17. Bell ML, Davis DL, Cifuentes LA, global warming damage. Glob. Environ. Krupnick AJ, Morgenstern RD, Thurston Change. 1994;4:301–309. GD. Ancillary human health benefits of improved air quality resulting from 9. Bosello F, Roson R, Tol RSJ. Economy- climate change mitigation. Environ. wide estimates of the implications of Health. 2008;7:41.[PMC free climate change: Human health. Ecol. article] [PubMed] Econ. 2006;58:579–591. 18. Pearce D, Koundouri P. Regulatory 10. World Health Organization The 10 assessment for chemicals: a rapid leading causes of death by broad income appraisal cost-benefit approach. Environ. group, 2004. Available Sci. Pol. 2004;7:435–449. online: www.who.int/mediacentre/factshe ets/fs266/en/index.html 11. Lancaster K. A new approach to consumer theory. J. Polit. Econ. 1966;84:132–157. 12. Pearce D. Economic valuation and health damage from air pollution in the developing world. Energ. Policy. 1996;3:627–630. 13. Viscusi WK, Aldy JE. The value of a statistical life: a critical review of market estimates throughout the world. J. Risk Uncertain. 2003;27:5–76. 14. Hubbell BJ. Evaluating the Health Benefits of Air Pollution Reductions: Recent Developments at the U.S. EPA Prepared for the UK DETR/UN ECE Symposium on ‘The measurement and economic valuation of health effects of air pollution.Institute of Materials; London, UK: February19–202001 15. Nelson JP, Kennedy PE. The use (and abuse) of meta-analysis in environmental and natural resources economics: an assessment. Environ. Resour. Econ. 2009;42:345–377. 16. Brander LM, van Beukering P, Cesar HSJ. The recreational value of coral
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Energy for cooking in developing Countries: Some Issues
Dr.Alluri Nagaraju, Associate Professor, P.G.Dept. of Commerce, P.G. Courses & Research Centre, D.N.R.College (A), Bhimavaram-534 202
Abstract: In developing countries, especially in rural areas, 2.5 billion people rely on biomass, such as fuel wood, charcoal, agricultural waste and animal dung, to meet their energy needs for cooking. In many countries, these resources account for over 90% of household energy consumption. In the absence of new policies, the number of people relying on biomass will increase to over 2.6 billion by 2015 and to 2.7 billion by 2030 because of population growth. That is, one-third of the world’s population will still be relying on these fuels. There is evidence that, in areas where local prices have adjusted to recent high international energy prices, the shift to cleaner, more efficient use of energy for cooking has actually slowed and even reversed. Use of biomass is not in itself a cause for concern. Halving the number of households using traditional biomass for cooking by 2015 – a recommendation of the United Nations Millennium Project – would involve 1.3 billion people switching to other fuels. Alternative fuels and technologies are already available at reasonable cost. Providing LPG stoves and cylinders, for example, would cost at most $1.5 billion per year to 2015. Switching to oil-based fuels would not have a significant impact on world oil demand. Even when fuel costs and emissions are considered, the household energy choices of developing countries need not be limited by economic, climate-change or energy-security concerns.
Key words: Households, consumption, cylinders
Introduction: of geography and climate, household space and water heating needs are small Household Energy Use in Developing in many countries. This chapter Countries According to the best available concentrates on fuels for cooking. figures, household energy use in Households generally use a combination developing countries totaled 1 090 Mtoe of energy sources for cooking that can be in 2004, almost 10% of world primary categorized as traditional (such as dung, energy demand.1 Household use of agricultural residues and fuel wood), biomass in developing countries alone intermediate (such as charcoal and accounts for almost 7% of world primary kerosene) or modern (such as LPG, energy demand. In OECD countries, biogas, ethanol gel, plant oils, diethyl biomass demand comes mostly from the ether (DME) and electricity).2 Electricity power generation and industry sectors, is mainly used for lighting and small while in developing countries these appliances, rather than cooking, and sectors represent only 12%. There are represents a small share of total enormous variations in the level of household consumption in energy terms.3 consumption and the types of fuels used. Supplies of biomass are abundant in While a precise breakdown is difficult, many developing countries, although the main use of energy in households in local scarcity exists. Indeed, they are the developing countries is for cooking, only affordable energy source for some followed by heating and lighting. Because households. The commercial production
www.ijar.org.in 75 International Journal of Academic Research ISSN: 2348-7666; Vol.3, Issue-12(2), December, 2016 Impact Factor: 4.535; Email: [email protected] and distribution of fuel wood and 1. countries, for example, many wealthy Collecting and processing biomass energy households retain a wood stove for statistics is a complex process because of baking traditional breads. As incomes the charcoal generates significant increase and fuel options widen, the fuel employment and income in rural areas of mix may change, but wood is rarely developing countries, though a switch to entirely excluded. alternative fuels would also create Harmful Effects of Current Cooking employment and business opportunities. Fuels and Technologies Health: In OECD countries and in most transition economies, the technologies The World Health Organization (WHO) used to convert biomass to energy tend to estimates that 1.5 million premature be efficient and the resources are deaths per year are directly attributable generally harvested in a sustainable way. to indoor air pollution from the use of But in developing countries, the solid fuels.8 That is more than 4 000 technologies and practices are much less deaths per day, more than half of them efficient. Many people use three-stone children under five years of age. More fires, cook without ventilation or harvest than 85% of these deaths (about 1.3 at an unsustainable rate. Reliance on million people) are due to biomass use, biomass resources, important though the rest due to coal. This means that they are too many communities, cannot indoor air pollution associated with be regarded as sustainable when it biomass use is directly responsible for impairs health and has negative economic more deaths than malaria, almost as and environmental impacts. many as tuberculosis and almost half as many as HIV/AIDS (Figure 15.3). In Households do not simply substitute one developing countries, only malnutrition, fuel for another as income increases, but unprotected sex, and lack of clean water instead add fuels in a process of “fuel and sanitation were greater health stacking”. Modern forms of energy are threats (WHO, 2006). Just as the extent usually applied sparingly at first and for of dependence on polluting fuels and particular services (such as electricity for inefficient stoves varies widely around radio and television, or LPG for making the world, so does the death toll due to tea and coffee) rather than completely indoor smoke. The number of premature supplanting an existing form of energy deaths is highest in Southeast Asia and that already supplies a service sub-Saharan Africa (Figure 15.4). Fuel adequately. The most energy-consuming wood, roots, agricultural residues and activities in the household – cooking and animal dung all produce high emissions heating – are the last to switch. Use of of carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons and multiple fuels provides a sense of energy particulate matter (Smith et al., 2000). security, since complete dependence on a Hydrocarbon emissions are highest from single fuel or technology leaves the burning of dung for fuel, while households vulnerable to price variations particulate emissions are highest from and unreliable service. Some reluctance agricultural residues. Women and to discontinue cooking with fuel wood children suffer most from indoor air may also be due to taste preferences and pollution because they are traditionally the familiarity of cooking with traditional responsible for cooking and other technologies. In India and several other household chores, which involve spending
www.ijar.org.in 76 International Journal of Academic Research ISSN: 2348-7666; Vol.3, Issue-12(2), December, 2016 Impact Factor: 4.535; Email: [email protected] hours by the cooking fire exposed to In developing regions reliant on biomass, smoke. Young children are particularly women and children are responsible for susceptible to disease, which accounts for fuel collection, a time-consuming and their predominance in the statistics for exhausting task. The average fuel wood premature deaths due to the use of load in sub-Saharan Africa is around 20 biomass for cooking. kg but loads of 38 kg (Rwelamira, 1999) have also been recorded. Women can Environment: suffer serious long-term physical damage Inefficient and unsustainable cooking from strenuous work without sufficient practices can have serious implications recuperation. This risk, as well as the for the environment, such as land risk of falls, bites or assault, rises steeply degradation and local and regional air the further from home women have to pollution. There is some localized walk, for example because of conversion deforestation, but depletion of forest of land to agricultural uses. cover on a large scale has not been found Outlook for Household Biomass: to be attributable to demand for fuel wood (Arnold et al., 2003). Fuel wood is Use in Developing Countries Without more often gathered from the roadside strong new policies to expand access to and trees outside forests, rather than cleaner fuels and technologies, the from natural forests. Clearing of land for number of people in developing countries agricultural development and timber are relying on traditional biomass as their the main causes of deforestation in main fuel for cooking will continue to developing countries. Studies at the increase as the global population regional level indicate that as much as increases. In the Reference Scenario, in two thirds of fuel wood for cooking which no new policies are introduced, the worldwide comes from non-forest sources number rises from 2.5 billion in 2004 to such as agricultural land and roadsides. 2.6 billion in 2015 and to 2.7 billion in Charcoal, on the other hand, is usually 2030 (Table 15.2). Residential biomass produced from forest resources. demand in developing countries is Unsustainable production of charcoal in projected to rise from 771 Mtoe in 2004 to response to urban demand, particularly 818 Mtoe in 2030. These projections take in sub-Saharan Africa, places a strain on into account the fuel substitution and the biomass resources. Charcoal production is market penetration of more efficient often inefficient and can lead to localized technologies that would occur as a result deforestation and land degradation of rising per-capita incomes, fuel around urban centres.9 Scarcity of wood availability and other factors. Household typically leads to greater use of sizes by region have been incorporated agricultural residues and animal dung for into the projections, but the rural/urban cooking. When dung and residues are split has not been estimated through to used for fuel rather than left in the fields 2030. Almost all of the growth in or ploughed back into fields, soil fertility population will, in fact, be in urban areas, is reduced and propensity to soil erosion but the categorization is increased. Implications for Oil Demand: The Burden of Fuel Collection: LPG is generated as a by-product of both oil refining and natural gas production.
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The incremental world oil and gas capital investments. The start-up cost of demand which would result from buying a stove and paying a deposit for a widespread take-up of LPG is negligible. fuel canister represents a serious barrier Assuming average consumption of LPG for many households. of 22 kg per person per year13 and References and notes: assuming all of this LPG was derived from oil rather than natural gas, 1. Collecting and processing biomass providing 1.3 billion additional people energy statistics is a complex process with LPG by 2015 would increase oil because of the diversity of consumption demand by 0.7 mb/d, or 0.69% of the 99 patterns, differences in units of mb/d projected in the Reference Scenario measurement, the lack of regular surveys (Figure 15.7). The increase would be and the variation in heat content of the 0.72% in the Alternative Policy Scenario. different types of biomass. The IEA and If all households currently using biomass the Food and Agriculture Organization of switched to LPG by 2030, the rise in oil the United Nations (FAO) are the main demand would be 1.4 mb/d. Such a figure international organizations monitoring is but a tiny fraction of the fuel lost biomass energy data in developing through the flaring of natural gas.14 countries. Some countries collect specific These are upper bounds because, as information on fuel use at the household noted earlier, LPG is just one of several level, while various regional energy carriers that could be pursued as organizations and independent substitutes for traditional biomass, researchers carry out ad hoc surveys. whereas these calculations have taken 2. The terms traditional, intermediate LPG as a proxy for them all. and modern relate to how well- Policy Implications: established a fuel is and do not imply a ranking. Meeting the cooking-fuel target will require government action. On the supply 3. While electricity is not the focus of this side, it can be difficult to establish a chapter, it provides important benefits to commercially viable LPG distribution households. The number of people network in the face of low population without access to electricity is estimated density, poor roads, and low LPG uptake to be 1.6 billion (Annex B). and consumption among those who sign 4. Although households in developing up for LPG. The absence of economies of countries use a combination of fuels for scale in catering to rural domestic cooking and heating, this chapter focuses consumers is one of the main factors on the primary fuel used. This hindering LPG access. Infrequent simplification is necessary in order to delivery of refill cylinders serves as a perform quantitative analysis. disincentive to switching to LPG. Demand-side barriers include low per- 5. Coal is excluded from the targets and capita incomes, lack of awareness of the projections in this chapter. benefits of alternative fuels, 6. Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) is a inappropriate stove designs and simple mixture of propane and butane force of habit. Moreover, even was LPG pressurized in cylinders for storage and widely available, many poor households transport. would not be able to afford the required
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7. Per-capita incomes are taken from 14. Around 60% of global LPG supply World Bank (2006). comes from natural gas processing. 8. There are specific targets associated 15. The UNDP/WLPGA LP Gas with each of the eight Millennium Challenge estimates $45 to $60 for a Development Goals. For each target, stove, a cylinder and 6kg of gas. several indicators have been established 16. More information is available at to assess progress in achieving the goals. www.undp.org/energy/lpg.htm and The WHO is responsible for Indicator 29 www.worldlpgas.com (Goal 7) – the proportion of the population using solid fuels. This 17. The MDG Carbon Facility was category includes coal and biomass founded on the basis that climate change resources. In this chapter, the targets and threatens to significantly undermine projections consider biomass only. efforts to achieve the Millennium Development Goals. More information is 9. As a result of charcoal production for available at www.mdgcarbonfacility.org urban and peri-urban households, biomass resources have been devastated in a 200 to 300 kilometer radius around Luanda, Angola (IEA, 2006). 10. See also WEO-2004 and Victor (2005) for further discussion of the link between energy and economic development. 11. The UN Millennium Project recommendation related to energy for cooking is the following: Enable the use of modern fuels for 50% of those who at present use traditional biomass for cooking. In addition, support (a) efforts to develop and adopt the use of improved cook stoves, (b) measures to reduce the adverse health impacts from cooking with biomass, and (c) measures to increase sustainable biomass production (UN Millennium Project et al., 2005). 12. For example, the Indonesian government is commencing a programme to replace kerosene with LPG in urban households and to replace biomass with coal briquettes in some rural areas. 13. A weighted average based on WHO data for developing country households currently using LPG.
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India’s intended nationally determined contributions - Balanced and comprehensive: Policies and initiatives
M.V.Raghupathi Raju, Vice Principal & Head, Dept. of Chemistry, D.N.R.College (A), Bhimavaram-534202 K.G.Krishnam Raju, Head, Dept. of Physics, D.N.R.College (A), Bhimavaram-534202 Abstract: India has adopted several ambitious measures for clean and renewable energy, energy efficiency in various sectors of industries, achieving lower emission intensity in the automobile and transport sector, non-fossil based electricity generation and building sector based on energy conservation. Thrust on renewable energy, promotion of clean energy, enhancing energy efficiency, developing climate resilient urban centres and sustainable green transportation network are some of the measures for achieving this goal. Planned actions and economic reforms have contributed positively to the rapidly declining growth rate of energy intensity in India. The Government of India, through its various institutions and resources, has taken steps to de-couple the Indian energy system from carbon in the long run Key words: control global emissions, Power Projects, Carbon Sink
Introduction carbon sink of 2.5 to 3 billion tonnes of CO equivalent through additional forest In view to control global 2 and tree cover by 2030. India has also emissions, India reduces the Emissions decided to anchor a global solar alliance, Intensity of its GDP by 33 to 35 Per Cent INSPA (International Agency for Solar by 2030 from2005. Level. India to create Policy & Application), of all countries additional Carbon Sink of 2.5 to 3 Billion located in between Tropic of Cancer and Tonnes of Co2 Equivalent through Tropic of Capricorn. Additional Forest and Tree Cover by 2030.India to Anchor a Global Solar The INDC centre around India’s Alliance. The Government has said that policies and programmes on promotion India’s Intended Nationally Determined of clean energy, especially renewable Contribution (INDC) is balanced and energy, enhancement of energy comprehensive. Addressing a press efficiency, development of less carbon conference here today, Union Minister of intensive and resilient urban centers, Environment, Forest and Climate promotion of waste to wealth, safe, Change, Shri Prakash Javadekar, said smart and sustainable green that India is keen to attempt to work transportation network, abatement of towards a low carbon emission pathway, pollution and India’s efforts to enhance while simultaneously endeavoring to carbon sink through creation of forest meet all the developmental challenges and tree cover. It also captures citizens that the country faces today. Shri and private sector contribution to Javadekar said that INDC include combating climate change. reduction in the emissions intensity of its INDC’s proposals: GDP by 33 to 35 per cent by 2030 from 2005 level and to create an additional a. Sustainable Lifestyles
www.ijar.org.in 80 International Journal of Academic Research ISSN: 2348-7666; Vol.3, Issue-12(2), December, 2016 Impact Factor: 4.535; Email: [email protected] b. Cleaner Economic Development Planned actions and economic reforms c. Reduce Emission intensity of Gross Planned actions and economic Domestic Product (GDP) reforms have contributed positively to the rapidly declining growth rate of d. Increase the Share of Non Fossil Fuel energy intensity in India. The Based Electricity Government of India, through its various e. Enhancing Carbon Sink (Forests) institutions and resources, has taken steps to de-couple the Indian energy f. Adaptation system from carbon in the long g. Mobilizing Finance run. Despite facing enormous development challenges like poverty h. Technology Transfer and Capacity eradication, ensuring housing, electricity Building and food security for all, India declared a INDC outlines the post-2020 climate voluntary goal of reducing the emissions actions they intend to take under a new intensity of its GDP by 20–25%, over international agreement. The INDC 2005 levels by 2020, despite having no document is prepared with a view to binding mitigation obligations as per the taking forward the Prime Minister’s Convention. A slew of policy measures to vision of a sustainable lifestyle and promote low carbon strategies and climate justice to protect the poor and Renewable Energy have resulted in the vulnerable from adverse impacts of decline of emission intensity of our GDP climate change. Ministry of Environment, by 12% between 2005 and 2010. It is a Forest and Climate Change adopted an matter of satisfaction that United inclusive process for preparation of Nations Environment Programme India’s INDC. It held stakeholder (UNEP) in its Emission Gap Report 2014 consultations with the specific has recognized India as one of the involvement of the key Ministries and countries on course to achieving its State Governments. Interactions were voluntary goal. also held with civil society organizations, Ambitious measures in India think tanks and technical & academic institutions of eminence. The Ministry India has adopted several ambitious had commissioned Greenhouse Gas measures for clean and renewable energy, (GHG) modeling studies for projections of energy efficiency in various sectors of GHG emissions till 2050 with a decadal industries, achieving lower emission gap. The gist of all these consultations & intensity in the automobile and transport studies were taken on board before sector, non-fossil based electricity submitting India’s INDC. For India’s generation and building sector based on INDC, Government zeroed-in-on a set of energy conservation. Thrust on contributions which are comprehensive, renewable energy, promotion of clean balanced, equitable and pragmatic and energy, enhancing energy efficiency, addresses all the elements including developing climate resilient urban Adaptation, Mitigation, Finance, centres and sustainable green Technology Transfer, Capacity Building transportation network are some of the and Transparency in Action and Support. measures for achieving this goal.
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Solar power in India is poised to to a cleaner environment, energy grow significantly with Solar Mission as a independence and, a stronger economy. major initiative of the Government of The renewable energy technologies India. A scheme for development of 25 contribute to better air quality, reduce Solar Parks, Ultra Mega Solar Power reliance on fossil fuels, curb global Projects, canal top solar projects and one warming, add jobs to the economy and, hundred thousand solar pumps for protect environmental values such as farmers is at different stages of habitat and water quality. Over the implementation. The Government’s goal years India has successfully created a of ‘Electricity for All’ is sought to be positive outlook necessary to promote achieved by the above programs that investment in, demand for, and supply of, would require huge investments, infusion renewable energy. India’s strategy on of new technology, availability of nuclear renewable energy is driven by the fuel and international support. objectives of energy security, energy access and also reducing the carbon The energy efficiency of thermal footprints of the national energy systems. power plants will be systematically and It has evolved over the years through mandatorily improved. Over one million increasingly stronger commitment at medium and small enterprises will be federal level. involved in the Zero Defect Zero Effect Scheme to improve their quality, energy The institutional arrangement for efficiency, enhance resource efficiency, off take of renewable energy power will pollution control, waste management and be further strengthened by Renewable use of renewable energy. Purchase Obligations and Renewable Generation Obligations. Urban transport policy will encourage moving people rather than India’s share of non-fossil fuel in vehicles with a major focus on Mass the total installed capacity is projected to Rapid Transit Systems. In addition to 236 change from 30% in 2015 to about 40 % km of metro rail in place, about 1150 km by 2030. India is running one of the metro projects for cities including Pune, largest renewable capacity expansion Ahmadabad and Lucknow are being programmes in the world. Between 2002 planned. Delhi Metro, which has become and 2015, the share of renewable grid India’s first MRTS project to earn carbon capacity has increased over 6 times, from credits, has the potential to reduce about 2% (3.9 GW) to around 13% (36
0.57 million tonnes of CO2 e annually. GW) from a mix of sources including Wind Power, Small Hydro Power, The switch from Bharat Stage IV Biomass Power / Cogeneration, Waste to (BS IV) to Bharat Stage V (BS V) and Power and Solar Power. On normative Bharat Stage VI (BS VI) to improve fuel terms the CO emission abatement standards across the country is also 2 achieved from the renewable power planned for the near future. installed capacity was 84.92 million tons
CO2 eq. /year as of 30 June 2015. Renewable energy sources are a To accelerate development and strategic national resource. Harnessing deployment of renewable energy in the these sources will put India on the path country, the Government is taking a
www.ijar.org.in 82 International Journal of Academic Research ISSN: 2348-7666; Vol.3, Issue-12(2), December, 2016 Impact Factor: 4.535; Email: [email protected] number of initiatives like up-scaling of be based on a formula that attaches 7.5 % targets for renewable energy capacity weight to the area under forest. It takes addition from 30GW by 2016-17 to 175 into account the changing realities in GW by 2021-22.The renewable power order to rebalance the fiscal system of the target of 175 GW by 2022 will result in country in a way that will incentivize abatement of 326.22 million tons of greener distribution of resources. This
CO2 eq. /year. The ambitious solar initiative will give afforestation a massive expansion programme seeks to enhance boost by conditioning about USD 6.9 the capacity to 100 GW by 2022, which is billion of transfers to the states based on expected to be scaled up further their forest cover, which is projected to thereafter. Efforts will include scaling up increase up to USD 12 billion by 2019-20. efforts to increase the share of non-fossil For India, adaptation is fuel based energy resources in total inevitable and an imperative for the electricity mix including wind power, development process. India is facing solar, hydropower, biomass, waste to climate change as a real issue, which is energy and nuclear power. impacting some of its key sectors like The range of ecosystem goods and agriculture and water. The adverse services provided by forests include impacts of climate change on the carbon sequestration and storage. developmental prospects of the country Despite the significant opportunity costs, are further amplified enormously by the India is one of the few countries where existence of widespread poverty and forest and tree cover has increased in dependence of a large proportion of the recent years and the total forest and tree population on climate sensitive sectors cover amounts to 24% percent of the for livelihood. It is of immediate geographical area of the country. Over importance and requires action now. In the past two decades progressive national the INDC, the country has focused on forestry legislations and policies of India adaptation efforts, including: a) have transformed India’s forests into a developing sustainable habitats; b) net sink of CO2. With its focus on optimizing water use efficiency; c) sustainable forest management, creating ecologically sustainable climate afforestation and regulating diversion of resilient agricultural production systems; forest land for non-forest purpose, India d) safeguarding the Himalayan glaciers plans to increase its carbon stock. and mountain ecosystem; and, e) Government of India’s long term goal is enhancing carbon sinks in sustainably to increase its forest cover through a managed forests and implementing planned afforestation drive which adaptation measures for vulnerable includes number of programmes and species, forest-dependent communities initiatives like Green India Mission, and ecosystems. India has also set up a green highways policy, financial incentive National Adaptation Fund with an initial for forests, and plantation along rivers, allocation of INR 3,500 million (USD 55.6 REDD-Plus & Other Policies and million) to combat the adaptation needs Compensatory Afforestation Fund in key sectors. This fund will assist Management and Planning Authority national and state level activities to meet the cost of adaptation measures in areas For the first time devolution of funds to states from the federal pool will
www.ijar.org.in 83 International Journal of Academic Research ISSN: 2348-7666; Vol.3, Issue-12(2), December, 2016 Impact Factor: 4.535; Email: [email protected] that are particularly vulnerable to the regime, provide finance, capacity building adverse effects of climate change. support and create a global framework for Research & Development on clean India's climate actions have so far coal and other technologies. been largely financed from domestic resources. India already has ambitious Conference of Parties (COP) of climate action plans in place. United Nations Framework Convention Preliminary domestic requirements to on Climate Change (UNFCCC) at 19th implement national climate plans add Session held in Warsaw in November upto more than USD 2.5 trillion between 2013 invited all Parties to initiate 2015 and 2030.Substantial scaling up domestic preparations for their INDC these plans would require greater towards achieving the objective of the resources. Developing countries like India Convention and to communicate them, are resource constrained and are already well in advance of the 21stsession of the spending enormous amounts on climate Conference of Parties. The concept of change. Implementing climate change ‘Nationally Determined Contributions’, mitigation and adaptation actions would taking into account the outcomes of both require domestic and new & additional Warsaw COP 19 and Lima COP 20 has to funds from developed countries in view of (i) reflect the principles of equity and the resource required and the resource Common But Differentiated gap. Responsibilities (CBDR) and (ii) the Country’s contributions must be seen in Urgent efforts to reduce GHG a balanced and comprehensive context. emissions need to take place against the backdrop of a growing energy demand Expectations from Paris and urbanization in India. With the 1) A balanced agreement with all responsibility of lifting around 360 components -mitigation, adaptation, million people out of poverty and raising technology, finance and capacity the standard of living of an even greater building- consistent with the number of people, technology is the only principles and provisions of the powerful solution for countries like India Convention; that can simultaneously address climate change and development needs. 2) New, additional and Technology development and transfer predictable finances from developed and capacity-building are key to ensuring and developing countries for adequate development and deployment of mitigation, adaptation, technology clean-technologies. The technology gap transfer and capacity building; between rich and poor countries remains 3) Provision of technology enormous and the capacity of developing development, transfer and diffusion; economies to adopt new technology needs to be enhanced. Enhanced action on 4) Paris Agreement must technology development and transfer will incorporate loss and damage and be central in enabling the full and make operational Warsaw effective implementation of India’s INDC. International Mechanism. Developed countries should be supportive and help in transfer of technology, remove barriers, create facilitative IPR
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Conclusion Pastoral Systems in the Khangchendzonga National Park, India has submitted it’s Intended Sikkim Himalaya, India. Ambio, Nationally Determined Contribution on Vol. 37 (No.8). Gandhi Jayanti, The approach of India’s INDC has been anchored in the vision of Bhasin, V. (2011). Pastoralists of equity inspired by the Father of our Himalayas. Journal of Human Nation Mahatma Gandhi's famous Ecology, Vol. 33 (3), pp.147-177. exhortation;“Earth has enough resources Brown, K. A., & Gurevitch, J. (2004). to meet people’s needs, but will never Long-term impacts of logging on have enough to satisfy people's forest diversity in Madagascar. greed” and formulated under the PNAS (Proceedings of National leadership and guidance of the Prime Academy of Sciences of the Minister, Shri Narendra Modi, who has United States of America), Vol. called for ‘convenient action’ in order to 101 (No.16), pp 6045-6049. deal with the ‘inconvenient truth’ of climate change. Chatterjee, S., Saikia, A., Dutta, P., Ghosh, D., Pangging, G., & References and notes: Goswami, A. (June 2006). Misri, B. (2002). Impact of Agro- Biodiversity Significance of North pastoralism on development of East India. New Delhi: WWF- the Indian Himalaya. Proceedings India (Forest Conservation of the Fifth Meeting of the Programme). Temperate Asia Pasture and Condit, R., Foster, R., Hubtell, S., Fodder Network (TAPAFON). Sukumar, R., Leigh, E., Bhutan: Ministry of Agriculture, Manokaran, N., et al. Assessing Royal Government of Bhutan. forest diversity on small plots: Sharma, V. P., Rollefson, I. K., & Morton, calibration using species- J. Pastoralism in India: A Scoping individual curves from 50-ha Study. DFID and IIM-A. plots. Paris, France: UNESCO and Parthenon Publishing. Singh, K. K., Rai, L. K., & Gurung, B. (2009). Conservation of DFEWM, Sikkim. (2011). Retrieved from Rhododendrons in Sikkim Sikkim Biodiversity Conservation Himalaya: An Overview. World and Forest Management Project Journal of Agricultural Sciences, (JICA assisted): 284-296. http://sbfpjica.org/About%20Proje ct.htm Singh, S. (1998). Chronic disturbance, a principal cause of environmental FSI. (2009). India-State of Forest Report degradation in developing 2009. Dehradun: Forest Survey of countries. Environmental India. Conservation, 1-2.
Tambe, S., & Rawat, G. (2008). Ecology, Economics and Equity of the
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The Geopolitics of Energy in the Asia-Pacific - Energy and Protection
Dr.G. David Livingstone, Head of the Department of Politics , D.N.R.College, (A), Bhimavaram.
Dr.B.Santha Kumari, Head of the Department of History, D.N.R.College(A),Bhimavaram Abstract: The combination of recent geopolitical tensions, particularly in the Middle East, with the worsening oil imbalance in major energy consuming states have put the issue of energy security back firmly on the global policy agenda. With new oilfields being discovered at a slowing rate and alternative energy yet to fully deliver on its promise, the resulting competition for scarce energy resources, and the attempts to secure their safe delivery, could constitute a potential trigger for inter-state tensions, even conflict. The energy security strategies of some of the major states, if miscalculated or misaligned, could have severe geopolitical and economic repercussions for all states. Abstract: energy security, energy security strategies, globalization
Introduction: energy security and examines the strategies they have adopted. For each of In many ways, the return of the countries, the report analyses their energy security to the policy agenda is a strategies at the national, regional and return to the past, with the foreign and global levels, and evaluates their security policies of states driven by effectiveness. At the same time, the Asia- material concerns, in this case, energy Pacific region is examined not in isolation and the scramble for it. And yet, as the but vis-à-vis other regions such as the report will show, the current situation is Middle East and the Caspian Sea region. not a perfect analogue of the past: the This surely drives home the point that greater political, social and economic energy security is a global issue. interdependence among states brought about by globalization greatly increase This study focuses exclusively on the cost of conflict. At the same time, if the links between energy and security, the energy security strategies of the and how these links impact the foreign major states can be coordinated, then the policies of the major players in the Asia- benefits to the international system, in Pacific, including the US A nation’s terms of stability of energy prices and energy plan is certainly informed by a lessened geopolitical tensions, will be multiplicity of concerns including access significant. This report suggests ways in to technology, ecological issues and the which this can be achieved. question of sustainable development. However, the focus of this study is This article focuses on how the narrow as it approaches the issue of major powers in the Asia-Pacific region energy from the perspectives of national are grappling with the challenges of www.ijar.org.in 86 International Journal of Academic Research ISSN: 2348-7666; Vol.3, Issue-12(2), December, 2016 Impact Factor: 4.535; Email: [email protected] security and foreign policy. As a result, last year will have reinforced Beijing’s several important themes of international concerns that it cannot rely on the significance are not analysed here. For equitable operation of market forces. example, there is little or no discussion of That the US government has raised its an Asian energy market, an Asian price suspicions about China’s energy policies signal mechanism, the so-called Asian oil to a national security concern will no premium, or a global market for natural doubt heighten concerns in China that gas. Many of these issues, though the US may try to interdict China’s important, are highly technical and foreign energy supplies, especially in the situated in the global political economy. event of an armed confrontation over The aim of this study, however, is to Taiwan. understand how the quest for energy is The following section addresses shaping the military doctrines and force the energy profiles of the US, Russia, structures as well as the alliances and China, India, Japan and South Korea, alignments of the key players in the and the strategies each have pursued to region and the US. In a nutshell, the aim advance their energy security policies. of this study is to understand how the The countries’ energy security challenges quest for energy security is shaping the and strategies are examined through a foreign policy objectives of key players in conceptual support based on three levels the Asia-Pacific, and how their foreign of analysis: national, bilateral and policy objectives are influencing their multilateral. At the national level, the energy policies. Its task is to illuminate impact of energy security on military the dynamics that are shaping the doctrines, force structures and weapons politico-military security architecture in acquisition will be analysed. At the the Asia-Pacific region. Finally, its bilateral level, the impact of the objective is to anticipate and prepare for countries’ energy security policies on issues of potential conflict arising from their alliances – both formal military energy competition, and to propose and/or political alliances as well as avenues for cooperation. informal politico-security alignments – Energy security issues have come will be analyzed. At the multilateral level, to dominate the global agenda and the impact of their energy security national debates in many countries in policies on regional and international recent years. China’s activities to secure groupings will be analysed. energy needs have been viewed with Energy Security: Definitions and particular suspicion in this regard. The Dimensions US, still the world’s largest oil importer, suggested in its 2006 National Security Energy security is perceived Strategy that the Chinese are “acting as differently by different people and in if they can somehow ‘lock up’ energy different contexts. For example, while supplies around the world or seek to some see energy security as a serious direct markets rather than opening them policy issue, others view the power of the up – as if they can follow a mercantilism oil market, and not oil itself, as the force borrowed from a discredited era”. For its that actuates the state of energy security. part, the strong US reaction to China’s Energy security can be simply defined as bid to take over the US oil firm Unocal
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“reliable and adequate supply of energy as the security of supplier states and the at reasonable prices”. energy supply. In other words, energy must be There are six factors that affect supplied without interruption and must the imminence, urgency or intensity of meet fully the needs of the world energy security. First, whether oil economy. The interpretation of the term production has peaked or not, the “reasonable prices” varies; however, an ultimate depletion of fossil fuels, acceptable definition is that reasonable particularly oil and natural gas, is the prices are determined through main determinant of energy security. The competitive market dynamics where ultimate depletion of fossil fuels demand equals supply. intensifies competition among countries to obtain the dwindling energy resources. Energy security is centred on the Second, the closest backstop technology – imminence of capacity in the supply of abundant, cheap, viable alternative fossil fuels and the availability of energy sources that can be supplied alternative energy resources. One way of infinitely – is not in the offing. In 2004, securing energy supply is to increase fossil fuels such as oil, natural gas and one’s economic pie and to purchase the coal supplied about 90 per cent of total necessary energy resources with the primary energy consumption in the resultant increased income. This strategy world. The remainder was met by nuclear will work as long as the cost of increasing energy and hydroelectricity, and a small the economic pie is lower than that of amount (around two per cent) by developing a new technology or renewable energy resources.Third, oil enhancing existing technologies to secure dominates virtually all energy end-uses – the energy supply. All this assumes that residential and commercial, industry, there are viable energy resources that can transportation, and electricity. There are be purchased. Faced the ultimate no other energy resources apart from oil depletion of fossil fuels, however, this that are more convenient and efficient in may not be a viable long-term solution. meeting the demand from the Energy security can be pursued transportation sector. Biofuels such as at the national, regional and bio-diesel or ethanol are slowly emerging international levels. Setting up a as substitute fuels for combustion statutory body that handles energy engines, but their contribution to security issues is one way to deal with ameliorating the demand for oil is still energy security at national level. minimal. Promoting regional and international Conclusion cooperation in bolstering energy supply and minimizing fluctuations in energy Following the definitions and supply and price volatility will also help. dimensions of energy security, five issues Energy security, in sum, requires local are identified in the context of Asia action and global cooperation to enhance regarding energy security. First, oil domestic energy efficiency and imbalance is deteriorating as demand conservation efforts, and to tackle outstrips supply, with demand expected international energy security issues such to accelerate driven by economic growth. Moreover, most Asian economies are net
www.ijar.org.in 88 International Journal of Academic Research ISSN: 2348-7666; Vol.3, Issue-12(2), December, 2016 Impact Factor: 4.535; Email: [email protected] importers of energy. The demand for oil 3. Bentley, R. W. Global oil & gas is generally inelastic both in the short- depletion: An overview. Energy and long-run due to the fact that oil has Policy 30: 189–205 (2002). few readily available substitutes. This 4. Bielecki, J. Energy security: Is the inelasticity adds to the severity of the oil wolf at the door? Quarterly Journal imbalance. Second, unlike OECD of Economics and Finance 42: 235– countries, stockpiling activity is neither 250(2002). vigorous nor undertaken in any significant fashion, though countries like Singapore have stipulated a clear requirement for oil stockpiles under the Electricity Generation License Act. During the second ASEAN, China, Japan and South Korea Ministers on Energy Meeting (AMEM+3) at Siem Reap, Cambodia, in 2005, the participating countries “reaffirmed the importance of oil stockpiling and to strengthen dialogue with the Middle East and other oil producing countries to foster mutual understanding”. Third, there has been limited progress in developing alternative energy sources in Asia. Research in alternatives energy sources such as a “coal fuel alliance” among universities in the US could develop a new technology that enables coal to power vehicles. Coal is abundant in Asia and it can be a cheap and viable option. This area of research deserves more attention from Asian countries seeking to reduce their dependence on oil. References: 1. Toman, M. A. The economics of energy security: Theory, evidence, policy. In Allen V. Kneese & James L. Sweeney (Eds.), Handbook of Natural Resource and Energy Economics (pp. 1167–1218). Amsterdam: Elsevier, 1993. 2. Hubbert, M. K. Survey of world energy resources. Canadian Mining and Metallurgy Bulletin 66: 37–53 (1976).
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India’s trade liberalization - environmental impact
P.Hari Krishnam Raju, Lecturer in Commerce, D.N.R. College (A), Bhimavaram, P.V.Rama Raju, HOD of Commerce, D.N.R.College(A), Bhimavaram
Abstract: This paper mainly focuses on India's liberalization program of 1991 reduced trade barriers and removed investment restrictions across industries. Using a unique industry level dataset aggregated at the all-India level for all manufacturing industries, we compare the pre and post-liberalization periods to examine if India's domestic production and exports showed a greater increase in dirty industries relative to cleaner ones. We also examine whether there has been a greater inflow of FDI into pollution intensive sectors in the post-liberalization period. Our findings indicate that exports and FDI grew in the more polluting sectors relative to the less polluting sectors in the post-liberalization period
Key words: liberalization, composition, production
Introduction payment crisis in 1991, the Indian government embarked on an economic Increasing the India’s trade reform program that included industrial liberalization in countries with weak and trade policy and financial sector environmental policies has raised reforms as well as privatization. In this concerns about the adverse paper we focus on India’s trade environmental consequences of freer liberalization policies. India has a weaker trade. As a result of weak environmental environmental enforcement regime policies, trade liberalization in developing relative to its main trading partners, countries may result in shifts in the therefore there is concern that trade composition of production, exports and liberalization could potentially encourage FDI to more pollution-intensive the use of India as a production base for manufacturing industries. However, more pollution intensive production. We there is little empirical evidence on the have assembled industry-level economic environmental consequences of trade and environmental data aggregated at liberalization in developing countries. the all India level for the manufacturing This paper contributes to the literature sector. Using this unique dataset, we test on the environmental consequences of three hypotheses. First, we examine the trade liberalization episodes in composition of domestic production at the developing countries by analyzing the all India level pre and post liberalization. composition (pollution intensive versus We ask whether India's domestic less pollution intensive) of manufacturing production is larger in the 'dirtier' export, domestic production and foreign industries within the manufacturing investment inflows around the period of sector and whether production has shown India’s trade liberalization program of a greater increase in the dirtier 1991. Faced with a severe balance of industries between the pre and post- www.ijar.org.in 90 International Journal of Academic Research ISSN: 2348-7666; Vol.3, Issue-12(2), December, 2016 Impact Factor: 4.535; Email: [email protected] liberalization periods. Second, we analyze Trade reforms and the composition of manufacturing export environmental regime in India to determine whether India is specializing in pollution intensive exports Trade Reforms Faced with a severe in the post-liberalization period compared balance of payments crisis in 1991, India to the pre-liberalization period. Finally, embarked on an economic liberalization we examine whether foreign direct program that encompassed industrial and investment (FDI) has shown greater trade policy, financial sector reforms and increase in the pollution intensive privatization. Prior to the 1991 reforms, industries in the post-trade liberalization the Indian government controlled trade period relative to FDI into less polluting through various forms of restrictions industries. such as import licensing requirements and tariffs. Trade reforms broadly In the case of India's trade covered four areas - reduction of tariff liberalization of 1991, studies suggest rates, easing exchange control that the Indian regulator choice of which regulations, liberalizing import licensing industries to liberalize was driven purely requirements and the rationalization of by economic considerations, ignoring export subsidies. Import licensing was an environmental criteria. Indeed, we do not important mode of protection used by the find any positive correlation between the Indian government before 1991. past to industry-wise rate of decline of the 1991, all imports, unless specifically effective rate of protection and industry- exempt, required a license or a customs wise pollution intensity. Moreover, at the clearance permit. All imports classified time of India's liberalization, no major under one of four main licensing types, environmental policy changes took place namely, restricted items, banned items, that could explain changes in the limited permissible, or open general pollution intensity of production and license (OGL). In practice, although exports. Therefore, by examining changes goods classified to open general license in the pollution intensity of exports, were exempt from licensing production and FDI between the pre and requirements, many OGL imports post-liberalization periods, we are able to required government approval or were measure the possible environmental subject to “actual user” conditions. impact of India’s liberalization episode. Following trade liberalization of 1991, Like India, many other developing the different forms of import licenses countries have weak environmental were replaced by consolidated policies and previous trade barriers that ‘unconstructive List of Imports’. Goods favored capital intensive production. not on the negative list were freely While the environmental impact of importable. Another, important aspect of liberalization episodes in these India’s trading system prior to developing countries will depend on their liberalization was canalization, which specific endowments and liberalization granted sole privileges of import and programs, this analysis of India’s export of certain designated supplies to liberalization provides an informative state trading agencies. Of the trade case study. measures that directly affected exports, export licensing was liberalized significantly. Export subsidies were not www.ijar.org.in 91 International Journal of Academic Research ISSN: 2348-7666; Vol.3, Issue-12(2), December, 2016 Impact Factor: 4.535; Email: [email protected] an important aspect of India’s trading find that the post-1991 coefficients on air system, although the government does and water pollution intensity are positive. give incentives to exporters through tax These results on FDI and net exports are concessions and duty exemption schemes robust to different empirical preceding to 1991, FDI was only specifications. An important caveat worth permitted in a small number of sectors. mentioning is that in the absence of There were several bureaucratic hurdles, Indian pollution intensity data, we have such as compulsory approval from used pollution measures from the US as various government ministries, local proxies. Should pollution intensity data content and technology transfer from India become available, it would be requirements that successfully blocked useful to reexamine the issue using foreign investors from investing in India. Indian measures of pollution intensities. Post-1991, the policy with regard to FDI Second, because we are using time- was liberalized by creating an automatic invariant measures of pollution intensity approval process. Thirty out of the total rather than actual emission levels, we one hundred and eighty six 3-digit NIC cannot make statements about changes industrial categories were placed on the in actual pollution emission levels. list for automatic approval by the However, by observing changes in the government. Subsequently, this list was composition of pollution intensive expanded to include more industrial production, we are able to make categories. The new FDI policy has inferences regarding in changes in resulted in a substantial jump in FDI pollution levels. from 1991 – 2001. Conclusion Trade liberalization in India methodically removed trade barriers and These findings suggest that while restrictions on FDI, post- 1991. Our trade liberalization measures have been findings indicate that exports and FDI pursued to promote economic growth in grew in the more polluting sectors India, they have led to some potentially relative to the less polluting sectors adverse environmental consequences. between the pre and post liberalization These results suggest that there is a periods. This evidence provides some trade-off between the economic gains support for concerns raised about the from liberalization and the environmental impact of trade environmental consequences from a liberalization in India. Specifically, we liberalization episode that has not been find that trade liberalization has resulted accompanied by a simultaneous in an increase in exports from industries strengthening of environmental policies. that are more water and air pollution The government should make an intensive relative to less pollution- informed decision about how to balance intensive ones. In addition, our analysis the trade-off between the economic gains of the post-1991 FDI inflows suggests from liberalization and the that foreign investments were higher in environmental costs. This case study industries that are more intensive in air highlights the need to consider and water pollution. After controlling for strengthening environmental policies at potential intervening variables and the time when trade liberalization is correcting for sample selection bias, we being contemplated. www.ijar.org.in 92 International Journal of Academic Research ISSN: 2348-7666; Vol.3, Issue-12(2), December, 2016 Impact Factor: 4.535; Email: [email protected]
References :
1. WTO, Trade Policy Review, India, 1993 and 1998. 2. Srinivasas, T.N. (2001) “India’s External Sector Policies and Future Multilateral Trade Negotiations,” Paper presented at a conference on Indian Economic Policy: Trade, Finance and Public Finance, Center for Research on Economic Development and Policy Reform, Stanford University. 3. Murthy, M. N. and Surendar Kumar (2001) “Win-win Opportunities and Environmental Regulations: testing of Porter Hypothesis for Indian Industries” Institute of Economic Growth Working Papers, New Delhi, India. 4. Gupta, Shreekant, (2000)“Impact of Trade and Investment Policies on the Environment with Reference to the Automobile Sector in India”, Mimeo.
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Fuelling India’s Potential: Issues and Challenges
B.Santha Raju, Lecturer, Dept. of English, D.N.R. (A) College, Bhimavaram-534 202 V.V.Ramana, Head, Dept. of Economics, Sir C.R.R. (A) College, Eluru, W.G.District Abstract:
India’s rapidly growing economy has fuelled an intensifying demand for electricity with which supply has struggled to keep pace. India is now the fourth-largest generator of electricity after Japan, the United States and China – though still comparatively low on a per capita basis and with a relatively low electrification rate of 81% (2013) – leaving about 240 million people without reliable access to power. Where investment in the past has come from government sources, in the future India’s policy- makers want to attract the majority of funding from private investors. This means addressing some of the structural issues such as unprofitable distribution companies, along with fuel issues and regulatory obstacles.
Key words: growing economy, structural issues, unprofitable distribution
Introduction: this potential, investors are cautious about India’s power sector, which has Recognizing these challenges, the Indian underperformed the market for the past government has embarked on a series of seven years. A record of false starts – progressive reforms, including integrated reforms in 1990 and 2003 failed to spark policies to ensure even development the competition and growth policy- through the value chain, addressing makers wanted – have contributed to losses that hinder the viability of the their caution. But even so, India transmission and distribution businesses, increasingly depends on private investors nurturing a more favorable investment to fuel growth in the electricity sector, environment by decreasing finance costs, with private installed capacity share and recognizing the important role of rising from 13% of total capacity in 2007 renewable. India is now the fourth- up to 30%-40% by 2017. largest generator of electricity after Japan, the United States and China – In India, power generation though still comparatively low on a per captures most of the sector’s $27 billion capita basis and with a relatively low profit pool (Figure 4), while the electrification rate of 81% (2013) – transmission and distribution struggle leaving about 240 million people without financially due mostly to non-technical reliable access to power. India’s real GDP losses in distribution – that is, electricity grew at 7% over the past decade, and if it taken off the grid and not paid for. continues to meet its economic goals of India’s distribution losses, estimated at 6% to 7% annual GDP growth, it will 27% in 2014, are among the highest in need nearly 800 gigawatts (GW) of the world (Figure 5) and, Figure 4: Non- additional capacity by 2040, according to technical losses limit the potential of the International Energy Agency. Despite India’s power sector; even though www.ijar.org.in 94 International Journal of Academic Research ISSN: 2348-7666; Vol.3, Issue-12(2), December, 2016 Impact Factor: 4.535; Email: [email protected] distribution and retail account for more networks. India’s electricity sector has than a third of India’s power market, it other significant issues, included has the lowest levels of profitability Note: stranded assets due to either a lack of EBIT percentage taken from top players fuel supply or finance issues. in each segment : NTPC, NHDC, CIL, RIL, PTC, BHEL, Full potential arrived Key recommendations for India India’s using TATA Power’s current EBIT power sector: margins on distribution (margins high due to min. stipulated ROE/margins by It is at an inflection point, given the the Govt. on dist. business) Source: government’s conviction that electricity Company report, CapIQ, Bain analysis is a critical enabler for economic growth. despite successful programmes in several India’s government recognizes the need states, this remains a significant issue for private investment in the power requiring urgent attention. Solving the sector and is planning to adopt financial viability of distribution progressive policies on renewable and the companies will help India increase the sector overall. Alignment between federal flow of funds in its power markets, help and state government objectives is manage peaks and will create incentives critical, as India devolves significant for more efficient consumption. power to its states. Recommendations identified in the best practices section of To reduce its reliance on coal imports, this report are all relevant for India, but India will continue to develop its there are also four key imperatives that domestic coal supply, as shown in the India can focus on to improve the sector’s aggressive bidding in coal block options attractiveness to investors. in 2015. Private sector participation in coal will help scale up the industry, 1. India needs to fix the viability of its though the limits of commitment are not distribution system, and improve the yet clear. India will also increase its financial health of its distribution investment in renewable generation, companies. – Policy-makers can help by which represents an important element developing and promoting a framework in the country’s goals to become energy conducive to public-private partnerships self-sufficient. In fact, India aspires to in electricity transmission, distribution become a global leader for renewable and generation. In the short term, basics energy and has an ambitious plan to need to be fixed – for example, separate install 175 GW of renewable energy by electricity infrastructure for different 2022, including 100 GW of solar and 60 industries (feeder segregation), and GW from wind. India will need to attract metering systems and collection systems, a great deal more private investment in all of which require strong political will to renewable generation to meet these execute. – Regulators can help by targets. Despite all this planned growth, ensuring a level playing field for private India’s peak deficit is expected to players that enter the market, and continue to increase, at least until the working to stem non-technical losses. country implements reforms that allow They can ensure transparency in overall transmission and distribution operators industry governance and clear separation to recoup costs and generate profits that between policy-makers and regulators. allow them to maintain and improve their Regulators also can ensure the delivery of www.ijar.org.in 95 International Journal of Academic Research ISSN: 2348-7666; Vol.3, Issue-12(2), December, 2016 Impact Factor: 4.535; Email: [email protected] open access, which is the ability of large implementing more efficient managerial commercial and industrial customers to practices. A new long-term strategic purchase power from an open market. – model for CIL needs to be adopted with a The private players who enter the better capital management and asset distribution market will be able to help strategy, including potentially breaking improve the viability of the distribution out parts of CIL. Power infrastructure network in several ways. They are most needs to be optimized with more pithead likely to introduce new technologies in plants, which generate power from coal at the grid, such as outage management the mines and UHV lines from coastal systems (OMS), distribution management locations. – Private players will likely systems (DMS) and demand management build much of the additional capacity to systems (including matching power- alleviate bottlenecks in the coal purchase agreements to demand curves), distribution system at the ports and in while also helping to accelerate adoption the railways. Building rail corridors of smart grid and meter technology. dedicated to coal, dedicated LNG ships, Private players can bring the capabilities degasification terminals and dredging to develop integrated regional or national deeper sea berths for larger ships will systems that will yield substantial also be required. – With potential benefits in load and supply forecasting. government support, private players They can also help establish an could help build a world-class technology integrated peak power capacity to cell to assess and commercialize new stabilize the grid and a national ultra- technologies (for example, underground high voltage (UHV) network. mining), which could help attract more skilled technological talent to the 2. India needs to address its fuel-supply industry. challenge. – Policy-makers have an important role to play by moving 3. India’s plan to add 175 GW of capacity upstream industries towards the free from renewable by 2022 can succeed only market and attracting more participation if the relevant stakeholders act in ways from the private sector. Initiatives such that encourage investment in this part of as a streamlined and viable coal-auction the sector. – Policy-makers should process, defined risk-reward frameworks develop the blueprint for the country’s to attract global majors with the right renewable energy capacity by 2022 and technologies and capabilities, and provide policy support to foster adopting free market-driven pricing will investment in solar power. They can help all help increase supply. – Indian attract external capital by reducing regulators can also optimize and scale the borrowing costs through strengthening model of Mine-Develop-Operate by the state electricity boards. They can also accelerating the MDO award process, boost the solar industry by simplifying adopting single-window clearance rules and regulations of the construction through a coordinated approach across of distributed solar power across many ministries. – Businesses and investors types of infrastructure. Similarly, land- have an important role to play in acquisition regulations should be improving the operational efficiency of simplified to accelerate growth of wind Coal India Ltd (CIL) by streamlining and solar power generation. – Regulators processes, improving productivity and should enable distributed generators to www.ijar.org.in 96 International Journal of Academic Research ISSN: 2348-7666; Vol.3, Issue-12(2), December, 2016 Impact Factor: 4.535; Email: [email protected] feed excess power into the grid and efforts such as the domestic lighting receive payments or discounts for it. initiative to include other sectors of the Regulators can enforce the mechanisms economy. – Regulators should define clear underlying renewable purchase guidelines for public and private sector obligations (RPOs) and renewable participation and develop “single-window generation obligations (RGOs), while also clearance” for large projects such as Ultra promoting open access for wind power. Mega Power Projects, assigning to Critically, they should ensure long-term developers only those risks that they can tariff consistency with no retroactive control. – The private sector is best suited changes or flip-flops. – Investors and to define blueprints for systems that businesses can contribute in all areas. include large coal and gas plants and the There are opportunities to set up large coastal infrastructure to import coal and solar and wind power plants on idle land LNG. – Businesses also play a critical role through both bilateral and auction in promoting efficient new technologies, routes, promote rooftop PV through solar such as ultra-super critical boilers, leasing models supported by feed-in particularly as they become more tariffs and tax benefits, and develop the financially viable. They can also help infrastructure to support new capacity. optimize the use of the coal through coal- These will require businesses to incubate to-power system efficiency initiatives new technologies (for example, for wind, such as heat-rate optimization, gangue higher-capacity turbines, gearless re-use, washed coal and fire generators, offshore masts, central and minimization. They will also be the distributed storage technologies and wind training ground for the next generation generation forecasting tools) and launch of skilled workforce for the energy training programmes to create the skills industry. base required for the next wave of investment. References and notes:
4. Even with the huge investments in 1.9th five-year plan, Government of India renewables, most of the electricity Planning Commission 10th five-year consumed in India over the next two plan, Government of India Planning decades will be generated by burning Commission fossil fuel and India can do much to 2. 11th five-year plan, Government of improve the efficiency of the existing India Planning Commission power infrastructure. – Policy-makers 3. 12th five-year plan, Government of should develop an integrated outlook for India Planning Commission India’s energy, including targets for fuel 4. Annual Report (2013-14) on the mix, emissions and sector progress, and Working of State Power Utilities & set a government body to monitor Electricity Departments, Planning progress. Tariffs and rates for fuel Commission, Government of India pricing, costs that are passed through to 5.Azzopardi, Tom. “Renewables takes customers, and peak power policies and 20% in Chilean power auction”, Wind pricing should all be transparent and Power Monthly, December 17, 2014 Best consistent across India’s states. – Policy- practices in Public-Private Partnerships makers should continue to improve Financing in Latin America: The role of demand-side energy efficiency, extending www.ijar.org.in 97 International Journal of Academic Research ISSN: 2348-7666; Vol.3, Issue-12(2), December, 2016 Impact Factor: 4.535; Email: [email protected] subsidy mechanisms, World Bank Institute, January 2012 6.Beták, Juraj et al. “Solar resource and photovoltaic electricity potential in EU- MENA region” 7. Binsal Abdul Kader. “Dubai triples renewable energy target to 15% by 2030”, Gulf News, January 21, 2015 8. BNDES and Renewables, Brazilian Development Bank, 2013 9. Brazil Wind Report, IRENA 10. Coal data, BP Statistical Review of World Energy, June 2015 11. Emiliano Hernández Ochoa, Connecting the Americas: Mexico´s Electricity Reform. North American Energy Forum Future of Electricity Workshop Roundtable, September 17, 2015 12. Eberhard A., Kolker J., Leigland J. South Africa’s Renewable Energy IPP Procurement Program: Success Factors and Lessons, May 2014 Electricity data, US Energy Information Agency Electricity prices, International Energy Agency Data Services 13.Global Wind Energy Council Global Wind Report 2011, 14. Risk Briefing, Economist Intelligence Unit 15. Solar – India adds 453 MW in Q4 of FY 2013-14; Total addition in FY 2013- 14 : 948 MW, RESolve, April 1, 2014 16. Stanway, David. “China installed wind power capacity hits 7 pct of total in 2014”. Reuters, February 12, 2015 17. Wind power in Brazil-The wind potential is 250.000 MW, REVE (Wind Energy and Electric Vehicle Magazine), October 3, 2009 18. World Bank Open Data, World Bank
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The rise and implications of the water-energy-environment: Food nexus in Southeast Asia
S.V.Narasimha Raju, Head, Dept. of Statistics, D.N.R. College (A), Bhimavaram-534 202 Abstract: This article maps the rise of the water-energy-food 'nexus' as a research, policy and project agenda in mainland Southeast Asia. We argue that introducing the concept of environmental justice into the nexus, especially where narratives, trade-offs and outcomes are contested, could make better use of how the nexus is framed, understood and acted upon. With funding from high-income country donors, it is found to have diffused from a global policy arena into a regional one that includes international and regional organizations, academic networks, and civil society, and national politicians and government officials. The nexus is yet to be extensively grounded, however, into national policies and practices, and broad-based local demand for nexus-framed policies is currently limited. The article contends that if the nexus is to support stated aspirations for sustainable development and poverty reduction, then it should engage more directly in identifying winners and losers in natural resource decision-making, the politics involved, and ultimately with the issue of justice. In order to do so, it links the nexus to the concept of environmental justice via boundary concepts, namely: sustainable development; the green economy; scarcity and addressing of trade-offs; and governance at, and across, the local, national and transnational scale.
Keywords: Nexus, environmental justice, sustainable development, water-energy-food, Southeast Asia
Introduction: mainland Southeast Asia1 a range of international organizations and civil Originating in response to the 2008 society, academics and high-income global food and economic crisis, the country donors, working with the water-energy-food nexus ('the nexus') has region’s governments and politicians, are been promoted as an emerging global translating and diffusing the nexus development paradigm and research concept through their research, agenda (Allouche et al., this issue). There programming and policy are divergent framings of the nexus recommendations. In Southeast Asia, between its various proponents (Bizikova economic, social and political trends such et al., 2013). However, the dominant as liberalization, regionalization and approach is through socioecological globalization, urbanization, agrarian systems thinking that seeks to transformation and industrialization, and understand trade-offs and synergies, changing aspirations in terms of work, increase efficiency and improve leisure, and consumption all contribute to governance between food, water and create a dynamic region in the throes of energy systems (Hoff, 2011; Davis, 2014). rapid change (Lebel et al., 2014; While much more prominent in Middleton and Krawanchid, 2014). international-level policy discussion, in Behind these trends, new – and contested
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– visions are being imagined for the pursuit of the Right to Water (Mehta et future of the region’s water, land and al., 2012; Sultana and Loftus, 2012; forest resources, energy systems, urban Franco et al., 2014). Meanwhile, and rural areas, and for the people of the questions have also been raised regarding region itself (Nevins and Peluso, 2008; the production and distribution of Rigg, 2012). In this context, access to, energy. Hildyard et al. (2012) highlight and sustainable use of, food, water and that attaining national energy security is energy resources, which are typically interpreted as energy to ensure institutionally fragmented domestically economic growth, which is not necessarily and across borders (Middleton and Dore, equivalent to 'energy for all' (see also in press), is often framed to be within a Pasqualetti and Sovacool, 2012). This complex trade-off relationship (Kirby et paper argues that if the nexus approach al., 2010). Inequality is high in the is to support its commonly stated region, and in most countries widening aspirations for sustainable development (ADB, 2012a), and access to, exclusion and poverty reduction, then it should from and contestation over natural engage more directly in identifying resources constitute a key political issue – winners and losers in 'nexused' natural especially for the region’s poor and resource decision-making, the inevitable marginalized (Lebel et al., 2009; Hall et politics involved, and ultimately with the al., 2011). Major decisions around food, issue of justice. To date, nexus framings water and energy are highly political, and that adopt a systems perspective, whilst take place within arenas of unequal broadly calling for 'good governance', are power relations that often lack yet to seriously meet this challenge (Lele, democratic equalizers such as et al., 2013; Allouche et al., 2014; Foran, transparency and public participation. this issue). This paper relates current conceptualisations and framings of the In recent years, claims for justice have nexus to environmental justice via emerged related to individual boundary concepts (Mollinga, 2010; components of the nexus, but not towards 2013), namely: sustainable development; the nexus itself. These claims often draw the green economy; scarcity and on rights-based frameworks given that addressing trade-offs; and governance at water, food, and energy, are fundamental and across the local, national and to meeting human needs. Food justice, transnational scale. The paper grounds also linked to access to land and related the linkages between the nexus and natural resources, is advocated for within environmental justice through mapping a range of social movements such as Via the rise of the nexus in Southeast Asia Campasina, as well as more and its framings, and by drawing upon institutionalized processes such as the examples from the region. UN’s Special Rapporteur on the Right to Food. Various food justice concepts have Framing the nexus: a nirvana concept, a emerged, for example Food Sovereignty frame and a narrative: and Land Sovereignty (Patel, 2009; Borras et al., 2011; Borras and Franco, The idea of the nexus has traits of 2012a; Agarwal, 2014). Regarding water, 'nirvana concept', 4 analogous to the idea there have been equivalent movements, of Integrated Water Resources including against water grabbing, and in Management (IWRM) analyzed by Molle
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(2008). Elements of the nexus concept as Dryzek, 2005, and Dore et al., 2012), as, an ideal include aspirations for of course, is 'environmental justice'. This understanding and managing scarcity, is not to say that socio-technical- synergies and trade-offs; increasing environmental systems cannot be studied efficiency; bridging across fragmented and mapped – hence an argument for 'soft food, water and energy policy and constructivism' (see Robbins, 2012: 128- institutions; improving governance; and 130). Recognition of the nexuses ultimately ensuring that development is relationship between food, water and sustainable. Whilst each of these concepts energy has the potential to add is broadly appealing, as Molle (2008: 131) significant value towards resource- states: "[i]deas are never neutral and management policy and practice. The reflect the particular societal settings in point is that there is a need to which they emerge, the worldviews and acknowledge the existence and legitimacy interests of those who have the power to of a range of narratives and frames in set the terms of the debate, to legitimate pursuing a nexus approach; in other particular options and discard others, and words, the nexus is a political process, not to include or exclude particular social just a technical one. groups". Leach et al. (2010: 43-52) and others (see, for example, Molle, 2008; In Southeast Asia, there has been a Walker, 2012: 4-5) highlight that there growing momentum of meetings and are many different ways of explaining a reports around the nexus, and thus the socio-technical-environment system with concept itself has grown in prominence equally rational ways of understanding. since 2011. Dore et al. (2012: 26) observe This, in turn, can lead to different that it is within the nexus discourse that narratives of explanation between actors "many actors see a logical, sectoral entry of the same system.5 Narratives are point for themselves in compelling new, causal and explanatory beliefs (Molle, multi-sector, interdisciplinary and 2008) produced by actors that frame transboundary deliberations". Surveying systems in particular ways towards the array of major reports written, and attaining particular goals. The conferences and dialogues hosted with a construction of frames involves subjective focus on mainland Southeast Asia (see (normative) judgements and choice of Appendix A), three broad types of elements. Thus, framing recognizes that organizations that have led to promoting any system is subject to multiple forms of the nexus can be distinguished, as interpretation by a range of actors reflected in the organization’s mission dependent upon how scale, boundaries, statements: Investment/Lending key elements, dynamics, and outcomes organizations: Asian Development Bank are labeled and categorized, and how (ADB); World Bank. Sustainable assumptions are made based on varying development organizations and research degrees of subjective/value judgments. institutes: Mekong River Commission Molle (2008) shows how the ideational (MRC), the CGIAR Challenge Program power of nirvana concepts underpins the on Water and Food-Mekong (CPWF- construction and framing of narratives. Mekong), the Stockholm International Thus the nexus, and the particularities of Water Institute (SIWI), United Nations how it is defined, can be understood as a Economic and Social Commission for Asia framed narrative (or a discourse – see and the Pacific (UNESCAP), United
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Nations Environment Programme 2014 (GWP-China et al., 2014). Unlikely (UNEP), International Water Association bedfellows, the IWA in its framing of the (IWA), International Water Management dialogue emphasised how the nexus "has Institute (IWMI), the Stimson Centre, led to new demands for water the Commonwealth Scientific and infrastructure and technology Industrial Research Organization solutions"13 whilst IUCN has sought a (CSIRO), and the Stockholm framing emphasizing 'natural Environment Institute (SEI). infrastructure' (see Krchnak et al., 2011). Conservation organizations: International Union for the Conservation Green economy the concept of the green of Nature (IUCN); and the Worldwide economy was popularized by the UNDP’s Fund for Nature (WWF). Green Economy Initiative during the 2008 global financial crisis (at the same Another example is the WWF’s Mekong time that World Economic Forum also Nexus Project initiated late in 2014 initiated its discussion on the nexus). It designed to "research key links, conflicts took a central role in the Rio+20 and positive synergies between conference, sparking much debate conservation of biodiversity, responses to amongst governments, scholars, and climate change, and supply of energy, activists including over the concept’s food and water" (WWF, 2014). On the radical, minimal, or zero transformative other hand, national and local civil potential; and whether it displaces, society groups have rarely explicitly facilitates, or reinforced the concept of utilized the nexus as a framing for their 'sustainable development' (Ehresman and work to date. Despite this, implicit to Okereke, 2014). Ehresman and Okereke many campaigns are nexus-type trade- (2014), surveying recent literature, offs, as has been demonstrated in heated propose a typology that maps out the debates around the revived plans for relationship between different framings Mekong mainstream dams (Grumbling et of green economy – which they identify as al., 2012; Matthews, 2012; WWF, 2012). a 'woolly' and 'amorphous' concept – with Indeed, it is in these debates that claims principles of environmental justice for justice are most commonly heard associated within them: Thin Green (Middleton, 2012; Rieu-Clarke, 2015). Economy, which emphasises the central Finally, a number of global-level nexus role of a liberalised market in increasing initiatives have also sought to gather resource efficiency, holds beliefs that experience from Southeast Asia to both technological solutions will address promote the nexus in Southeast Asia and resource scarcity, and that creating project the region back into global policy economic growth will address arenas. In addition to the CPWF program environmental impacts by following the and Mekong2Rio conferences mentioned above, most notable has been the Towards Energy, Food and Water Nexus International Water Association (IWA)- Justice in Southeast Asia: IUCN Nexus Dialogue on Water Infrastructure Solutions that held three Governance at and across the local, 'regional dialogues' including in Bangkok national and transnational scale through in March 2014 and subsequently a global the lens of environmental justice, scale, synthesis meeting in Beijing in November place and distance are important
www.ijar.org.in 102 International Journal of Academic Research ISSN: 2348-7666; Vol.3, Issue-12(2), December, 2016 Impact Factor: 4.535; Email: [email protected] considerations in understanding the Towards energy, food and water nexus production of environmental injustices. justice in Southeast Asia This paper has The emergence of transnational mapped how the nexus has spread environmental justice movements and throughout mainland Southeast Asia analysis grew from a concern over the from global level policy conceptualization relocation of polluting industries to the to within regional policy circles that have South, alongside the growing included international and regional consumption patterns in high-income organizations, academic networks, and countries facilitated by international civil society, national politicians and trade (Schroeder et al., 2008). More government officials, and high-income recently, processes of international 'land country donors. The nexus is yet to be grabbing' and other natural resource extensively grounded, however, into appropriations have garnered public national policies and practices, and attention (Borras and Franco, 2012b). broad-based local demand for nexus- The growing distance between the point framed policies is currently limited. The of consumption and the point of paper has also highlighted that more production creates spatial disconnects attention is required to the politicized that can render environmental injustices nexuses relationships between food, in areas of production invisible to water and energy governance systems consumers (Agyeman, 2014). Political (c.f. Foran, this issue). and economic geographers have highlighted how place-based Pieterse (2010) has argued that for ideas environmental injustices are produced to be significant, social forces must carry through the interaction between the them into action. Meantime, Molle (2008: specifics of the place and interaction with 143) suggests that a 'snowballing effect' higher-scale actors, drivers and results in a growing number of actors structures (e.g. Harvey, 1996; Leichenko promoting and implementing a particular and Solecki, 2008; Sikor and Newell, nirvana policy concept, such that it is 2014). These include, for example "gradually established as a consensual international markets, the investments, and controlling idea". If the nexus is to commodities and knowledge that flow become embedded in the region, there through them, and the local and national must be demand for it both from above institutions that mediate them. and below. This paper would argue that Furthermore, a growing ecological to increase demand from below, a footprint of the relatively wealthy in the technocratic ecological modernisation North (and the South31) significantly approach will be insufficient, and the raises the likelihood of environmental concept must engage more clearly with injustice, including across nexuses promoting fair decision-making and thus natural resources. Given the thin to to the expectations of many of the moderate green economy approach that community resource users themselves.33 frames many international organizations It is proposed, therefore, that introducing approach to the nexus (discussed above), the concept of environmental justice into these insights from environmental justice the nexus, especially where narratives, are pertinent. trade-offs and outcomes are contested, could make better use of how the nexus is framed, understood and acted upon. To
www.ijar.org.in 103 International Journal of Academic Research ISSN: 2348-7666; Vol.3, Issue-12(2), December, 2016 Impact Factor: 4.535; Email: [email protected] this end, the article has also Conclusion: demonstrated that there are a number of boundary concepts common to both the This paper has mapped how the nexus nexus and environmental justice, has spread throughout mainland including sustainable development; the Southeast Asia from global level policy green economy; scarcity and addressing conceptualization to within regional trade-offs; and governance at, and across, policy circles that have included the local, national and transnational international and regional organizations, scale. Environmental justice is at its academic networks, and civil society, strongest in evaluating fairness in national politicians and government decision-making, and explaining why (in) officials, and high-income country donors. justices may have occurred. It is The nexus is yet to be extensively institutionally rooted, with an emphasis grounded, however, into national policies on understanding processes of decision- and practices, and broad-based local making and with strong linkages to demand for nexus-framed policies is policies, law, and systems of justice – a currently limited. The paper has also weakness of the current nexus highlighted that more attention is approaches. Environmental justice required to the politicized nexuses approaches are arguably weaker than relationships between food, water and Nexus approaches in explaining inter- energy governance systems (c.f. Foran, sectoral linkages between food, water and this issue). energy systems, including consequences of cross-sectoral decisions that could have References and notes: justice implications. We thus argue that 1. Acharya, A. 2009. Constructing a in light of food, water, and energy trade- security community in Southeast Asia. offs within Southeast Asia, bridging the London, UK and New York, USA: gap between the nexus and Routledge. environmental justice – via boundary work (Cash et al., 2003) – can redress in 2. ADB. 2013a. Thinking about water part a weakness of each. This article differently: Managing the water-food- concludes that justice matters in nexus energy nexus. Manila, Philippines: ADB. governance. Yet, even defining justice in water governance from a multi- 3. Agyeman, J. 2014. Global disciplinary perspective is at an early environmental justice or Le droit au stage due to its complexity (Neal et al., monde? Geoforum 54: 236-238. 2014; Zeitoun et al., 2014), leaving conceptualisation of justice in nexus 4. Borras, S.M.Jr. and Franco, J. 2012b. governance at an even earlier stage. This Global land grabbing and trajectories of article has proposed that drawing on agrarian change: A preliminary analysis. environmental justice scholarship and Journal of Agrarian Change 12(1): 34-59 practice offers a promising starting point to redress this deficit. 5. Damen, B.; Durst P.B., and Brown. C.L. 2012. The Future of GMS Forestry in the Context of the Food-Water-Energy Nexus. In Moinuddin, H. and Maclean, J.
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(Eds), International conference on GMS 14. Pasqualetti, M.J. and Sovacool, B.K. 2020. 2012. The importance of scale to energy security. Journal of Integrative 6.. Escobar, A. 1995. Encountering Environmental Sciences 9(3): 167-180. development: The making and unmaking of the third world. New Jersey, USA: 15. Patel, R. 2009. Food sovereignty. The Princeton University Press. FIVAS Journal of Peasant Studies 36(3): 663- (Association for International Water 706. Pieterse, J.N. 2010. Studies). 2007. 16. Sen, D. 2008. Third world 7. Grumbine, E.; Dore, J. and Xu, J. 2012. environmental justice. Society and Mekong hydropower: Drivers of change Natural Resources 21(7): 547-555. and governance challenges. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment 10(2): 91- 17. WWF. (2014). Luc Hoffmann 98. Institute Fellow (The Mekong Nexus Project) at Australian National 8. Hansson, S.; Hellberg, S. and Öjendal, University (ANU). J. 2012. Politics and development in a transboundary watershed: The case of 18. Warner, J.; Mirumachi, N.; the Lower Mekong Basin. Matthews, N.; McLaughlin, K.; Woodhouse, M.; Cascão, A. and Allan, T. 9. Lebel, L. and Sinh, B.T. 2007. Politics 2014. Transboundary water justice: A of floods and disasters. In Lebel, L.; Dore, combined reading of literature on critical J.; Daniel, R. and Koma, Y.S. (Eds), transboundary water interaction and Democratizing water governance in the 'justice', for analysis and diplomacy. Mekong Region, pp. 37-54. Chiang Mai, Water Policy 16(S2): 174-193. Thailand: USER and Mekong Press.
10. Lele, U.; Klousia-Marquis, M. and Goswami, S. 2013. Good governance for food, water and energy security. Aquatic Procedia 1(0): 44-63.
11. Middleton, C. 2012. The 'nature' of beneficial flooding of the Mekong River. Social Science Journal 42(2): 180-208.
12. Nevins, J. and Peluso, N.L. 2008. Taking Southeast Asia to market. Ithaca, USA and London, UK: Cornell University Press.
13. Norman, E.S.; Bakker, K. and Cook. C. 2012. Water governance and the politics of scale. Water Alternatives 5(1): 52-61.
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Clean Cold Sits at the Nexus of Sustainable Social and Economic Progress: The Nexus
Dr.A.V.Narasimha Raju, Faculty in P.G. Dept. of Social Work, P.G. Courses & Research Centre, D.N.R. College (Autonomous), Bhimavaram-534 202 Abstract: The UN’s Sustainable Development Goals, adopted last year, aim to finish the job set out by the Millennium Development Goals, and to massively widen their scope and ambition. By 2030, the new ‘Global Goals’ not only commit to abolish hunger and poverty worldwide, and ensure good healthcare, education, gender equality and access to clean water for all, but also set detailed targets around affordable clean energy, sustainable cities, infrastructure, climate action, decent work and economic growth, and responsible consumption. According to resolution A/RES/70/1, if the Global Goals are achieved, “the lives of all will be profoundly improved and our world will be transformed for the better”.1 The UN rightly argues its 17 goals and 169 associated targets are “integrated and indivisible”, and that this interconnectedness will be vital to their success. Many of the linkages – between hunger, poverty and ill health, for example, or water shortage and conflict, or economic growth and pollution - are already well understood. But it is surprising how many of the Global Goals share one common factor that is not yet widely recognized: cooling
Key words: cooling infrastructure, diesel engines, technologies
Introduction: environmental, economic and social challenges identified by the UN. What emerges from the new “indivisible” Global Goals is that cooling could also be On the one hand, in most developing critical for achieving economic and social countries the lack of a continuous ‘cold progress. Getting cooling right is central chain’ of refrigerated warehouses and to tackling these problems because it is trucks contributes to high levels of post- both vital to many aspects of modern life harvest food loss: the IIR estimates that – food, medicine, data – but also energy if developing countries had the same level intensive and highly polluting. The of cold chain as developed they would dilemma is becoming most acute in save 200 million tonnes of food.2 Food developing countries, where climates are waste depresses farm incomes, raises food typically hot, cooling infrastructure scant prices and worsens hunger. Such colossal to non-existent and cooling demand now food waste has equally large knock-on booming - driven by rapid economic effects: the FAO estimates that food growth, rising incomes, urbanization and wastage occupies a land area the size of climate change. Here cooling causes huge Mexico; consumes 250 km3 of water per problems both by its absence, and by its year, three times the volume of Lake provision through highly polluting Geneva; and accounts for 3.3 billion conventional technologies, and in either tonnes of carbon dioxide emissions, case it causes or worsens many of the making it the third biggest emitter after the US and China.3
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In other words, the absence of cooling combined.11 Another estimate, from the causes or exacerbates challenges in food, German government, suggests cooling water, emissions, poverty and hunger. It emissions currently account for 7% of the also has a direct impact on health and total, but are growing three times faster, mortality: a lack of adequate cold storage so cooling’s share will almost double to and refrigerated transport causes two 13% by 2030.12 Cooling is also million vaccine preventable deaths each responsible for large amounts of toxic air year4, and contributes to endemic low pollution from the secondary diesel level food poisoning in much of the engines (‘transport refrigeration units’, developing world. On the other hand, or TRUs) used to power refrigeration on demand for cooling is booming in fast lorries and trailers. Analysis by Dearman growing economies such as China and shows these diesel TRUs can emit six India, largely driven by urbanization and times more nitrogen oxides (NOx) and the rapid emergence of an Asian Pacific almost 30 times more toxic particulate middle class – predicted to rise to 3 billion matter (PM) than the (Euro VI) by 20305, whose spending power could propulsion engine pulling them rise to $33 trillion.6 Their lifestyles – around.13 it also suggests the cost to EU changing diets, improved healthcare, countries of TRU emissions of CO2e, online data and air conditioning - will be NOx and PM could total €22 billion over built on cold. As a result, global air the next decade. NOx and PM cause over conditioning demand at the end of the 400,000 premature deaths in the EU each century is forecast to consume year14, and 3.7 million worldwide.15 10,000TWh7, about half the electricity Analysis by Dearman and E4tech also consumed worldwide for all purposes in suggests the worldwide refrigerated 2010. To put this in perspective, to vehicle fleet could grow from around 4 generate 10,000TWh from wind would million16 today to as many as 18 million require 4.6TW of wind turbine capacity, by 2025 to satisfy currently unmet more than ten times the world’s total demand in developing countries.17 This wind capacity today.8 In the near term, fleet would emit the same amount of on current trends cooling will require an particulate matter (PM) from additional 139GW of generating capacity refrigeration alone as around 1 billion by 2030 - more than that of Canada – and diesel cars18, roughly equal to the entire raise greenhouse gas emissions by over global car fleet today, representing an 1.5 billion tonnes of carbon dioxide (CO2) environmental and health catastrophe. per year, three times the current energy So there is an urgent need to resolve the emissions of Britain or Brazil.9 cooling dilemma; it is crucial that the primary energy demand for providing The projected growth will cold does not grow at the same rate as dramatically worsen the environmental cold demand itself. But if the damage caused by cooling, which is environmental, economic and social already huge – though little recognized so challenges caused by cooling are horribly far. The data is poor, but one estimate entangled, the good news is that, by the suggests that refrigeration and air same token, clean cold technologies and conditioning cause 10% of global CO2 approaches would have an equally emissions10 – three times more than is leveraged effect, and could help to attributed to aviation and shipping
www.ijar.org.in 107 International Journal of Academic Research ISSN: 2348-7666; Vol.3, Issue-12(2), December, 2016 Impact Factor: 4.535; Email: [email protected] achieve many more of the UN targets thinking about cooling on its head. For than might be suspected at first glance. the first time we are asking ourselves ‘what is the energy service we require, Clean cold technologies and the ‘cold and how can we provide it in the least economy’ A recently published report damaging way’, rather than ‘how much from the Birmingham Policy electricity do I need to generate?’ If the Commission, entitled Doing Cold service required is cooling, current Smarter, investigated the environmental approaches such as burning diesel, which and economic potential of developing a produces power and heat rather than ‘cold economy’ based on novel clean cold cold, or electric powered air conditioners technologies and a system-level approach that expel heat into their immediate to cooling.19 The cold economy is a environment and so increase the radically new approach that applies a system-level analysis to recruit vast Waste Cold: untapped resources of waste cold, ‘free’ cold, waste heat, renewable heat, and The Commission recognized that one of ‘wrong time’ energy – such as wind or the key solutions was to recycle some of nuclear power produced at night when the vast amounts of waste cold given off demand is low – to radically improve the during the re-gasification of Liquefied efficiency of cooling, and reduce its Natural Gas (LNG) at import terminals environmental impact and cost. These to reduce the primary energy demand, waste or surplus resources can be used to cost and environmental impact of provide cooling by converting them into a providing cold. The cold of LNG can be novel ‘vector’ – a means of storing and considered the packaging in which transporting cold - such as liquid air or natural gas is transported. When natural nitrogen. A key insight of the Cold gas is cooled to -162°C it liquefies and economy is that energy can be stored and shrinks 600-fold in volume, making it moved as cold rather than converted into economic to ship by super-tanker to a electricity and then converted again to customer on the other side of the world. provide cooling. The Cold economy is less On arriving the few instances of LNG about individual clean cold technologies – waste cold recovery to date, the cold has although these are vital – and more about typically been re-cycled by selling it to the efficient integration of cooling with industrial gas or petrochemical waste and renewable resources, and with companies ‘over the fence’. But this the wider energy system. A tank of cold: limits use of the cold to the immediate synergies from aggregating applications). vicinity of the LNG terminal, and to It recognizes the scale of cooling demand periods when the LNG is actually being growth and the need to pre-empt its re-gasified, which may be intermittent. environmental impact, and the Since only 23 of the world’s 111 LNG opportunities this will generate. The cold import terminals do any form of cold economy approach is powerful in part recovery23, it seems reasonable to because it recognizes that there is no conclude that in many locations there is demand for cold per se, but for services either insufficient local demand for waste that depend on it such as chilled food, cold, or that the business case is not comfortably cool rooms in hot climates compelling. The key to recycling more and online data. This approach turns our LNG waste cold is to separate the
www.ijar.org.in 108 International Journal of Academic Research ISSN: 2348-7666; Vol.3, Issue-12(2), December, 2016 Impact Factor: 4.535; Email: [email protected] generation and consumption of cold in and improve access to national and even both time and place. If the waste cold international markets. This would raise could be converted into a ‘vector’ or form farmers’ incomes, boost local economies that is storable and transportable, the and reduce the incentive to migrate to energy could then be consumed in distant city slums. locations on demand, rather than tied to the location and degasification schedule Goal 2, eliminate hunger and achieve of the LNG terminal. This should not food security and improved nutrition: only allow more of the waste cold to be clean cold chains would help achieve all recy three by reducing post-harvest food loss, which would increase the volume, quality Clean cold and the Global Goals: The cold and nutritional value of food reaching the economy, and particularly the recycling market, and reduce food price inflation – of LNG waste cold, could have a widely recognized as the critical cause of significant part to play in achieving the hunger. One study found that halving Global Goals. It could help solve both the food wastage could feed an extra 1 billion problems caused by the absence of people27, comfortably higher than the adequate cooling infrastructure in 800 million who were chronically developing countries, and those caused by undernourished in 2012-14. Since global booming demand and highly polluting food demand is forecast to rise 60% by conventional cooling technologies. A zero- 205028 technologies like cooling that emission Transport Refrigeration Unit reduce waste will become ever more vital. (TRU), for example, by conserving food at far less environmental cost, could make a Goal 3, ensure healthy lives at all ages: a major contribution towards achieving lack of adequate cold chain causes 2 many of the Global Goals. Because it million vaccine preventable deaths each would help reduce post-harvest food year29, along with endemic low level food losses and emissions of CO2, NOx and poisoning in the developing world, and PM, its impact would extend far beyond conventional transport refrigeration the environment and into the economic units (TRUs) cause grossly and social dimensions of sustainable disproportionate emissions of toxic NOx development. Altogether “clean cold” and PM – as do diesel gensets. All three could help achieve 14 of the 17 Global causes of death and illness would be Goals: ameliorated by clean cold chains and back-up cold and power generators. Goal 1, end poverty in all its forms everywhere: since most of the world’s Goal 4, sustainable clean water and poor work on the land26, the issue of sanitation for all: reducing food waste post-harvest food loss is critical. through clean cold chains would also Maximize volume and quality of product reduce the associated waste of water – to market to maximize revenue The estimated at 250km3 per year. According development of clean cold chains would to the World Bank, at least 663 million reduce post-harvest losses and increase people lack access to safe drinking water, the volume and quality of product and by 2025, 1.8 billion people will live in reaching market; allow farmers to areas with absolute water scarcity.30 produce higher value crops and products; Cooling could also increase the fresh
www.ijar.org.in 109 International Journal of Academic Research ISSN: 2348-7666; Vol.3, Issue-12(2), December, 2016 Impact Factor: 4.535; Email: [email protected] water supply through innovative announced its overseas aid budget would desalination techniques that work by be restructured to fund research tackling freezing sea water.31 Since ice is also an the challenges of the developing world, effective means of storing off-peak such as eliminating targeted diseases, electricity for daytime cooling32, it is crop protection, and mitigating climate possible a single ‘desalination’ plant change. The Research Councils will could simultaneously provide fresh water, disburse a new Global Challenges energy storage and cooling, while Research Fund of £1.5 billion over five reducing local air pollution and CO2 years, and expect most of the funding to emissions. be inter-disciplinary. Research into cooling has historically failed to match its Goal 5, access to affordable clean energy economic importance and environmental for all: TRUs running on liquid air or impact. In Britain over the past decade, nitrogen would be cheaper than for example, research into Refrigeration conventional, highly polluting diesel and Air Conditioning (RAC) has attracted TRUs, and dramatically so if the liquid an average of just £2.2 million in public air were produce with waste cold from re- funding each year, scarcely 0.2% of total gasification of liquefied natural gas at UK funding for engineering research, LNG import terminals, which are despite the fact that cooling is by one proliferating in developing countries. estimate responsible for 10% of all CO2 emissions.36 Across the EU as a whole, Under Goal 6, specific targets include annual public RAC R&D funding has doubling the rate of efficiency averaged £23.5 million per year or 0.22%. improvement and substantially increasing the share of renewable energy, More recently this shortfall has begun to both of which would be supported by be rectified, through public and private liquid air technologies. Since the largest investments into clean cold– related and fastest growing developing economies research projects such as T-ERA, BCCES, typically have hot climates, global energy CSEF and CryoHub, but these are largely demand for space cooling will overtake focused on the priorities of developed that for space heating by 2060, and rather than developing economies. Since outstrip it by 60% at the end of the research funding is now increasingly century33, requiring a organized around the world’s major challenges, and since the importance of Clean cold and the research agenda: cooling as a critical link between those challenges is becoming clearer, there is The existence of an agreed set of global now a strong argument for establishing challenges is increasingly reflected in the clean cold as an interdisciplinary research way research funding is organized theme within sustainability. The results worldwide. Today government R&D of such research are likely to have spending is less likely to be allocated to environmental, economic and social individual academic disciplines, but impacts in developing countries far rather to an overarching challenge, often beyond the immediate business of requiring extensive inter-disciplinary cooling. collaboration. The British government adopted this approach in 2015, when it
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References and notes: pdf."NB"the"2014"edition"[http://ozone.un ep.org/sites/ozone/files/documents/RTOC 1 YAssessmentYReportY2014.pdf]"reduced" http://www.un.org/ga/search/view_doc.asp the"global"fleet"estimate"from"4"million"t ?symbol=A/RES /70/1&Lang=E o"2"million."
2.The"role"of"refrigeration"in"worldwide" 11.Cemafroid,"the"French"vehicle"testing nutrition,"International"Institute"of"Refri "and"transport"refrigeration"consultancy, geration,"June"2009,"http://www.iifiir.org " /userfiles/file/publications/notes/NoteF believes"the"earlier"estimate"is"the"more" ood_05_EN.pdf reliable."Source:"European$refrigerated$ transport$market$study,"Cemafroid,"Jun 3.Food"wastage"footprint,"Impacts"on"nat e"2015." ural"resources,"FAO," 2013,"http://www.fao.org/docrep/018/i334 12.Cold$chains$and$the$demographic$di 7e/i3347e.pdf vidend,"Dearman,"April"2015," http://static1.squarespace.com/static/5485 4.Clean"water,"cold"vaccines,"cell"phones" 8edee4b0b0ce7 ="a"simple"way"to" savelives,"OECD"Insights,"22"JUNE"2010 13.An"auxiliary"diesel"powered"TRU"on"a ,"Harvey"Rubin"MD," "truck"or"trailer"emits"165"times http://oecdinsights.org/2010/06/22/cleanY as"much"PM"as"a"Euro"6"diesel"car"over" waterYcoldYvaccinesYcellYphonesYaYsi the"course"of"a"year."Liquid$Air$on$the$ mpleYwayYtoYsaveYlives/ European$Highway,$Dearman,"http://de arman.co.uk/wpYcontent/uploads/2016/05 5.The$emerging$middle$class$in$develo /Liquid ping$countries,"Homi"Kharas,"OECD"De velopment"Centre,"January"2010, http://www.oecd.org/dev/44457738.pdf
.Green"Cooling"Initiative,"German"Feder al"Ministry"for"the"Environment,"Nature "Conservation,"Building"and"Nuclear" Safety, http
8.Liquid$Air$on$the$European$Highwa y,$Dearman,"2015," http://media.wix.com/ugd/96e3a4_aec136c 0fe1e4b0fb5dab3a8e15cfaf1.pdf
.Report$of$the$Refrigeration,$Air$Condi tioning$and$Heat$Pump$Technical$Opt ions$Committee,"UNEP,"http://ozone.une p.org/Assessment_Panels/TEAP/Reports/ RTOC/RTOCYAssessmentYreportY2010.
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Economically and Ecologically effective Energy Resources
A.V.R. Gajapathi Raju and Dr. N. Vijaya Kumar Lecturers in Chemistry, DNR (A) College, Bhimavaram-534202, INDIA
Abstract: Energy resources are categorised as Primary and Secondary sources. Primary resources are those obtained from the Environment like fossil fuels (coal, crude oil, natural gas etc.), Nuclear fuels, Hydroenergy, Geothermal energy, Solar energy, Wind energy, Tidal energy. Secondary resources are those derived from primary energy resources but not occur in nature. Petrol is obtained from crude oil; electrical energy is obtained from burning of coal. Biomass or dried organic matter like wood, leaves, cow-dung, burning oils and fats derived from living organisms can be included in Secodary sources but these are renewable sources of energy. The energy resource availability, its distrubution and the finite nature lead to two management stratagies a) conservation of available natural finite energy resources b) development of non-fossil fuel based renewable energy resource.
Key words: Energy resources, resources of energy, renewable and nonrenewable energy, resources, Alternative energy resources, conservation of energy resources.
Introduction: d) Geothermal: The heat from the underground steams or the heat stored in Energy resources are categorised as the hot rocks beneath the Earth’s Primary and Secondary sources. Primary surface. resources are those obtained from the e) Solar energy: Electromagnatic Environment like fossil fuels (coal, crude radiation from the sun. oil, natural gas etc.), Nuclear fuels, f) Wind energy: The energy from moving Hydroenergy, Geothermal energy, Solar air used by wind mills. energy, Wind energy, Tidal energy. g) Tidal energy: The energy associated Secondary resources are those derived with the rise and fall of the tidal waters. from primary energy resources but not Sun is the source of our energy resources; occur in nature. The energy sources have circulation of atmosphere due to the been basically divided into two categories sun’s heat is the basis of wind energy. as primary and secondary sources. The natural water cycle and water flow Primary energy resources are those due to difference in altitudes is the basis which are mined or otherwise obtained of hydro energy. Photosynthesis carried from the environment. out due to solar radiation forms the basis for chemical energy in the plants. The a) Fossil fuels: Coal, Lignite, Crude oil, chemical energy stored in fossile fuels is Natural gas, etc. also due to the solar energy. b) Nuclear fuels: Uranium, Thorium, Deuterium, other nuclei used in fission The primary energy resources can be and fusion reactions. further classified as renewable resources c) Hydro energy: The energy of falling and nonrenewable resources. Renewable water used to turn turbines or mill resources are those which are not wheels. exhaustible and which can hence provide
www.ijar.org.in 112 International Journal of Academic Research ISSN: 2348-7666; Vol.3, Issue-12(2), December, 2016 Impact Factor: 4.535; Email: [email protected] continuous supply e.g., wood, tidal their consumption down to level at which energy, solar energy, wind energy, they are being formed. geothermal energy, etc. Non-renewable resources are those, which are finite and A particular fuel preferred for use when exhaustible e.g., fossil fuels (like coal, its small quantity produces larger petroleum, natural gas), nuclear fuels, amount of enregy compared to other etc. types of fuels. Oil is one such fuel. Due to its higher calorific value compared to Secondary energy resources are those coal. It can be used for production of which do not occur in nature but are more efficient fuels like petrol, large derived from primary resources. For spectrum of chemical including polymers, example, petrol or gasoline is obtained organics, and valuable inorganics the oil from crude. Electrical energy is obtained generation in nature my be attributed to from burning of coal; hydrogen is microbiological in e activity on plant life obtained by electrolysis of water. which got buried deep in earth under sediments.these deposits are younger as Biomass or dried organic matter: Dried compared to coal deposits. Oil abtained twigs, wood, leaves, cow-dung, burning from the earth is termed as crude oil as it oils and fats derived from living cannot be directly used as fuel. It is a organisms can be including in this mixture of complex organics, which are category. These are renewable sources of separated as fractions at different energy. Of these fuel-wood constitutes temperatures during the distillation of the most important source of energy in crude. These fractions include petrol, developing countries of the world. dielsel, fuel oil etc.
Fossil Fuels or Coal, Oil and Natural Gas: The energy resource availability, its Coal, oil and natural gas represent the distrubution and the finite nature lead to photoshynthetic output of green plants, the following two resources management which occurred millions of years ago. The strategies. oldest coal deposits(anthracites) were laid down about 300 millionsof years ago are Conservation of available natural more, while the youngest deposits are finite energy resources about two million years old. According to Development of non fossile fuel oneestimate coal formation has been based renewable enegy resources. taking place at a rate of about 9 million tones per year, oil at a rate of about 0.25 Alternative Energy Resources million tons per year while natural gas is beiteng formed at a rate of 0.15 million Experiences with the use of fossil fuels tons per year. The renewal of fossil fuel have led to the conclusion that the resources is taking place somewhere alternative sources should be easy to use under the sediments deposited today. or should be convenient to handle, clean However, rapid consumption of these (i.e., non-pollution generating), and materials is many folds faster than their should be renewable. R&D in this formation fossil fuels are nonrenewable direction as identified various probable source of enregy as it is impossible to cut sources to generate energy. Though these resources have not yet got the real commercial status, still they are being
www.ijar.org.in 113 International Journal of Academic Research ISSN: 2348-7666; Vol.3, Issue-12(2), December, 2016 Impact Factor: 4.535; Email: [email protected] studied for their efficient energy current through the rest of the circuit. production and utilization. Thus without any moving parts, solar cells convert light energy directly to (1)Solar Energy electrical power. Their current life span is about 20 years, depending upon their The major natural source of energy is use. solar energy. Proper collection of this enormous heat energy and tis utilization Rural electrification projects based on by converting it to different forms can photovoltatic cells are becoming popular create an alternative resource base for in the Thirld world Countries. The energy. Efforts in this direction have led Japanese are developing solar-powered to the development of solar heat utilizing air-conditioners to be marketed soon. devices for heating purposes. This can Experiments with vehicles run on substitute the use of fossoil fuel to photovoltaic cells are under way using generate heat. Solar cookers for cooking ultra-efficient designs. food, solar collectors for heating water for domestic use, passive heating systems, for 1.Solar trough collectors: Solar trough space heating (building) are now collection systems are a low-cost practical commercially available. The solar energy methods for producing electrical power has been used through the use of proper from sun light. Sun light hitting the solar insulations to heat and cool the buildings trough collector is reflected on to a pipe in western countries. running down the center of the trough, and heats a special type of fluid having Flow of electric current is by virtue of special properties to absorb large amount follow of electrons through the carrieer of heat circulating through the pipe. The medium like wire. A device called solar heated fluid is then used to boil water, cell has been developed to produce flow of there by generating steam to run electrons in circute using solar energy. convertional turbo generator. Two more Such cells are now commonly used in developments have been reported for solar powered gadgets like calculators, solar energy collection and conversion to solar battery charges etc. A typical cell electrical energy. These are solar tower consists of two very thin layers of special and solar pond. Solar tower utilizes the material. The lower layer, a typical solar energy for heating a boiler through structure of metal, has atoms with single surrounding mirrors placed round the electron in the outer orbit, which can get boiler tower. The solar ponds are working easily lost. The upper layer has atomic on the density difference of saline water structure, which is lacking in electrons. at different temperatures. One electron from lower layer gets transferred to their outer orbital and Solar energy can also be used for vehicles hence can readily gain electrons. The transport. It can be considered in two kinetic energy of light striking this ways. The use of solar cells to charge the ‘Sandwich’ dislodges electrons from the car batteries which in turn will run the lower layer, which are trapped in to the car can be made. However, the batteries upper layer, thus creating an electric are expensive and heavy. The power potential between the two layers. This retention is also limited. Thus it is still electrical potential provides the electric not economical to bring it as commercial
www.ijar.org.in 114 International Journal of Academic Research ISSN: 2348-7666; Vol.3, Issue-12(2), December, 2016 Impact Factor: 4.535; Email: [email protected] option. Some two wheelers have been in problems of water shortage down stream the markets which run on battries. They of the river. Sarda and Sarovar, Koyna still need enormous developments. dam and the Krishna-Kaveri river issues Alternatively, the solar energy through are the best examples regarding the dam the solar cells is used to carry out constructions. With proper planning and electrolysis of water to produce hydrogen. carrying out proper impact assessment, This hydrogen can be used as fuel. This is building of the hydroelectric projects a clean fuel without production of any have great potential. harmful pollutants because it produces water and energy. Storage of hydrogen, (3)Wind Power: Harvesting energy from the material of consruction and safety wind has been carried out since ages. The measurs are the major consideration for development of wind mills has been development of the technology. carried out since ancient tiems. The mills with propeller blades are the most (2)Hydropower : The hydro electric popular designs. The European countries power generation is being practiced all have quite successfully utilized the wind over the world. This is clean way to power and have reached to the generation produce energy. The basic principle capacity of around 3000 mega watts. behind the electricity generation is Wind power is a non-polluting and converson of potential and kinetic energh renewable source of energy production. of water to electric power. The geographic These installations on a large scale again conditions of a region where the power is need a very thorough impact assessment to be generated are very important factor studies to avoid the damage to natural in efficient production of electricity. course of cloud movement due to the Through there are no pollutants released effect of propeller movements and that there are other very important impacts of the bird migratory routs should not be the activity. distrurbed.
One of the important aspects in (4)Geothermal Energy: Heat from the hydroelectric generation is to collect molten core of earth reserves a very large sufficient water and its storage that can store of energy. Efforts are under way to be used for power generation. This harvest this energy for utilzation for requires constructions of dams on rivers. energy production. The water impounded due to the dams has great impact on the environment. (5)Tidal Energy Utilization: The natural The stored water impounds large amount phenomenon of high and low tide in the of land that may be fertile. Storage of sea provides a source of energy during water on forest land destroys foresrts and high tide, there is a rise in sea water level wild life habitats. Some of tribal and water enter the shore. Special population may get ousted from their turbines are being developed which habitat. Productive farmlands may get operate under the tidal effect. A barrier is impounded and historic and archeological constructed on the mouth of a bay and sites may get destroyed. Geological the turbins are fitted. The turbine disturbance cause adverse seismic operates in direction of flow of water conditions and may lead to earthquakes. from sea to land producing power. When Water retention due to dams may cause low tide conditions are set in the water
www.ijar.org.in 115 International Journal of Academic Research ISSN: 2348-7666; Vol.3, Issue-12(2), December, 2016 Impact Factor: 4.535; Email: [email protected] from the dam, collected durigh high tide, and nutrient-rich compost, which is the is allowed to flow back to the sea over the good organic fertilizer that can be turbin with reversal of its blades. The recycled back to the land in order to power can thus be generated maintain the fertility. continuously. Depositin of sand and silt The above discussed energy resources are in the dam is one of the major problems ecologically effective. So, these energy in the system. resources must be developed economically with growing and (6)Biomass Energy: Biomass in the innovative technology for sustainable biosphere accumulates solar energy development globally. during its growth and provides a source References of energy through its utilization (the 1) Kormondy, E.J., 1991. Concepts of direct burning of wood, waste paper, ecology. Prentice Hall of Indiaa Pvt. Ld., manure, agriculture or any form of New Delhi. biomass or converting them to a fuel). 2) Clark, W.C., Munn, R.E., (Eds.), 1986. Certain microorganisms when digest Sustainable development of the biomass in the absence of air produce biosphere. Cambridge Univ. Press, either alcohol or methane gas, which Cambridge. themselves give energy on combustion. 3) Hall D.O., Et, al., 1982, Biomass for Since biomass is obtained through the energy in developing countries. Ballinger, process of photosynthesis, biomass Cambridge, Massachusetts. energy is considered to be another form 4) Hubbert M.K., 1973, The energy of indirect use of solar energy. Firewood resources of the Earth. In Chemistry in can be considered as a sustainable energy the environment. Reading from Sci, resource where forests are plenty relative American W.H. Freeman, San Francisco. to population. In fact this was the case in 5) Ion D.C., 1980, Availability of World ancient times when the population was Energy Sources, 2nd Ed. Graham and scanty. Biomass energy should be Trotman, London. preferred wherever energy can be 6) Lenihen J., Fletcher W.W., (Eds). 1975, produced as a byproduct from waste Energy resources and the environment. disposal (e.g., Sawmill waste, Sugar Blackie, Glasgow and London. refinery waste, distillery waste, Muncipal 7) Rajagopal S., 1991, Power and refuse and sewage etc., which can be environment: on a collision course. In anaerobically digested). However, even The Hindu Survey of Indian Industry while doing this, advantages of recycling 1991, Madras. refuse or composting of the wastes should 8) Seshadri C.V., 1991 Energy and be kept in view. Use of alcohol as fuel is environment, the need for a balance. In being promoted in some grain-growing The Hindu Survay of Indian Industry regions of developed countries. Alcohol is 1991, Madras. produced by fermentation of grains, 9) Southwick C.H., 1972., Ecology and straches, sugar or similar food products. quality of our environment. Vion Anaerobic digestion of sewage sludge and Nostrand Company, N. Y., London. animal manure produces methane gas, 10) Olson J.S. (1963), Energy Storage and which can be used as fuel. It is one of the balance of Producers and Decomposers in methods for recycling and energy Ecosystems, Ecology, pp. 322-332. production. Such a method yields biogas
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Climate Change & Aviation Growth in India: Issues and Challenges
M. Venkateswara Rao, Head, Dept. of Economics, SVKP & Dr.K.S.Raju College of Arts & Science, Penugonda, W.G.District. A.P., D.V.R.Srininivas, Head, Dept. of Histrory, SVKP & Dr.K.S.Raju College of Arts & Science, Penugonda, W.G. District. A.P Abstract: At present, India is the world’s ninth largest aviation market with more than 80 operational airports with 17 airports having international operations, more than 700 aircraft, 14 scheduled airlines and nearly 120 non-scheduled operators. Currently, India’s aviation industry caters to nearly 122 million domestic and 47 million international passengers. Over the next decade, the market could reach 337 million domestic and 84 million international passengers. Therefore, the Indian aviation industry has a large potential for growth in the years to come.
Key words: climate change, reduction measures,
Introduction almost 57 million jobs. Within the Asia Pacific region, aviation represents a 470 India continues to face the challenges of billion dollar industry, transports 780 sustaining its economic growth while million passengers and supports 24 dealing with the global threat of climate million jobs. 1.3 Intergovernmental Panel change. This threat emanates from on Climate Change (IPCC) report has accumulated GHG emissions in the established that aviation’s contribution atmosphere, anthropogenically generated to climate change, though small at through long-term and intensive present, could grow if appropriate actions industrial growth of developed nations. are not taken to offset the growth. Climate change may alter the Although developing countries such as distribution and quality of India’s natural India do not have any legal binding on resources and adversely affect the reduction of GHG emissions, however, livelihood of its people. With the economy several proactive initiatives are being closely coupled with its natural resources taken by all its stakeholders to reduce or and climate sensitive sectors such as minimize carbon emissions from aviation agriculture, water and forestry, India sector. 1.4 India signed the UNFCCC on may face a major threat because of the 10th June, 1992 and ratified it on 1st projected changes in climate in the years November, 1993. The Kyoto Protocol to to come. Global aviation’s economic the UNFCCC was adopted in 1997, which impact is estimated at 2.2 trillion US requires developed countries and dollars, representing 3.5% of the economies in transition to reduce their worldwide Gross Domestic Product Greenhouse Gas (GHG) emissions below (GDP). 1990 levels. India acceded to the Kyoto Protocol on 26th August, 2002. As per the The industry transports around 3 billion UNFCCC and its protocol, developing passengers every year and supports
www.ijar.org.in 117 International Journal of Academic Research ISSN: 2348-7666; Vol.3, Issue-12(2), December, 2016 Impact Factor: 4.535; Email: [email protected] countries such as India, do not have aviation sector is being developed binding on GHG mitigation commitments annually for monitoring purposes. in recognition of their small contribution as well as low financial and technical 2.1.2 The salient features of carbon capacities. 1.5 India is engaging actively footprint report for 2014 is as follows: a) in multilateral negotiations in a positive, The total carbon emissions for 2014 was constructive and forward looking manner 16.4 million tonnes of CO2; b) In 2014, with an objective to establish an effective, global airline operations were responsible cooperative and equitable global for the emission of 739 million tonnes of approach based on the principle of CO2 representing 2-3% of global Common but Differentiated anthropogenic emissions; c) In 2014, Responsibilities (CBDR) and respective major airports emitted 0.82 million capabilities. The success of India’s efforts tonnes of CO2; d) India’s total carbon would be significantly enhanced provided emission from aviation represents less the developed countries affirm their than 1% which is significantly lower than responsibility for GHG emissions and the global average; e) In the absence of fulfill their commitments to transfer new any reduction measures, CO2 emissions and additional resources and climate may reach 30 million tonnes by 2020; f) friendly technologies to support both The internationally accepted efficiency adaptation and mitigation in developing indicator for carbon emissions is kgs of countries rather by imposing the same CO2 per RTK. Continued efforts of level of standards and requirements on DGCA towards reduction in carbon all States to developed countries. emissions has resulted in reduction of this value from 1.06 in 2011 to 0.95 in the 2. Discussion year 2014 bringing it at par with the global average; and g) Overall, in 2014, Carbon Footprint for Civil Aviation CO2 emissions from Indian scheduled Sector: passenger airlines has increased which is attributed to domestic operations by new The carbon footprint represents an airlines, introduction of new routes and important tool to understand the sources an overall increase in aircraft movements and magnitude of carbon emissions of by the airlines as well as passenger any industry or organization based on growth. which future emission reduction A39- WP/138 EX/52 - 3 - policies/strategies can 2.2 Airline initiatives: be formulated. In 2012 the DGCA completed the first-ever detailed carbon Fuel cost of any airline is the largest footprint of Indian aviation for the year constituent of their operational cost and 2011 (i.e., domestic operations, and any saving in fuel cost leads to decrease Indian/foreign flights to/from India). It in the total operational cost with an was released during the 50th DGCA addition benefit of reduction in carbon conference held during October, 2012 and emissions as well. With this objective, obtained significant recognition from the airlines have started adopting following international aviation community. Since measures that help them in reducing then, carbon footprint Report for Indian their fuel consumptions leading to reduction in carbon emissions too: a)
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Upgradation of aircraft fleet through on the environment through optimization renewal and engine modernization of natural resource utilization and energy program for better fuel efficiency; b) With consumption resulting in reduced a view to further improve fuel efficiency, emissions. Energy conservation and airlines have started looking towards new renewable energy development along aircraft models with state-of-art with emission reduction is an integral technologies and more fuel efficient part of their business strategy towards engines that may result in substantial achieving credibility and sustainability in reduction in emissions in future. With the aviation business. Airports in India induction of Boeing 787 Dreamliner have identified the emission sources from which offers superior economic airlines and other business units performance with 15% lower fuel operating within the premises of the consumption and future order of airports and started working to minimize A320NEOs and B737Max options, them such as on-site fuel consumption further improvement in fuel efficiency is and electricity consumption, etc. With expected; c) Engine core water wash at this objective, airports have started regular intervals to increase fuel adopting following measures to reduce efficiency; d) Use of Computerized Fuel emissions: a) Adoption of Carbon Plan (CPF) as conservative criteria for Accounting & Management System computing fuel requirements for a flight (CAMS) for reducing airports GHG path; A39-WP/138 EX/52 - 4 - e) Usage of emissions which is based on the APU has been replaced by ground guidelines provided in the ISO 14064-1 electrical power and air conditioning by for quantification and reporting of airport based support system; f) Airlines greenhouse gas emissions and removals. have also adopted “Single Engine Taxi– Airports are also using Environment in/out” policies and procedures specific to Management System (ISO 14001), their operations; g) Airlines have adopted Energy Management System (ISO delayed deceleration approaches with 50001:2011) and Green House Gas aircraft kept in clean aerodynamic Reporting (ISO 14064) mechanism which configuration during the approach phase helps them to develop and implement of flight to reduce fuel burn; h) Usage of policy, objectives and action plans taking New Flight Planning System leading to into account legal and other preparation of flight plans by optimizing requirements for GHG reduction; b) the routes and provides cost effective Participation in Airport Carbon routing for every flight; and i) Usage of Accreditation Programs at various levels Electronic Flight Bags (EFB) is a major for emission reduction; c) Participation in initiative towards paperless cockpit Leadership in Energy and Environment leading to weight and fuel saving in Design (LEED) with an objective to everyday operations. reduce pollution & waste management, provision for eco-friendly vehicles, use of 2.3 Airport initiatives: recycled water, energy-efficient electric lighting, etc; d) Use of advanced Airports in India are committed to aerobridges fitted Fixed Electrical conduct its business in an environment Ground Power (FEGP) and friendly and sustainable manner by Preconditioned Air (PCA) in order to minimizing the impact of their activities minimize aircraft and vehicular pollution
www.ijar.org.in 119 International Journal of Academic Research ISSN: 2348-7666; Vol.3, Issue-12(2), December, 2016 Impact Factor: 4.535; Email: [email protected] at the airport and prevents the use of India has launched GPS-aided geo APU at parking bay; e) Use of dedicated augmented navigation (GAGAN) satellite Compressed Natural Gas (CNG) vehicles based navigation system which has been and electrically operated baggage tugs jointly developed by Indian Space and buggies for transport of baggage, Research Organization and Airport cargo and passenger in the apron, cargo Authority of India and certified by the and passenger terminal building; A39- DGCA. The system provides improved WP/138 EX/52 - 5 - f) Installation of solar efficiency, direct routes, approach with power plant at airside premises and solar vertical guidance at runways, reduced water heaters at the terminals in order to workload of flight crew and air traffic promote renewable energy use; g) controllers, increased fuel savings and Continuous Descent Approach (CDA) and reduction in carbon emission for the Continuous Decision Making (CDM) benefit of environment. procedures to reduce taxi time leading to fuel saving; and h) As of now, Bangalore, 3. Conclusion Hyderabad, New Delhi and Mumbai airports are members of Airport carbon In conclusion, India and its aviation Accreditation and have been accredited at industry have taken a number of different levels such as Optimization and important steps to address aviation’s Reduction levels. contribution to climate change.
2.4 Air Navigation Services initiatives: References and notes:
India has launched the Future India Air International Civil Aviation Organization Navigation System (FIANS) initiative, www.icao.int which is based on projects in the fields of communication, navigation and surveillance. Indicative projects include implementation of Performance Based Navigation (PBN), use of Automatic Dependent Surveillance Broadcast (ADS- B), harmonization with international systems, human resources development and training, etc. PBN roadmap has been developed and several projects have already been launched. For example, PBN implementation at some airports has already reduced flight distance resulting in fuel saving. In future, more emphasis will be given on PBN and ATM related technical issues to further streamline congestions at airports and airspace, avoid delays at runways for take-off and landings, etc.
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Global connectivity of Solar Energy to meet comprehensive demand at Global: A way to better world
Dr. T.V.Ramana, Faculty Member, Dept. of Economics, Andhra University Campus, Kakinada
I.V.S.Murty, Guest Faculty Member, Dept. of Economics, Andhra University Campus, Kakinada
Abstract: All life on earth depends in some way upon energy. Energy growth is directly linked to well-being and prosperity across the globe. Modern energy enriches life. There are more than seven billion people on earth who use energy each day to make their lives richer, more productive, safer and healthier. Human desires to sustain and improve the well-being of ourselves, our families and our communities.It is fact that there is no need of power at day time and it may be useless if we have not utilized in a proper way. These countries can export to the darkened countries and vice versa. It may possible by all the nations make effort get together with integration of world nations like UNO towards eliminate power crisis and wars in this regard. Globalism should be replaced in Nationalism for full moon in all nights. Key words:Global connectivity, Solar Energy, comprehensive demand, full moon in all nights.
Introduction: renewable for the future as future perspectives. All life on earth depends in some way upon energy. Energy growth is Why global/continental connectivity – directly linked to well-being and In developing countries, energy demand prosperity across the globe. Modern will grow close to 60 percent as five- energy enriches life. There are more than sixths of the world’s population strives to seven billion people on earth who use improve their living standards. In energy each day to make their lives developed economies, energy demand will richer, more productive, safer and remain essentially flat. Growing healthier. Human desires to sustain and electricity demand will remain the improve the well-being of ourselves, our biggest driver of energy needs, with families and our communities. electricity generation even by 2040. Objectives of the Study Unconventional gas – from shale and other rock formations – has helped In this paper, efforts have been made to unlock up to 250 years of global gas summarize the availability, current supply at current demand levels.Gains in status, major achievements and future efficiency across economies worldwide potentials of renewable energy options in through energy-saving practices and India. This paper also assesses specific technologies will significantly reduce policy interventions for overcoming the demand growth and curb emissions. barriers and enhancing deployment of Keeping pace with energy demand www.ijar.org.in 121 International Journal of Academic Research ISSN: 2348-7666; Vol.3, Issue-12(2), December, 2016 Impact Factor: 4.535; Email: [email protected] growth will require unprecedented levels decades wars may continue for energy as of investment and the pursuit of all we seen in the earlier. economic energy sources. In coming
Historical crises – bitter evidence 2004 Argentine energy crisis 1970s energy crisis - caused by the North Korea has had energy peaking of oil production in major shortages for many years. industrial nations (Germany, United Zimbabwe has experienced a States, Canada, etc.) and embargoes from shortage of energy supplies for many other producers years due to financial 1973 oil crisis - caused by an OAPEC oil mismanagement. export embargo by many of the Political riots occurring during major Arab oil-producing states, in the 2007 Burmese anti-government response to Western support protests were sparked by rising of Israel during the Yom Kippur War energy prices. 1979 oil crisis - caused by the Iranian Revolution 2000s energy crisis - Since 2003, a rise in prices caused by continued 1990 oil price shock - caused by global increases in petroleum the Gulf War demand coupled with production The 2000–2001 California electricity stagnation, the falling value of the crisis - Caused by market U.S. dollar, and a myriad of other manipulation by Enron and secondary causes. failed deregulation; resulted in 2008 Central Asia energy crisis multiple large-scale power outages caused by abnormally cold Fuel protests in the United temperatures and low water levels in Kingdom in 2000 were caused by a an area dependent on hydroelectric rise in the price of crude oil combined power. At the same time the South with already relatively high taxation African President was appeasing on road fuel in the UK. fears of a prolonged electricity crisis North American natural gas in South Africa."Mbeki in pledge on crisis 2000-2008 www.ijar.org.in 122 International Journal of Academic Research ISSN: 2348-7666; Vol.3, Issue-12(2), December, 2016 Impact Factor: 4.535; Email: [email protected]
energy crisis". Financial Times. have regular blackouts like South Retrieved 2008-02-10. Africa. In February 2008 the President Nepal experienced severe energy of Pakistan announced plans to crisis in 2015 when India created an tackle energy shortages that were economic blockade to Nepal. Nepal reaching crisis stage, despite having faces the shortages of various kinds significant hydrocarbon reserves. In of petroleum products and food April 2010, the Pakistani materials which affected severely on government announced the Pakistan Nepal's economy. national energy policy, which extended the official weekend and Global connectivity of solar energy is the banned neon lights in response to a ultimate solution growing electricity shortage. Renewable energy sources and South African electrical crisis. The technologies have potential to provide South African crisis led to large price solutions to the long-standing energy rises for platinum in February 2008 problems being faced by the developing and reduced gold production. countries. The renewable energy sources China experienced severe energy like wind energy, solar energy, shortages towards the end of 2005 geothermal energy, ocean energy, and again in early 2008. During the biomass energy and fuel cell technology. latter crisis they suffered severe The renewable energy is one of the damage to power networks along options to meet this requirement. with diesel and coal Over the globe, from 2000 to 2013 the shortages.Supplies of electricity total renewable energy use has increased in Guangdong province, the 6,450 TWh and total energy use 40,500 manufacturing hub of China, are TWh. Every country of the world is now predicted to fall short by an spending a lot of money towards energy estimated 10 GW.In 2011 China was generation. The following table forecast to have a second quarter enumerates the selected renewable electrical power deficit of 44.85 - energy global indicators. 49.85 GW. The Economist predicted that in the Solar energy as a source to meet years after 2009 the United Kingdom comprehensive power demand will suffer an energy crisis due to its Solar energy, radiant light and heat from commitments to reduce coal-fired the sun, has been harnessed by humans power stations, its politicians' since ancient times using a range of ever- unwillingness to set up new nuclear evolving technologies. Solar energy power stations to replace those that technologies include solar heating, solar will be de-commissioned, and photovoltaics, concentrated solar unreliable sources and sources that power and solar architecture, which can are running out of oil and gas. It is make considerable contributions to therefore predicted that the UK may solving some of the most urgent problems the world now faces.
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Table:Selected renewable energy global indicators Selected renewable energy 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 global indicators Investment in new renewable capacity 182 178 237 279 256 232 270 285 (annual) (109 USD) Renewables power 1,140 1,230 1,320 1,360 1,470 1,578 1,712 1,849 capacity (existing) (GWe) Hydropower capacity 885 915 945 970 990 1,018 1,055 1,064 (existing) (GWe) Wind power capacity 121 159 198 238 283 319 370 433 (existing) (GWe) Solar PV capacity (grid- 16 23 40 70 100 138 177 227 connected) (GWe) Solar hot water capacity 130 160 185 232 255 373 406 435 (existing) (GWth) Ethanol production 67 76 86 86 83 87 94 98 (annual) (109 litres) Biodiesel production 12 17.8 18.5 21.4 22.5 26 29.7 30 (annual) (109 litres) Countries with policy targetsfor renewable 79 89 98 118 138 144 164 173 energy use Source: The Renewable Energy Policy Network for the 21st Century (REN21)–Global Status Report
The International Energy Agency with favorable thermal mass or light projected that solar power could provide dispersing properties, and designing "a third of the global final energy demand spaces that naturally circulate air. after 2060, while CO emissions would be 2 In the Nature, Sun is one of the miracle reduced to very low levels. Solar gifts to the creatures on the earth. technologies are broadly characterized as Earth’s rotation occurs from west to east, either passive solar or active solar which is why the Sun always appears to depending on the way they capture, be rising on the eastern horizon and convert and distribute solar energy. setting on the western. While the Earth Active solar techniques include the use rotates once in about 24 hours, half day is of photovoltaic systems and solar thermal the full dark to the one region (north or collectors to harness the energy. Passive South Pole) and the remaining appears solar techniques include orienting a full lighting. building to the Sun, selecting materials
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Click on the figure
North Pole darken South Pole darken In this scenario, the day time (lighting) countries can be produced solar power/energy and could transfer to the darkened /night time countries.
How can transfer the power over the globe- As a challenging task:
The following figure is an illustration to integrate the regions to transfer the power from lighting (region/pole) area to darken area. It is fact that there is no need of power at day time and it may be useless if we have not utilized in a proper way. These countries can export to the darkened (pole) countries and vice versa.
North Pole darken South Pole darken REGION -1 Network REGION -2 network
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The above two regions can be connect The already fixed Communications with submarine communications cable as cables can be useful to power transfer already established in Eastern Telegraph without more additional expenditure.For Company network in 1901. The following example- Andhra Pradesh government figure-Dotted lines across the Pacific plan to facilitate the households to use indicate then-planned cables laid in 1902- three-in-one broad band services transfer 03 with help of special cable layer ships, through electricity transferring wires such as the modern René Descartes, (current wires)being offered through the operated by Orange Marine.A submarine government-funded AP Fibrenet project communications cable is a cable laid on across the state. Similarly, more research the sea bed between land-based stations should be needed to discover the to carry telecommunication signals across technology to transfer the energy and stretches of ocean. These technology is diversify these modules. using for fixing communications cable.Throughout the 1860s and 70's, Conclusion British cable expanded eastward, into the Mediterranean Sea and the Indian Ocean. An attempt is made to summarize An 1863 cable to Bombay, India the availability, current status, major (now Mumbai) provided a crucial link achievements and future potentials of to Saudi Arabia. In 1870, Bombay was renewable energy options in India. This linked to London via submarine cable in a paper also assesses specific policy combined operation by four cable interventions for overcoming the barriers companies, at the behest of the British and enhancing deployment of renewable Government. for the future as future perspectives.It is fact that there is no need of power at day Is fixing communications cables useful to time and it may be useless if we have not power transfer? utilized in a proper way. These countries can export to the darkened countries and www.ijar.org.in 126 International Journal of Academic Research ISSN: 2348-7666; Vol.3, Issue-12(2), December, 2016 Impact Factor: 4.535; Email: [email protected]
vice versa. It may possible by all the nations make effort get together with integration of world nations like UNOtowards eliminate power crisis and wars in this regard.Globalism should be replaced in Nationalism forfull moon in all nights. References
1. "Musharraf for emergency measures to overcome energy crisis". Associated Press of Pakistan. Retrieved 2008-02- 10.[dead link] 2. "Energy crisis upsets platinum market". Nature. Retrieved 2008-02- 21. 3. Coal shortage has China living on the edge". Retrieved 2008-03-08. 4. "How long till the lights go out?". The Economist. 6 August 2009. Retrieved 31 August2009. 5. DOE Hirsch Report 6. Vittorio E. Pareto, Marcos P. Pareto. "The Urban Component of the Energy Crisis"(PDF). Retrieved 2008- 08-13. 7. "Super Fuel: Thorium, The Green Energy Source For The Future", Macmillan, (c) 2012. 8. Firzli, M. Nicolas J. (6 April 2014). "A GCC House Divided: Country Risk Implications of the Saudi-Qatari Rift". Al-Hayat. London. Retrieved 29 December 2014. 9. Bloomberg New Energy Finance, UNEP SEFI, Frankfurt School, Global Trends in Renewable Energy Investment 2011 10. Bergin, Tom (January 30, 2008). "High Oil Prices Boost Energy Efficiency - Report". www.planetark.org. Retrieved 2015-10-26.
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An overview on Climate Change and Renewable Energies: Issues and Challenges in India
Dr. K. Radha Pushpavathi, Vice Principal & Reader in Economics, S.K.S.D Mahila Kalasala UG & PG (A), Tanuku Abstract: The energy needs to be available at cheaper rates, at least on par with conventional energy sources. This requires a fillip in Research and Development to find cost effective technologies to make available these sources at affordable prices. Secondly, lack of institutional support at the grassroots to promote and maintain programmes relating to these sources. The other important impediment is lack of awareness among the rural community and a lopsided and irrational subsidy policy. The renewable energy excluding electricity is expected to contribute only 5-6 per cent of India’s energy mix by 2031-32. This may not be much in the total energy but helps in reducing carbon emissions and mitigate the climate changes besides providing energy security in India. Keywords: climate change, human induce, Research and Development
Introduction: change is mainly due to the excessive use of fossil fuels largely by the developed Often the terms of global warning countries. Notwithstanding the difference and climate change are interchangeably of opinion whether the developed or used and misunderstood. The term developing countries are responsible for climate change is preferable to global the increased levels of Green House warming. Global warming means heating Gases (GHGs), there is adequate evidence of the Earth beyond normal limits all that the developed nations omitted most over the world. Climate change means of the anthropogenic greenhouse gases broader set alterations in climate into the atmosphere1. The main comment patterns which in its real sense include of greenhouse gases is the Carbon warming as well as cooling trends and Dioxide (Co ). The Carbon emission is a other meteorological variability. The 2 result of the combustion of fossil fuels. main focus of the global environment to- The industrialized and developed day is on the climate change. Climate countries with 20 per cent of world change is of two types. One is natural and population accounts for 80 per cent of the other is human induced. Climate emissions while the developing countries change is presently considered as a global with 80 per cent of population accounts phenomenon which requires global for only 20 per cent of the cumulative initiatives both for its prevention as well emissions since 17512. During the 20th as for mitigating its effects. It has been Century the carbon emissions rose well accepted by almost all the scientists phenomenally due to the acceleration of in the World that human induced climate www.ijar.org.in 128 International Journal of Academic Research ISSN: 2348-7666; Vol.3, Issue-12(2), December, 2016 Impact Factor: 4.535; Email: [email protected] economic growth, especially in the USA is about 20 tons followed by Canada, developed nations. Russia, Germany, Japan and South Korea while India and China ranks the least by It is estimated that the global having only 1.2 and 3.8 tons respectively carbon emissions increased by 27 per cent in 2004. However, it is forecast that between 1990 and 2004 and has been developing countries like India and China projected to increase by about 59 percent contributed these emissions much larger between 2004- 2030. The carbon and faster than the developed Countries emissions and their per capita of select by 2030. It is pertinent to note that the countries in 2004 are presented in Table- annual Co emission from the Non-OECD 1. 2 countries during 2005 to 2030 is five It may be noted from the Table times higher than the projected increase that per capita carbon emissions of all the of the OECD countries3. According to developed countries is much higher than International Energy Agency, in recent that of the developing countries. For years, China surpassed instance, the per capita consumption of
Table – 1: Total and Per capita Carbon Emissions in Select Countries 2004
Name of the Total Per capita Sl.No. Country (Million Tons) (Million Tons) 1 USA 5988 (1) 20.4 (1) 2 China 5010 (2) 3.8 (9) 3 Russia 1617 (3) 11.2 (3) 4 India 1343 (4) 1.2 (10) 5 Japan 1286 (5) 10.1 (5) 6 Germany 886 (6) 10.7 (4) 7 Canada 593 (7) 18.5 (2) 8 U. K 562 (8) 9.4 (7) 9 Italy 490 (9) 8.5 (8) 10 South Korea 466 (10) 9.8 (6)
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US as the biggest Co2 emitter and increase in global average temperatures India would overtake Russia to become since the mid – 20th Century is very likely the third largest emitter. At present more due to the observed increase in than half of the global carbon emissions anthropogenic greenhouse gas are generated by the developing concentrations. Discernible human countries. It is really surprising to note influences now extend to other aspects of that the developing and least developed climate, include ocean warming, countries accounted for about 73 per cent continental average temperatures, of global emissions growth in 20044. Of temperature extremes and wind course, whether greenhouse gases, patterns5. It is to be noted that the particularly the carbon emissions are current atmospheric concentration is caused by developed or developing equivalent to a concentration of 430 ppm countries, they are bound to cause (particles per million) referred to as Co2e climate changes and climate changes will Carbon Dioxide equivalent. have far reaching effects on life, The past three decades were the livelihoods and on sustainable hottest in terms of global average near development especially in the developing surface temperature since the mid–1800. economies though their magnitude and The global averaged surface timing of occurrence vary. temperatures have increased at about Effects of Climate Change: 0.7oC over the 20th Century would bring changes in the environment. It is Effects on Temperature: estimated that the temperature increases Though we cannot attribute the between 1.1 and 6.4oC by the end of this entire rise in temperature to the climate century. This is two to ten times more changes, definitely an increase in warming than the 20th Century. The anthropogenic greenhouse gases is also scientists and environmentalists are very responsible for the rise in the growth of much worried that at the present level of temperature. It is to be noted that atmospheric concentrations of 430 ppm climate changes and the resultant rise in Co2e, the stabilization of temperatures temperatures caused due to global becomes a big challenge. warming and greenhouse gases occur Economic Effects: with a time lag. The average temperature growth over the last Economists have been making hundred years has risen to the level of attempts to measure the effects of global 0.7o C. A part of this growth in warming and climate change by using the temperature may be natural and the rest cost benefit analysis. The cost benefit of it is due to anthropogenic emissions. analysis weighs the cost of policy For instance, the Intergovernmental interventions and the benefits of damages Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) stated avoided. However, it is difficult to value in 2007 that most of the observed and monetize social, ecological and www.ijar.org.in 130 International Journal of Academic Research ISSN: 2348-7666; Vol.3, Issue-12(2), December, 2016 Impact Factor: 4.535; Email: [email protected] political issues. But still economists are tropical and sub - Tropical regions, making attempts to estimate using spread of pests and vector – borne discount rates6. The economic effects of diseases etc. All this may lead to loss in climate change can be divided as two agriculture production and productivity categories - predicted and less predicted. ultimately threatening food security to Damages of loss of land area, damages or the world’s most vulnerable people living disruption of water supplies, health mostly in the developing countries. It is damage, increased cost and loss of to be noted that agriculture impacts are agricultural output etc. are the predicted country and area specific. Studies show effects. According to IPCC studies, the that in the United States of America the negative effects of climate change are impacts of climate change in mid-latitude larger than the positive effects as the countries are likely to be beneficial for emissions and temperature increase year most of this century. However, they are to year. Estimates show that a 2.5oC likely to be harmful towards the end of increase in temperature leads to a loss of present century. Similarly there will be 1 to 1.5 per cent of GDP in developing harmful impacts to agriculture in countries. It may be noted that the African, Latin American countries and economic effects and losses and the costs China. (Kurukulasuriyan and of damage control are large in the case of Mendelssohn, 2008.) The developing developing countries compared to countries are more vulnerable to climate developed countries. Besides several change as they have a larger share of economic effects, the effect of climate their economies in agriculture and change on agriculture is more evident forestry. and large in magnitude. Other sectors of Other Effects: the economy that were expected to be damaged are timber, water energy, Climate change in some cases coastal and recreation. may not affect the global economy but may reduce the quality of life. Climate Impact on Agriculture: change causes changes in the ecosystem Climate change impacts and in turn it does lead to changes in the agriculture as climate change results in range of animals. Endangered species changes in weather patterns, impacts on may be lost due to climate change. agricultural production, potentially Climate change may also induce health reducing crop yields and forcing farmer’s hazards and extreme events may lead to to adopt new agricultural practices. Policy Instruments: Agriculture is affected due to the unpredictability of weather, shifting Though there is a wide climatic and agro – ecological zone, divergence in the forecasts and estimates increasing the imbalance of food of timing, occurrence and magnitude of production between cool and temperate, damages due to global warming and
www.ijar.org.in 131 International Journal of Academic Research ISSN: 2348-7666; Vol.3, Issue-12(2), December, 2016 Impact Factor: 4.535; Email: [email protected] climate change, the impending dangers reduced by controlling pollution activities and disastrous effects of climate change by imposing a tax. On this theoretical cannot be totally ruled out. Therefore, it premise carbon taxes have been is necessary to formulate and initiate suggested in recent years to control some measures and methods to abate or global pollution. Carbon tax is nothing minimize the negative impacts on the but charging a unit tax on the pollutant – people and on the economies, especially carbon or the fossil fuels. This tax is on the developing countries. These levied on the fossil fuels used in the measures can be divided into two production process or other uses in categories – (1) preventive measures and proportion to the carbon content. It helps (2) adaptive measures. The objective of in conserving the energy and also shifting preventive measures is to reduce the of consumers and producers from high emission of greenhouse gases and to carbon to low (or no) carbon sources of promote carbon sinks. The aim of energy. Global experience shows that adaptive measures is to provide consumers respond positively to carbon protection or alternative practices to taxes by reducing energy use and prefer avoid the negative impacts of climate to buy goods with less carbon content. change. Sometimes institutions can also Pollution taxes or carbon taxes are in be established to implement practices tune with the principle of economic necessary to avoid the ill effects and also efficiency and environmental protection. to mobilize resources meant for The revenue thus raised can be utilized utilization to minimize the negative for rural electrification in a developing impact. The choice in between these two country or can be utilized for developing measures preventive and adaptive – innovative energy saving technologies. Of depends upon the cost – effectiveness of course, this instrument likely to rise the respective measure which is again prices of goods and services and may based on Cost – Benefit analysis. On the become a burden to the people. basis of empirical analysis, economists Subsidies: preferred market based instruments or approaches like the pollution taxes, This fiscal instrument was also subsidies, transferable or tradable suggested by A.C.Pigou long back to permits besides adoption of renewable reduce pollution there by reducing energy and energy efficient technology. greenhouse gases. Subsidies can be used to adopt clean technology or can be Pollution Taxes: provided as a fiscal incentive to non – A.C. Pigou suggested that carbon based fuels. In other words, pollution can be controlled by imposing a subsidies or enhancement of existing tax on the production of goods generating subsidies for generation and use of pollution. As greenhouse gases are renewable energy sources will help in resulted due to pollution, they can be
www.ijar.org.in 132 International Journal of Academic Research ISSN: 2348-7666; Vol.3, Issue-12(2), December, 2016 Impact Factor: 4.535; Email: [email protected] checking the magnitude of greenhouse Moreover, there is a mutual blaming in gases. between developed countries and developing countries regarding the Tradable Permits: nature and quantum of carbon releases. Tradable Permits or tradable As has been stated above already, while carbon permits are another important the developing countries are releasing instrument to reduce carbon emissions. carbon, emissions only in recent decades, In their approach carbon permits or the developed nations have been doing credits are fixed at the firm, national and the worst for the last several centuries. international levels. These entities can Several developing countries like China, undertake trading among themselves. In Brazil and India have per capita other words once the carbon permits of a emissions far less than that of the firm or country are fixed, they can developed nations. So the developing undertake buying and selling of carbon nations blame the developed nations as credits highly polluting countries can buy responsible for the accumulations of unused credits from those firms or greenhouse gases. The developed nations countries which are allowed to make in turn blame that the developing nations more emissions than they are actually with their huge population and Methane emitting. This transfer of allowances is generation are responsible for the GHGs referred as trade accumulation. In fact it is really Research and Development: surprising that China surpassed US as the biggest Co2 estimator and Indian will Government need to allocate soon overtake Russia to become the third adequate financial resources on Research largest emitter. It is also estimated that and Development to invent innovative more than half of the global emissions and alternative non-carbon energy come from less developed countries10. It is technology. Also it is equally important to now evident that developing countries are bring the alternative technology for wide not lagging believed in contributing large application. Such a technology will reduce quality to the greenhouse bases the economic costs. The new technology accumulation in the near future. For need to be available at competitive, instance, the CO2 emissions of India have affordable and comparable prices approximately doubled during the period compared to fossil fuels. 1990-2004. Similarly, same is the case Carbon Emissions Controversy: with China. That is the reason why U.S. has demanded at the Bali Conference Though there is a consensus that cuts in GHG emissions by India and the above market based instruments need China even without ratifying Kyoto to be used to reduce carbon emissions, Protocol. It may be noted that if us there exists lot of variance among succeeds in its attempts to force India to countries in their implementation. reduce emissions further, the rate of www.ijar.org.in 133 International Journal of Academic Research ISSN: 2348-7666; Vol.3, Issue-12(2), December, 2016 Impact Factor: 4.535; Email: [email protected] growth of GDP will be slowed down. member countries agreed that the There may be some uncertainty about the Conference of the Parties (COP), the climate change potential of the supreme decision making body of developing countries but their high UNFCCC, would meet regularly to hold vulnerability of climate change is very discussions for mitigating climate change. certain. Therefore, it is necessary to In 1995 the COP at its first meeting in initiate some measures to mitigate Berlin resolved that there was a need to climate change by all the nations in the fix compulsory targets for reduction of world. Carbon emissions. The Kyoto Protocol to the UNFCCC was adopted on 11th Global Initiatives: December 1997 at the 3rd meeting of the The world nations for the first Conference of the {arties. According to time expressed their concern about the Article 3 of the Kyoto Protocol, Annex-I impact of climate change on human (developed) countries committed to activities in 1979 at the World Climate reduce GHG emissions by at least 5 per Conference (WCC). The establishment of cent below the 1990 level by 2012. So far Intergovernmental Panel on Climate 107 countries signed and ratified the Change (IPCC) by the UNEP and the protocol. In the absence of US ratification World Meteorological Organization and consequent upon its withdrawal in (WMO) inn 1988 is a mile stone with 2001, Russia’s ratification became regard to climate change. The IPCC important to meet the 55 per cent released four Assessment Reports in conditionality for bringing the Protocol 1990, 1995, 2001 and 2007. The first into force from 16th February 2005. Assessment Report, 1990 was instrumental and influential for the development of the United Nations Renewable Energy Sources: Framework Convention on Climate There is no difference of opinion Change (UNFCCC) which was adopted at that the consumption of conventional the Earth Summit in 1992. As per this energy is leading to high level of carbon document, 154 countries besides the emissions resulting in global warming European Community agreed to stabilize and climate change. Huge amount of the GHG concentrations in the money is being invested in the energy atmosphere at a level that would present sector both for infrastructure and dangerous anthropogenic interference consumption. For instance, an amount of with the climate system11. Subsequently US $ 200-250 billion is invested in energy the Global Environment Facility (GEF) related infrastructure annually and as a joint venture of the UNDP, the UN another US $ 1.5 trillion is being spent on Environment Programme (UNEP) and energy consumption. Of the total the World Bank was established. The Rio consumption of energy sources, meeting assumed significance as the approximately 82 per cent comes from www.ijar.org.in 134 International Journal of Academic Research ISSN: 2348-7666; Vol.3, Issue-12(2), December, 2016 Impact Factor: 4.535; Email: [email protected] non-renewable energy sources while only manufacturers, and 50 PV systems 18 per cent comes from non-renewable manufacturers. A solar power plant (50 sources of energy in the world. KW capacity) was installed at Gurgaon in Haryana state. Governmental efforts India has a huge quantity of have become successful in the use and renewable energy resources. It has one of application of solar thermal extension the largest programmes in the world for programmes. For instance, sale of more generating renewable sources of energy. than 2 lakh solar cookers and setting up It has been well recognized by world of 10,000 street lighting systems in nations that Renewable Energy villages in solar photo-voltaic technology Technologies as the best choice to provide reveal this fact. The harnessing of solar energy security and to protect the energy in India is quite progressive yet a environment in general and climate lot has to be done in future. change in particular. The most popular renewable energy sources which are Wind Energy: commercially and technically feasible to India is the second largest exploiter of adopt are – solar, wind, bio-mass, small wind energy next only to USA in the hydro, bio-diesel, Ocean Thermal Energy World. It was expected that by mid 1990s Conversion (OTEC), tidal energy, geo- the sub-continent was installing more thermal energy etc., A more detailed wind generating capacity than several explanation about important sources of countries like North America, Denmark, renewable energy in India is not out of Britain and the Netherlands. The Indian place. government has offered several economic Solar Energy: and fiscal incentives for the promotion of wind energy. The ten machines near Sun is the ultimate source of Okha in Gujarat were some of the wind energy directly or indirectly. The solar turbines installed in India. By 2006, an energy of received by the earth space is installed capacity of 4,430 MW was appropriately 1.4 kilojoules / second / m2 generated by wind energy. known as solar constant. Solar energy is used for purposes live solar heat The wind energy potential in India is collectors, solar cells, solar cookers, solar about 46,092 MW and the following Table water heaters, solar plants etc. India has shows the state wise wind power a huge solar potential due to its potential in 2006. Wind energy has geographical situation. The sunniest several advantages compared to the parts are located in between Kolkata and energy from fossil fuels. Following Table- Chennai. India has an expanding solar 2 shows a comparison between the two energy sector with 9 solar cell kinds of energies. manufacturers, 22 PV module
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Table – 2: The Potential of Wind Energy in Different States in India
State Gross Potential (MW) Andhra Pradesh 9063 Gujarat 7161 Karnataka 7362 Kerala 1026 Madhya Pradesh 4978 Maharashtra 4519 Orissa 1520 Rajasthan 6672 Tamil Nadu 4159 West Bengal 32 TOTAL 46,092 Total No. of Stations in operation at 59 the end of February 2006 Total No. of Stations closed down in 1 March 2006 Total No. of Stations Commissioned 1 in March 2006 Total No. of stations in operation as 59 on 31st March 2006 Source: Global Energy Network Institute (GENI), Overview of Renewable Energy Potential of India, www.geni.org Bio Mass: It is the organic matter produced by plants and animals. It includes wood, cattle dung, manure, crop residues, sewage and agricultural wastes etc. The most important forms of biomass pulp and paper residues in forestry and manure. As biomass is considered to be a good substitute to fossil fuels, the Kyoto Protocol encourages further use of this energy source. Energy is produced by using biomass by different methods of combustion, gasification, fermentation and anaerobic digestion. Biogas and bio fuels can be generated with biomass. Biogas is a mixture of methane, carbon dioxide, hydrogen and hydrogen sulplide. It is produced by anaerobic degradation of animal wastes in the presence of water. India with a cattle population of 240 million has large potential for biogas production. It is estimated that from cattle dung about 22,500 Mm3 biogas can be produced annually.
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Table – 3: Comparison Between Fossil Fuels and Wind Energy
Item Wind Fossil Fuel Availability Usable as it exists Have to be procured and made usable through laborious and environmentally damaging Processes Limitation on Inexhaustible resource Limited in reserves, expected availability to be completely exhausted in the coming 60 years Transportation Used where it is available or Has to be transported from its transported where needed source site for further processing, exposing the environment to pollution from accidents Environmental Zero emission Used in producing electricity, effect of use releasing greenhouse gasses
Geo-political Reduces our reliance on oil, Over-reliance on oil as a implications safeguarding national resource has undermined security. Allows for self- India’s energy security, e.g. sufficiency. There is no OPEC crises of 1973, Gulf War adverse effect on global of 1991 and the Iraq War of environment. The whole 2003. system is pollution free and Environment friendly. Source: Global Energy Network Institute (GENI), Overview of Renewable Energy Potential of India, www.geni.org Hydro Power: promote mini-hydro power projects by extending financial and fiscal incentives. This is nothing but generating For instance, IREDA finances up to 75 electricity by constructing mini or micro per cent of the project cost at hydel power plants across rivers in the concessional rate of interest and buy back hilly regions. Hydro power generation arrangement with State Electricity does not cause any pollution and India Boards. Presently, has an estimated potential of about 4 x 10 KWh. So far we have utilized abut only Ocean Thermal Energy (OTE): 11 per cent of the potential. Government Ocean thermal energy can be of India announced various measures to generated due to the difference in
www.ijar.org.in 137 International Journal of Academic Research ISSN: 2348-7666; Vol.3, Issue-12(2), December, 2016 Impact Factor: 4.535; Email: [email protected] temperature of surface water of the sources in India as may be seen in the tropical oceans and deeper levels. For following Table. A perusal of the Table constructing power plants a minimum of implies that there is a wide gap between the estimated potential and the energy 20 C is required. However, in India no installed capacity of these sources. It is fruitful attempts have been made to interesting to note that the sum of these harness this source of energy. recourses potential is about 1.52 lakh Geothermal Energy: MW which is greater than the current total energy generating capacity in India. Geothermal energy means The growing threat of climate change all harnessing energy from the hot rocks over the world including India, the underneath the earth. In several places in domestic supply of fossil fuels, the energy crisis especially the rural energy crisis, to the world, there exist steam fields with diversify energy sources and to provide high pressure and high temperature. energy security, renewable energy Though it is yet to be explored in India, sources assume lot of significance in the several geothermal plants are working energy sector. In spite of several successfully in USA and New Zealand. It programmes implemented by requires advances in Research and Government of India, the impact of these Development to explore this source fully programmes is rather marginal. There is large gap betweenthe potential and in the world. energy generated in India which is shown Government Initiatives: in Table-4 The economic, social and economic and This is due to several bottlenecks with environmental benefits of renewable regard to exploration, application, energy sources have been well recognized especially in the rural areas, and by several countries like Germany, Spain, implementation of the renewable and Japan etc. Government of India also programmes. One important problem is has been encouraging these energies by huge capital and per unit cost of various establishing, Indian Renewable Energy Development Agency (IREDA) in 1987. sources of renewable energy as shown in The main objective of IREDA is to the following Table-5. promote, develop and finance new and Conclusion: renewable energy technologies with the help of World Bank and the Global The main focus of global environment Environment Fund (GEF). It has today is on the climate change. The initiated “India Renewable Resources human induced climate change is mainly Development Project” to develop wind, solar and hydro power projects besides due to excessive use of fossil fuels and the encouraging direct foreign investment resultant carbon emissions mainly by the and collaborations. In spite of these developed nations. While the increase of efforts, there is a wide gap between the carbon emissions was 27 per cent estimated potential and the installed between 1990-2004, it was expected to capacity of important renewable energy rise by 59 per cent during 2004-2030.
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Table: 4 The Estimated Potential and the Cumulative Achievements of Different Solar Energy Sources in India.
Estimated Cumulative Sl.No. Source Units Potential achievements 1. Solar Power 50,000 MW 2.92 2. Bio Power 16,881 MW 524.80 (agro & Plantation) 3 Wind Power 45,195 MW 7092.00 4 Small Hydro Power 15,000 MW 1975.00 (up to 25 MW) 5. Waste to Energy 7000 MW 43.45 6 Co-generation (bagasse) 5000 MW 615.83 7. Family Type Biogas Plants 120 In Lakh 38.90 Source: Govt. of India, Eleventh Five year Plan, III volume, P. 386
Table-5: Capital and Unit Costs of Electricity Generated
Sl. Source Capital cost Unit cost No. (cr. Rs. Per (Rs. Per KWh) MW) 1. Small Hydro Power 5.0 – 6.0 1.50 – 2.50 2. Wind Power 4.0 – 5.0 2.00 – 3.00 3. Biomass Power 4 – 0 2.50 – 3.50 4. Biagasse Co-generation 3.5 2.50 – 3.50 5. Biomass gasifier 1.94 15.00 – 20.00 6. Solar Photovoltaic 26.5 2.50 – 7.50 7. Energy from Waste 2.50 – 10.00 2.50 – 7.50 Source: Govt. of India, Eleventh Five year Plan, III volume, P. 387 There exists a wide variation of countries. While the mitigation costs of per capita carbon emissions between the climate change run into hundreds of developed and developing nations trillion dollars, drastic policies of including India. It is forecast that the mitigation and abatement will have a developing countries especially India and negative impact on the growth of Gross China are emitting larger and faster Domestic Product especially in the case of carbon emissions compared to developed developing countries. The developing counties by 2030. Hence the need to use countries need to depend upon market both preventive and adaptive measures based solutions. Moreover, the world both by the developed and developing nations have a responsibility to increase www.ijar.org.in 139 International Journal of Academic Research ISSN: 2348-7666; Vol.3, Issue-12(2), December, 2016 Impact Factor: 4.535; Email: [email protected] the momentum in the negotiations 6. Nordhans, W.D and J.G.Boyer (2000) relating to ratification of Kyoto Protocol – warming the world: Economic and implementation of flexible Models of Global Warming, Cambridge, M.A: MIT Press. mechanism-Joint Implementation, Clean Development Mechanism and Emission 7. Reddy, B.S. and Gandens B. Asseza Trading. Another important challenge (2009) - climate change-A developing faced by developing economics is adopting country Perspective, IGIDR, Mumbai, un-published paper. mitigation policies of climate change in a framework of Sustainable Development. 8. International Energy Agency (2008)- Another problem faced by the developing op.cit. countries is whether they should spend 9. International Energy Agency (2005)- their scarce resources to avoid the World Energy Outlook, 2005 impacts of climate change in the context France.OECD http://www.globalcarbonproject.org of several kinds of vulnerability on social and economic fronts. Adoption of energy 10. UN Framework Convention on efficiency policies are very much needed Climate Change-text of convention on to reduce carbon emissions climate Change, 1992 Government of India,-
Economic survey 2009-10. References: 11. Government of India,-Economic 1. United Nations Environment survey 2009-10, P.293. Programme (2005) – Vital Climate 12. Non-Conventional Energy Change Graphics – A spanner in Development Corporation of Andhra the climate wheel, a UNEP/GRID – Pradesh, Hyderabad. Arendl Publication. 13. Global Energy Network Institutions 2. Global Carbon Project (2008)-Carbon (2006) -Overview of Renewable Budget and Trends (2007), Energy Potential of India, op, cit. (http://www.globalcarbonproject.org) 14. Government of India,-eleventh five 3. International Energy Agency (2008)- year plans, planning commission, International Energy Out look 2008, Vol.3, P.388. Chapter 7, Energy Information, Administration, (2008). 4. Raupach Michael R and others (2007)- “Global and regional Drivers of
Accelerating Co2 Emissions,”Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, Vol, 104, No.24, PP.10288-10293. 5. IPCC (2007)-Summary for Policy Makers, P.10. www.ijar.org.in 140 International Journal of Academic Research ISSN: 2348-7666; Vol.3, Issue-12(2), December, 2016 Impact Factor: 4.535; Email: [email protected]
Energy and Sustainable development
Dr.K. Lalitha, Prof & Dean, Guntur Engineering College, Guntur, AP K.Subbalakshmi, Lecturer in Commerce, SDMSMK, Vijayawada,AP Abstract: Energy has been universally recognized as one of the most important inputs for economic growth and human development. Energy has long played a central role in the development and functioning of the world’s economy. An essential input to agricultural production, transportation, industry, commerce and the home, reliance on energy will continue to grow as world population increases and standards of living improve. The trend towards increased mobility, urbanization and an integrated global economy will further accelerate our energy use and dependence. The three most basic drivers of energy demand are economic activity, population and technology. Longer- term trends in economic growth for a particular economy depend on underlying demographic and productivity trends, which in turn reflect population growth, labor force participation rate, productivity growth, national savings rate. The factors such as new technology innovations, majority of the world’s population has become urbanized, with the largest urban centers emerging in developing regions where energy access is a serious constraint. This paper focuses on identifying the sustainable energy systems, challenges in implementing the systems, promoting the development of sustainable energy systems.
Keywords: Energy, sustainable development, energy systems without compromising the ability of Introduction future generations to meet their own Energy is a basic necessity for survival needs. The major steps towards this goal and a critical factor affecting economic was in the form of educating world people development and employment. Energy about need and importance of crisis has drawn attention of planners, on environmental soundness which came in the impact of energy costs on economic the form of “Earth Summit ’92” at Rio growth, industrial production, De Janeiro in1992. Environmental employment, etc. Most of the regions in education played very crucial role in the developing countries depend on bio- conserving resources and promoting resources. Deforestation and ecologically viable technologies which the desertification are threatening traditional key for sustainable development. energy sources and subsistence pattern of agriculture, thus starving the rural sector of biomass fuels at the same time more Identifying sustainable energy systems efficient energy sources are needed for Sustainability and Energy the sustainable development of a region. Sustainability and sustainable The term sustainable development was development are difficult terms to mentioned by the UN Bruntland describe from a technical and committee to describe a development, quantitative standpoint. No matter how which satisfies the needs of the present sustainability is defined or measured, a
www.ijar.org.in 141 International Journal of Academic Research ISSN: 2348-7666; Vol.3, Issue-12(2), December, 2016 Impact Factor: 4.535; Email: [email protected] sustainable socio-economic system will In practice, this gradual, efficiency- require a sustainable energy oriented approach directs us to look for infrastructure. Energy extraction, ways to reduce environmental impacts production, distribution, use and by- and improve efficiency along the entire products are central to the interaction energy “supply-chain.” Energy, and its between humans and the environment. economic value, is lost at every Although experts debate the conversion step, with every kilometer of sustainability of our global fossil fuel- transport, often with every day or week based energy infrastructure, it seems of storage. Each loss or inefficiency, clear that our generation is extracting requires that the “upstream” energy resources and filling the earth’s infrastructure be larger or serve fewer atmosphere with the combustion people. When assessing the relative products of fossil fuels faster than they efficiency of components and systems, can be recycled by natural processes. energy professionals can use “life cycle Unless we make fundamental changes in assessment” tools. These consider not our energy nfrastructure, we are likely to only the energy consumption and losses leave future generations with fewer of a device or process, but include the energy resources and a more polluted “imbedded energy” and environmental environment than our generation aspects of the technologies’ manufacture, inherited. transport, use When examining today’s energy systems and disposal. The design of systems we see an extensive network of related which minimize energy losses and activities. For traditional fuels this material requirements alike is commonly includes the collection and transport of referred to as “eco-efficiency.” firewood by household members and small merchants, the production of charcoal in rural areas for transport to The Challenge of Implementing cities, or the collection and drying of Sustainable Energy Systems dung by women and children. When considering commercial fuels there is As societies pursue these options, much more of an infrastructure diversifying their energy sources, their component, both locally and worldwide. generation and distribution There are resources: oil and gas fields, infrastructure, and their end-use coal and uranium deposits, forests, rivers, technologies and practices, they will also wind and sun. There are technologies for face a more subtle challenge: integrating bulk extraction, refinement, energy sources and systems. For transportation and storage. These example, most renewable resources are ultimately reach the end-user as refined intermittent, and cannot be relied upon products, gasoline, kerosene and to generate power or provide fuels exactly electricity for example, ripe for when society requires them. The sun conversion into the final energy service doesn’t shine all day, nor does the wind by another tier of technologies, continuously blow. Rainfall for automobiles and trucks, furnaces and air hydropower may have sharp seasonal conditioners, machine shops, computers variations, or be subject to droughts. and lamps. Droughts also effect the growth of biomass fuels, and many energy crops www.ijar.org.in 142 International Journal of Academic Research ISSN: 2348-7666; Vol.3, Issue-12(2), December, 2016 Impact Factor: 4.535; Email: [email protected] cannot be harvested year-round. The sustainable energy systems are, at the more an energy system relies on most basic level, the transition demands intermittent renewable resources, the skilled people, appropriate policies and more energy positive economic incentives in the system managers will need to find new energy sectors of every country. To storage technologies and develop new ensure that all three are in place requires systems for scheduling the delivery of deliberate–sometimes enlightened–action power from different sources. by government officials, industry leaders More broadly, making the transition to a and international agencies. Below are more diversified (and hopefully more just some of the initiatives that they must sustainable) energy system will require pursue if the transition is to be continuous improvements in both successful. technologies and management systems. Such programs need not be cost Technology and Resource Initiatives The prohibitive however, since without such development and deployment of new initiatives many developing countries energy sources and efficient technologies would need to import greater amounts of is clearly a key element in the transition fuel, and develop a larger, less efficient to a sustainable energy infrastructure. If energy infrastructure. Different energy there is no market demand for these new technologies and management systems sources and technologies, talented will be required by country and region, individuals are unlikely to spend their depending upon available local resources, careers trying to develop them. At skills, and present, market demand is limited by the initial economic, environmental and relatively low cost of fossil fuels and the social conditions. Both developed and relatively high cost of most alternative developing countries will need to make energy sources in most regions. In steady progress in the development and addition to R&D on alternative and introduction of cleaner fossil fuel efficient technologies, there is still an resources and generation technologies; unmet need for R&D on energy systems, renewable energy resources and going beyond the component and small generation technologies; and more system levels to include large portions of efficient end-use technologies. Steady the supply-chain, including a better improvements in fossil, renewable and understanding of multiple intermittent end-use technologies, and their efficiency, resources. Governments and industry can lead us in the direction of a more have numerous ways to promote sustainable global energy system. The research, development and next question we must answer is how to demonstration. For basic research topics develop the management systems, (e.g. basic chemistry, physics, policies and financial incentives to take environmental research and monitoring us in this direction. related to energy production and use), government facilitated R&D appears to Promoting the development of be best. Often the results of this sustainable energy systems research are not profitable to private The key elements for government and firms because they do not lead industry policy-makers help promote the immediately to marketable products, but development and deployment of more they may be very useful to society as a www.ijar.org.in 143 International Journal of Academic Research ISSN: 2348-7666; Vol.3, Issue-12(2), December, 2016 Impact Factor: 4.535; Email: [email protected] whole. “Precompetitive” research is an it harder for governments to regulate area where government and industry environmental and social impacts in the should collaborate. For example, applied energy sector. Valid concerns, both. research to develop and test the Using the electric sector as an example, is feasibility of new technologies and it possible for governments to promote research on energy systems integration long-term investment in a more- may offer the potential for commercial sustainable energy infrastructure in a profits, but may be too risky for any one price competitive energy market? In corporation to undertake alone. Finally, some cases, the answer appears to be yes. when R&D is likely to result in a While increased competition does tend to patentable product or process, the private demand shorter economic paybacks, it sector does not rely on government can also promote innovation and support. accelerate the introduction of more efficient, cleaner technologies. To make Getting Prices Right. Earlier, we pointed sure that competition meets social as well out that prices for fossil fuel sources of as financial goals, governments need to energy are usually lower than prices for make clear and fair rules that penalize alternative fuel sources. Low prices for energy production and service companies conventional energy sources reduce for negative impacts and reward them for incentives for energy producers to good environmental performance. Simply develop alternative energy sources, and stated, a well structured competitive for consumers to use energy more market makes and sells products that do efficiently. Furthermore, diversifying our the job they are claimed to perform, and current energy infrastructure requires protects the environment and the people large capital expenditures at the making and using the products from beginning of the diversification process. harm. These goals may be achieved In exchange, diversified energy systems either by imposing regulations, or may offer lower long-term recurring costs pollution fees and other market for fuel, waste management and waste instruments. disposal. “Performance standards,” which tell industries the environmental goals they Competition and Market Mechanisms for need to meet, may be a more efficient Sustainable Energy Use. When it way for governments to stimulate comes to getting more sustainable energy innovation than “technology standards,” technologies and practices into the which tell industries exactly what marketplace, finding ways to promote technologies or practices they must use to “best practice” behavior in the energy protect the environment. In addition, industry becomes important. Some governments may be able to reduce energy sector analysts believe that industry’s cost of meeting performance increasing global competition, along with standards by using “economic deregulation of the energy markets in instruments” in addition to legal many countries, are driving private obligations. investors to focus on short-term profitability at the expense of long-term Coordinating Long-Term Sustainable investment. They also fear that Energy Development competition and deregulation are making www.ijar.org.in 144 International Journal of Academic Research ISSN: 2348-7666; Vol.3, Issue-12(2), December, 2016 Impact Factor: 4.535; Email: [email protected]
Governments can use performance corporations and consumers must standards and economic instruments to develop policies and practices that meet direct private investment and behavior in both financial goals and broader the energy sector, even when economic, environmental and social competition, privatization and performance goals. Such transitions in deregulation are limiting governments’ both technologies and policies will ability to use more traditional policy require long, sustained efforts. tools. In many countries, state-owned Fortunately, incremental improvements and regulated utilities typically issue in energy use are less disruptive to the long-term forecasts for electricity economy and society-at-large, and offer demand, and follow government- many side benefits. Progress towards a mandated plans to meet this demand. sustainable society is not a sprint, but a These public forecasts and plans inform marathon. The development of a investors and firms about the likely sustainable energy infrastructure will demand for new technologies over the happen as a result of continuous succeeding ten to twenty years. It is not improvement by individuals and clear whether privatized utilities will organizations who have the knowledge continue to provide public forecasts, or and the incentives to take a long-term seek public input on their plans for view. meeting energy demand. References
Conclusion 1. James, Paul; Magee, Liam; Scerri, Energy is an essential component of Andy; Steger, Manfred B. (2015). Urban economic development, and energy sector Sustainability in Theory and Practice:. decisions and practices will play a central London:\ role in determining the sustainability of 2. Routledge.; Liam Magee; Andy development in every country, region and Scerri; Paul James; Jaes A. Thom; Lin sector. At the same time, decisions and Padgham; Sarah Hickmott; Hepu Deng; practices in other sectors have a very Felicity Cahill (2013). "Reframing social direct effect on energy supply and sustainability reporting: Towards an demand options. Energy sector policies engaged approach". Environment, and investments must be coordinated Development and Sustainability. with those in the key energy end-use Springer. sectors: transportation, housing, 3. Lynn R. Kahle, Eda Gurel-Atay, construction and manufacturing. In each Eds (2014). Communicating of these sectors, there are major Sustainability for the Green Economy. opportunities for improving the efficiency New York: M.E. Sharpe. ISBN 978-0- of energy use and developing new 7656-3680-5. technologies and energy supplies. A 4. Obrecht, Matevz; Denac, Matjaz sustainable energy infrastructure will (2013). "A sustainable energy policy for ultimately utilize an extensive range of Slovenia: Considering the potential of energy resources, distribution systems renewables and investment and end-use technologies. Research and costs". Journal of Renewable and development efforts to create these new Sustainable technological and operational options are Energy. 5 (7). doi:10.1063/1.4811283. only the first step. Governments, www.ijar.org.in 145 International Journal of Academic Research ISSN: 2348-7666; Vol.3, Issue-12(2), December, 2016 Impact Factor: 4.535; Email: [email protected]
Trade and Environment: Doha Negotiations and the India
Dr. V. V. S. Rama Krishna, Assistant Professor, Department of Economics, AU Campus- Kakinada Dr. K.V.Ramana Murty, Dept. of Management Studies, AU Campus- Kakinada
Abstract: The Doha Round of negotiations by the WTO (World Trade Organisation) members for the first time explicitly included ‘Trade and Environment’ as part of the negotiating agenda - a need emphasised largely by the European Union and supported by Switzerland, Norway and Japan. After much heated opposition developing countries including India, contrary to their customary stand of not linking trade with non-trade issues, agreed to the inclusion of environment in the negotiating agenda of the WTO framework. Currently, negotiations are taking place through the Committee on Trade and Environment Special Session (CTESS). In particular, Members are instructed to discuss inter alia the relationship between existing WTO rules and specific trade obligations set out in Multilateral Environmental Agreements (MEAs), the reduction or, as appropriate, elimination of tariff and non-tariff barriers to environmental goods and services, the effect of environmental measures on market access, the relevant provisions of the Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS); and labeling requirements for environmental purposes. This paper has examined the linkages between environment and trade and explored the India’s position in international environmental standards in the context of WTO framework.
Key Words: World Trade Organisation, Environmental Goods and services, Market access, Eco-labelling 1. Introduction: States law banning imports of tuna from Mexico. The U.S. Marine Mammal World trade expansion has raised Protection Act prohibited tuna fishing the issue of the relationship between methods that killed large numbers of trade and the environment. Is trade good dolphins, and banned tuna imports from or bad for the environment? The answer countries that used such fishing methods. is not obvious. The production of goods The Mexican government argued that this that are imported and exported, like other U.S. law was in violation of the rules of production, will often have environmental the General Agreement on Tariffs and effects. But will these effects increase or Trade (GATT). decrease with expanded trade? Will they According to the free trade affect the exporting nation, the importing principles that provided the basis for nation, or the world as a whole? And GATT and for its successor, the World whose responsibility is it to respond to Trade Organization (WTO), countries environmental problems associated with cannot restrict imports except in very trade? Questions such as these have limited cases such as protection of the received increasing attention in recent health and safety of their own citizens. A years. International attention was first GATT dispute panel ruled that the U.S. focused on these issues in 1991, when the could not use domestic legislation to Mexican government challenged a United protect dolphins outside its own territorial www.ijar.org.in 146 International Journal of Academic Research ISSN: 2348-7666; Vol.3, Issue-12(2), December, 2016 Impact Factor: 4.535; Email: [email protected] limits. Although Mexico did not press for countries are a signatory to a number of enforcement of this decision, the MEAs. Each country should closely tuna/dolphin decision opened a major monitor and participate in the procedures controversy over issues of trade and of the MEAs to benefit from such environment. In a similar case in 1999, agreements. There is a need to identify the World Trade Organization ruled that the MEAs that affect the trade the U.S. could not prohibit shrimp performances of various countries in imports from countries using fishing goods with environmental significance; in methods that killed endangered sea this respect specific attention must focus turtles. The implications of this and the on the Convention on International Trade earlier tuna/dolphin decision could affect in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and many other international environmental Flora, Convention on Biological Diversity, issues, such as forest protection, ozone Montreal Protocol, and Basel Convention. depletion, hazardous wastes, and global climate change. All these issues are linked 3. Environmental goods and services: to international trade. Even after liberalisation, there is little potential for exports of EGS 2. Trade and MEAs: (Environmental Goods and Services) The core concern on environment taking place from South Asian countries in the Doha mandate is the harmonisation to saturated developed country markets. of WTO laws with trade measures in There would be more potential for these Multilateral Environmental Agreements countries to export to other developing (MEAs). The idea is to fine tune country markets. Also, liberalisation of governance in cases where trade and trade in environmentally preferable environmental issues are interlinked. products (EPPs), such as coir, jute and India with the support of Canada, New bamboo, could generate gains for South Zealand as well as many other countries Asian countries, particularly countries have placed emphasis on the adaptation of like India and Sri Lanka who are principle Standard Trade Obligations (STOs) – that exporters of such goods. During the is, trade measures taken within MEAs to negotiations there is a proposition to ensure their compatibility with WTO include these EPPs, such as organic rules. On the other hand, the EU and products, non-timber forest products and Switzerland support an approach that is related natural products as a category in favour of tweaking WTO laws to ensure under EGS. This would imply an their compatibility with Specific Trade attractive enlargement of the global Obligations in MEAs. After much market for EGS. deliberation, members agreed that STOs Countries like India have already in six MEAs would be married with WTO indicated its support for the expansion of laws. Consensus amongst members was the list of environmental goods. The Doha achieved to include only trade measures Declaration also mandates special explicitly provided for and mandatory attention to environmental products of under the related MEAs. export interest to developing countries Till date only India among South and the special needs and concerns of Asian countries has actively contributed developing and least developed countries and participated in this negotiation. (LDCs) in this regard. Despite all such However, it should be remembered that pronouncements, the lists proposed do not not only India but also other South Asian embrace products of interest to developing www.ijar.org.in 147 International Journal of Academic Research ISSN: 2348-7666; Vol.3, Issue-12(2), December, 2016 Impact Factor: 4.535; Email: [email protected] countries. Prior to the WTO Ministerial in and at the same time, developed countries Hong Kong, two strategies were are also reconsidering their own ‘list’ submitted by WTO Members for the approach in the light of the suggested classification of EGS: the list approach EPA. and the Environmental Project Approach (EPA). The US, EC, Switzerland, New 4. Market access: Zealand and Canada have proposed ‘list’ The issue of market access was approaches to the classification of incorporated into the Doha Declaration as environmental goods on the basis of a CTE (WTO Committee on Trade and listings prepared by Organisation for Environment) mandate because of Economic Cooperation and Development consideration towards developing (OECD) and the Asia-Pacific Economic countries which feared that their products Cooperation (APEC) . would be excluded from the international On the other hand, instead of market due to environmental measures following the submissions of developing implemented by developed countries. In countries with regard to the ‘list’ order to deal with the issue, it was agreed approach, India submitted the EPA that there was a need to examine how (Environmental Project Approach). It environmental measures could be emphasised that the EPA is a rule-based designed by importing countries in a system and that transparency, flexibility manner that and predictability are intrinsic to the was consistent with WTO rules; process. Transparency is ensured by the was inclusive; involvement of the WTO Committee on took into account the capabilities Trade and Environment in the of developing countries, and determination of a set of criteria met the legitimate objectives of concerning the EGS, while flexibility is the importing country. guaranteed by policy space allowed to the According to India’s view, national governments through the developing countries are more vulnerable operations of a Designated National to the adverse effects of environmental Authority. measures on market access and Under this approach, competitiveness. The way forward could environmental goods and services used in be the identification of sector specific environmental projects would qualify for examples of environmental requirements specified concessions for the duration of impacting export performance. Some the project. Such projects would be requirements may generate positive approved by the Designated National spillovers in the form of new trading Authority and could include those opportunities, either through niche endeavouring to meet national or markets for environmentally friendly international environmental targets, products or through competitive facilitating thereby the realisation of advantages arising out of factor national environmental goals and endowments. These provide win-win compliance with bilateral and multilateral opportunities. Other requirements may environmental agreements. The strong affect exports adversely, if not addressed proactive stand taken by India in these properly. particular negotiations is a sign of India’s 5. TRIPS and the CBD: geopolitical power. Other developing The Doha Declaration requires countries are also supporting the EPA, the CTE to review the relevant provisions www.ijar.org.in 148 International Journal of Academic Research ISSN: 2348-7666; Vol.3, Issue-12(2), December, 2016 Impact Factor: 4.535; Email: [email protected] of the WTO Agreement on Trade- Related national Governments, is that it will have Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights a positive impact on the environment. (TRIPS) that contain several environment Although negotiations have continued, related provisions and further discuss the the CTE has produced few tangible relationship between the TRIPS outcomes on the issue. Its work has been Agreement and the CBD (Convention on limited to information collection and Biological Diversity). India is actively analysis of environmental labelling. Some involved in these negotiations and has Asian developing countries, including made several important submissions to India, Indonesia and the Philippines, have the CTE on this issue. According to spoken out on the issue at the CTE India’s proposal, there are two major meeting, and shared the same view as contradictions between the provisions of other developing countries. That is, they CBD and those of the TRIPS Agreement. were reluctant to interpret the WTO The first important contradiction compatibility with environmental is the lack of any requirements for patent labelling in a broad sense; these also reject applications to mention the origin of labelling based on life cycle analysis. biological/genetic resources and Korea and China have had indigenous/traditional knowledge used in some specific concerns with the issue. For the biotechnological invention. The next instance, China has stressed the need for contradiction is the lack of provisions in more time to consider the issue at the the TRIPS Agreement on prior informed CTE meeting without any clarification on consent of the country of origin and the its stance. In this regard, each South knowledge-holder of the biological raw Asian country should first develop its own material meant for usage in a patentable national and voluntary eco-labelling invention. This needs to be reconciled scheme with the help of domestic with Article 15.5 of the CBD. Thus, if any standard-testing bodies to get access to inventor wants to develop such biological niche markets. They could even approach materials for commercial purpose, he or their neighbour, India, for such assistance she would have to get the prior informed given the fact this country has already consent of the country as well as of the established a national eco-label in 1991. owner and enter into agreements with the Also it is vital that all South Asian country of origin. In order to overcome countries do ensure that they actively these contradictions, India has called for take part in international standard an amendment to the TRIPS Agreement setting bodies such as ISO, Codex, etc. to accommodate the essential elements of Further, the analysis of the WTO legal the CBD. Moreover, India fears that there system shows that the WTO applies a test could be several cases of bio-piracy of of legitimacy that is mainly focused on the traditional knowledge associated with danger of protectionism in case of trade biological resources. measures.
6. Eco-Labeling: 7. India’s position on MEAs and Around the world eco-labels are compatibility with WTO: becoming an important addition to the In the Committee on Trade and toolkits of environment regulators. The Environment (CTE), the EU suggested expectation from eco-labelling, by both amendments to GATT that would international organisations such as the incorporate the possibility of trade Global Eco-labelling Network and measures decided on in an MEA, or else a www.ijar.org.in 149 International Journal of Academic Research ISSN: 2348-7666; Vol.3, Issue-12(2), December, 2016 Impact Factor: 4.535; Email: [email protected] confirmation that WTO rules and MEA PPM measures such as those it claimed obligations should be equal in against in US-Shrimp/Turtle. international law and not MEA provisions subordinate to WTO rules, supported by 8. India’s Position on Environmental Switzerland. New Zealand also supported Standards: a kind of incorporation or official Environmental standards are recognition of MEA provisions, but typically set by the importing country to separating between those rules applied to prevent cross-border pollution or harm by members and those to non-members. This some polluting products, mainly under approach is supported by a larger group of SPS and TBT Agreements. Indian countries including ASEAN. India exporters have felt the impact of the however made official statements of its increasing number of these standards and own, maintaining that the existing GATT the growing environmental agenda. India provisions are sufficient for the protection fears that these new issues at the WTO of health and environmental purposes and could negate gains from trade also leave sufficient room for the liberalisation. Some major export application of legitimate environmental industries in India are particularly regulations that are already contained in sensitive to environmental measures existing MEAs. Further, it emphasised abroad, such as textiles and garments, that future MEAs should be formulated so agro-based items, marine products, as to be compatible with WTO rules and pharmaceuticals – these are also be within the scope of GATT Article XX of industries in which industrialised 1994 to ensure the principle of non- countries seek higher environmental discrimination. During the course of standards and regulations. India protests negotiations, it conceded to a MEA-by- against the increasing complexity and MEA analysis (a case by case analysis) to stringency of the environmental accommodate for specific trade obligations requirements that affect its export sector. in some MEAs, if WTO member rights are India claims that importing not disturbed. countries should only seek information on Indian contribution to the MEA PPM when it is traceable in the end negotiations also include that MEAs product, such as pesticides. India claims should ensure “effective participation in that extending the scope to non-product the negotiations by countries belonging to related PPMs such as in the different geographical regions and by Shrimp/Turtle case should not be allowed. countries at different stages of economic In setting standards, India demands that and social development”, all showing the TBT and SPS Agreements must be fear of protectionist measures or strictly adhered to, and developing agreements that could be a disadvantage countries should be involved in for developing countries. India’s negotiations when new standards are set skepticism towards any further so that their conditions can be taken into environmental provision within the WTO, account. Technical and financial even in the form of an official recognition assistance is required and enough of MEAs under the WTO is evident. It adaptation time for developing countries. expects safeguards from the WTO system India claims that decisions on standards and its emphasis on “specific trade are made in developed countries who only obligations” show that India wants to take into account their own factor prevent the use of non-product related endowments, and their availability of www.ijar.org.in 150 International Journal of Academic Research ISSN: 2348-7666; Vol.3, Issue-12(2), December, 2016 Impact Factor: 4.535; Email: [email protected] environmentally friendly substitutes and due to environmental regulations in form technology – whereas developing of product standards. What concerns countries still face problems on global pollution, the Indian government intellectual property rights making access promotes equitable burden sharing and to environmentally friendly technology consideration for developing country difficult. needs. Further, India advocates that ESTs should be transferred to developing 9. India’s position on linking trade and countries in affordable terms. To support environment: its statements, India draws on some of the India’s general position on the arguments already mentioned in this linkage of trade and environment is in thesis. It has claimed that trade line with the overall developing country liberalisation itself has no negative impact perspective. India’s Minister for on the environment, and that the Commerce issued a press release in appropriate response to pollution ought to September 2001 saying that he has be correcting regulation and adopting “underlined the concern of developing better suited technologies, but not countries including India that reversing trade liberalisation. environment was being used as some sort of a Trojan horse to provide legitimacy to 10. Conclusion: protectionist trends” at the WTO It could be said that the WTO negotiations. India has further stated that Committee on Trade and Environment the existing WTO rules on environmental (CTE) has only brought to light the protection are sufficient and that there is changing negotiating positions of no need for further rules to that respect. developing countries but has achieved In the CTE, India has emphasised the precious little apart from that. While right of governments to establish their numerous proposals have been forwarded national environmental and development by developed countries, there have been conditions, needs and priorities, and its very few proposals from developing preference for multilateral solutions in countries to the CTESS (Committee on form of MEAs for global and cross-border Trade and Environment Special Session). pollution cases. Till date, only the negotiations on India emphasises need to target environmental goods have seen some free trade as much as possible and movement with a few countries proposing opposes trade restrictions for lists of environmental goods; many environmental purposes fiercely by developing countries have yet to put emphasising the sovereignty of individual forward their positions. It is quite countries over environmental resources important for South Asian countries to and over domestic environmental come together on the basis of mutual regulations. In the negotiations, India interest and geographic considerations, strongly protests against introduction of and push a common agenda in non-product related PPM standards in negotiations on the Environment. These any WTO agreement. It also opposes countries have a lot in common in their voluntary eco-labeling schemes because of economic situation, environmental their effect on market access of developing concerns and interest in the global country exports. And India seeks market. Since the environment issue has safeguards for developing countries already been recognised as a mandate against restrictions on their market access under Doha negotiations, it is always www.ijar.org.in 151 International Journal of Academic Research ISSN: 2348-7666; Vol.3, Issue-12(2), December, 2016 Impact Factor: 4.535; Email: [email protected] better for the region to discuss and arrive Economic Relations, Working Paper No. at a common position. As of now, the 181 Doha Round of negotiations have not yielded much result with developing and Kumar, S., Chowdhury, N. (2005), Trade developed countries staying poles apart on and Environment at the WTO: the issues of agricultural subsidy and Negotiation Options for Developing market access for industrial goods. Countries, RIS (Research and Information However this does not mean that the System for Developing Countries), RIS- environmental negotiations have come to DP 103 a standstill; members have continued discussions in the CTESS on principal Ojha, V.P. (2001), Trade and issues mandated for negotiation. India Environment: A Developing Countries’ frequently asks for aid and technology Perspective, Rajiv Gandhi Institute for transfer and safeguards for developing Contemporary Studies, RGICS Working countries against protectionist ambitions Paper Series, No. 28 of stronger trading partners. India has a very strict understanding of Sankar, U. (2007), Trade and discrimination, which lead to the fact that Environment – A Study of India’s Leather it rejects some measures such as eco- Exports, Oxford University Press, New labeling that had been found to be good Dehli alternatives. Sawhney, A. (2004), WTO-related Matters References: in Ttrade and Environment, Indian Althammer, W. and Droege, S. (2002), Council for Research on International International Trade and the Economic Relations, Working Paper No. Environment: The Real Conflicts, 133 Handelshochschule Leipzig Working Paper No.55 Srinivasan, T.N. (1993), Environment, Economic Development and International Baughan, S. (2007), International Trade Trade: Some Issues, Center Paper No.477, and the Protection of the Environment, Yale University, Economic Growth Center Routledge- Cavendish, UK
Battacharyya, B. and Mago, L (1998), Trade and Environment Issue in the WTO, the Indian Experience, Indian Institute of Foreign Trade, New Delhi
Frederiksson, P. (1999), Trade, Global Policy, and the Environment, World Bank Discussion Paper No.402
Ghandi, S. (2006), Disciplining Voluntary Environmental Standards at the WTO: An Indian Legal Viewpoint, Indian Council for Research on International www.ijar.org.in 152 International Journal of Academic Research ISSN: 2348-7666; Vol.3, Issue-12(2), December, 2016 Impact Factor: 4.535; Email: [email protected]
Environment and International Trade Dr.D Venkatpathi Raju, Principal, D.N.R School Of Business Management Bhimavararam-534 202 Dr.U Madhuri, Lecturer, Dept. of commerce, D.N.R College, Bhimavaram-534 202
Abstract: World trade expansion has raised the issue of the relationship between trade and the environment. Is trade good or bad for the environment? The answer is not obvious. The production of goods that are imported and exported, like other production, will often have environmental effects. But will these effects increase or decrease with expanded trade? Will they affect the exporting nation, the importing nation, or the world as a whole? And whose responsibility is it to respond to environmental problems associated with trade? Questions such as these have received increasing attention in recent years. Key Words: Environment, International Trade, Importers, Exporters
Introduction: At the international level, however, the International attention was picture is more confused. The burden first focused on these issues in of environmental externalities 1991, when the Mexican government associated with trade may be borne by challenged a United States law banning importers, exporters, or by others not imports of tuna from Mexico. The U.S. directly involved in the production or Marine Mammal Protection Act consumption of traded goods. The prohibited tuna fishing methods that authority to formulate and enforce killed large numbers of dolphins, and environmental policies usually exists banned tuna imports from countries only at the national level. This can that used such fishing methods. The create significant problems when Mexican government argued that this environmental impacts are U.S. law was in violation of the rules of transnational, since most international the General Agreement on Tariffs and trade agreements do not include any Trade (GATT).According to the free provisions for environmental trade principles that provided the basis protection. for GATT and for its successor, the World Trade Organization (WTO), Trade and environment: policy and countries cannot restrict imports practice: except in very limited cases such as protection of the health and safety of Many developing countries grow their own citizens. A GATT dispute agricultural crops for domestic sale as panel ruled that the U.S. could not use well as for export. With increased trade – domestic legislation to protect dolphins which is often a major feature of outside its own territorial limits. structural adjustment policies required by international agencies such as the At the national level, the International Monetary Fund and the standard economic policy response to World Bank – the area devoted to export environmental impacts is to implement crops increases. What are the policies that internalize externalities. environmental effects of shifting to www.ijar.org.in 153 International Journal of Academic Research ISSN: 2348-7666; Vol.3, Issue-12(2), December, 2016 Impact Factor: 4.535; Email: [email protected] export crops? In some cases they can be prerogative to decide what they will allow significant, and harmful. for domestic consumption?
For example, European nations have refused to allow imports of U.S. beef On the other hand, export crops may produced with hormone supplements. sometimes be more environmentally The U.S. has argued that since there is friendly than the domestic crops they no proven harm to human health from replace. In Latin America and Africa, the use of hormones, this is an illegal tree crops such as coffee and cocoa can barrier to trade. The Europeans, help to prevent erosion. In a more however, cite the precautionary controversial case in Kenya, horticulture principle: since they fear the possible (growing flowers for the European effects of hormones, shouldn’t it be their market) provides a high-value export that prerogative to decide what they will allow is claimed to have little negative for domestic consumption? environmental effect, although concerns have recently been raised about the Trade agreements and the environment: health and environmental effects of pesticide use in horticulture. In the What institutions and policies can be Kenyan case, the flowers are flown to effective in balancing the goals of trade Europe by jet, so transportation energy benefits and environmental protection? A use could raise an environmental issue – variety of approaches have been but proponents argue that the energy suggested, some similar to the standard consumed in jet fuel is less than the free trade model, and some which are energy needed to grow similar flowers in significantly different. These approaches heated greenhouses in Europe. include:
According to GATT Article XX, countries The World Trade Organization Approach are allowed to restrict trade in order to “conserve exhaustible natural resources” This approach retains the overarching or to protect “human, animal or plant life policy goal of free or “liberalized” trade, or health.” However, the interpretation pursued for five decades through of this special exception to free trade “rounds” of trade agreements under the rules has led to fiercely contested General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade disputes among countries. (GATT), which became the World Trade Organization in 1994. The GATT and For example, European nations have the WTO, whose membership now refused to allow imports of U.S. beef includes over 120 nations, have worked to produced with hormone supplements. lower tariffs and nontariff barriers to The U.S. has argued that since there is trade, as well as to eliminate subsidies for no proven harm to human health from export industries. the use of hormones, this is an illegal barrier to trade. The Europeans, The North American Free Trade however, cite the precautionary Agreement (NAFTA) Approach: In 1993, principle: since they fear the possible the United States, Canada, and Mexico effects of hormones, shouldn’t it be their signed the NAFTA agreement, lowering trade barriers across the continent. www.ijar.org.in 154 International Journal of Academic Research ISSN: 2348-7666; Vol.3, Issue-12(2), December, 2016 Impact Factor: 4.535; Email: [email protected]
During the negotiations for this in grapevines to prevent the spread of agreement, environmental groups pests that damage vineyards. In 1906 an argued strongly that freer trade international convention was adopted could lead to negative environmental banning the use of phosphorus in consequences, pointing to the severe matches. Phosphorous was responsible environmental problems already affecting for serious occupational disease among the maquiladoras -- tariff-free industrial match workers, but it was the cheapest zones along the Mexican border. As a ingredient for matches. An international result, a side agreement, the North convention was required to prevent any American Agreement on Environmental exporting country from gaining Cooperation (NAAEC), set up the competitive advantage by using tripartite Commission for Environmental phosphorus in match production. public Cooperation (CEC), while another side goods such as biodiversity, protection of agreement, the North American the ozone layer, climate stabilization, and Agreement on Labor Cooperation the protection of oceans and water (NAALC), dealt with labor issues. systems, would be the responsibility of the WEO. The European Union Approach Conclusion: The European Union is unusual in being a free-trade area that has its own Trade expansion can often have legislative and administrative environmental implications. Trade may institutions. Unlike the North increase environmental externalities at American CEC, the European Union has the national, regional, or global level. the power to set environmental standards While it is usually economically which are binding on its member advantageous for countries to pursue countries. This is known as the their comparative advantage through harmonization of environmental trade, environmental impacts such as standards. Note, however, that this policy increased pollution or natural resource involves more than free trade; it entails degradation may also occur as a result of the creation of a supranational authority trade. with the power to set environmental standards. dominated atmosphere of the International trade agreements make WTO standards committees would be some provisions for resource conservation likely to harmonize standards down and environmental protection, but these rather than up in many cases. are usually limited exceptions to a general principle of free trade. In the Multilateral Environmental Agreements World Trade Organization, countries are (MEAs) allowed to take into account the environmental impacts of products, but It has long been recognized that not those associated with production some environmental problems require processes. This has led to numerous international solutions. The first trade disputes over whether specific international treaty dealing with trade measures are justified on the grounds of and the environment was the Phylloxera protection of life and health, or are agreement of 1878, which restricted trade simply disguised protectionism. Where
www.ijar.org.in 155 International Journal of Academic Research ISSN: 2348-7666; Vol.3, Issue-12(2), December, 2016 Impact Factor: 4.535; Email: [email protected] effective environmental protection policies are lacking at the regional or global level, national policies are needed to address trade-related environmental issues. Certification and labeling requirements, instituted by governments or by private non- governmental organizations, can help to promote consumer awareness and “greener” corporate practices in international trade.
References
Brack, Duncan ed. Trade and Environment: Conflict or Compatibility? London: RoyalInstitute of International Affairs, 1998.
Charnovitz, Steve. “Trade Measures and the Design of International Regimes”, Journal of Environment and Development Vol. 5, No.2 (1996), pp.168- 169. Esty, Daniel C. “Bridging the Trade-Environment Divide,” Journal of Economic Perspectives, vol. 15, no. 3 (2001): 353-377. Fredriksson, Per G., ed. Trade, Global Policy, and the Environment. World Bank Discussion Paper No. 402. Washington, D.C.: The World Bank, 1999. Runge, C. Ford. Freer Trade, Protected Environment: Balancing Trade Liberalization and Environmental Interests. New York: Council on Foreign Relations Press, 1994.
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Status of Environment and Wetlands in India - A Review of Extent, Ecosystem Benefits: Threats and Management Strategies
S.Nageswara Rao, Assistant Professor, Delhi School of Economics, University of Delhi, New Delhi – 110 021
Abstract: India has a wealth of wetland ecosystems that support diverse and unique habitats. These wetlands provide numerous ecological goods and services but are under tremendous stress due to rapid urbanization, industrialization and agricultural intensification, manifested by the shrinkage in their areal extent, and decline in the hydrological, economic and ecological functions they perform. This paper reviews the wetland wealth of India in terms of their geographic distribution and extent, ecosystem benefits they provide, and the various stresses they are exposed to. The paper also discusses the efforts at management of these fragile ecosystems, identifies the institutional vacuum and suggests priority area where immediate attention is required in order to formulate better conservation strategies for these productive systems. It has been found that management of wetlands has received inadequate attention in the national water sector agenda. As a result, many of the wetlands are subject to anthropogenic pressures, including land use changes in the catchment; pollution from industry and households; encroachments; tourism; and over exploitation of their natural resources. Further, majority of research on wetland management in India relates to the immunological aspects and ecological/environmental economics of wetland management. But, the physical (such as hydrological and land use changes in the catchment) and socio-economic processes leading to immunological changes have not been explored substantially. Keywords: India; Wetlands; Ecosystem benefits; anthropogenic threats; Institutional strategies.
Introduction: dominant species, and soil and sediment characteristics (Space Applications Wetlands are amongst the most Centre, 2011). Globally, the areal extent productive ecosystems on the Earth of wetland ecosystems ranges from 917 (Ghermandi et al., 2008), and provide million hectares (m ha) (Lehner and Döll, many important services to human 2004) to more than 1275 m ha (Finlayson society (ten Brink et al., 2012). However, and Spiers, 1999) with an estimated they are also ecologically sensitive and economic value of about US$15 trillion a adaptive systems (Turner et al., 2000). year (MEA, 2005). Wetlands exhibit enormous diversity according to their genesis, geographical One of the first widely used wetland location, water regime and chemistry, classifications systems (devised
www.ijar.org.in 157 International Journal of Academic Research ISSN: 2348-7666; Vol.3, Issue-12(2), December, 2016 Impact Factor: 4.535; Email: [email protected] by Cowardin et al., 1979) categorized to urbanization, population growth, and wetlands into marine (coastal wetlands), increased economic activities (Central estuarine (including deltas, tidal Pollution Control Board, 2008). marshes, and mangrove swamps), The negative economic, social, and lacustarine (lakes), riverine (along rivers environmental consequences of declining and streams), and palustarine (‘marshy’ – water quality in wetlands are also an marshes, swamps and bogs) based on issue of concern for India. The problem of their hydrological, ecological and deteriorating water quality is particularly geological characteristics. However, more alarming in the case of small water Ramsar Convention on Wetlands, which bodies such as lakes, tanks and ponds. In is an international treaty signed in 1971 the past, these water sources performed for national action and international several economic (fisheries, livestock and cooperation for the conservation and wise forestry), social (water supply), and use of wetlands and their resources, ecological functions (groundwater defines wetlands (Article 1.1) as “areas of recharge, nutrient recycling, and marsh, fen, peatland or water, whether biodiversity maintenance). Despite all natural or artificial, permanent or these benefits, many decision-makers and temporary, with water that is static or even many of the ‘primary stakeholders’ flowing, fresh, brackish or salt, including think of them as ‘wastelands’. Every one areas of marine water the depth of which claims a stake in them, as they are in the at low tide does not exceed six meters”. open access regime, but rarely are willing Overall, 1052 sites in Europe; 289 sites in to pay for this extractive use (Verma, Asia; 359 sites in Africa; 175 sites in 2001). South America; 211 sites in North America; and 79 sites in Oceania region These freshwater bodies are often subject have been identified as Ramsar sites or to changes in land use in their wetlands of International importance catchments leading to reduction in (Ramsar Secretariat, 2013). inflows and deteriorating quality of the “runoff” traversing through agricultural As per the Ramsar Convention definition fields and urban areas. On the other most of the natural water bodies (such as hand, many of them act as the “sink” for rivers, lakes, coastal lagoons, mangroves, untreated effluents from urban centers peat land, coral reefs) and manmade and industries. Encroachment of wetlands (such as ponds, farm ponds, reservoir area for urban development, irrigated fields, sacred groves, salt pans, excessive diversion of water for reservoirs, gravel pits, sewage farms and agriculture is yet another major problem canals) in India constitute the wetland (Verma, 2001). Lack of conformity among ecosystem. Only 26 of these numerous government policies in the areas of wetlands have been designated as economics, environment, nature Ramsar Sites (Ramsar, 2013). However, conservation, development planning is many other wetlands which perform one reason for the deterioration of these potentially valuable functions are water bodies (Turner et al., 2000). Lack continued to be ignored in the policy of good governance and management are process. As a result many freshwater also major reasons (Kumar et al., 2013a). wetlands ecosystems are threatened and many are already degraded and lost due
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Given this background, the objective of estimates did not include paddy fields, this paper is to review the status of rivers, canals and irrigation channels. wetlands in India, in terms of their Thus, all these early assessments were geographic distribution and areal extent; marred by problem of inadequate the ecosystem goods and services they understanding of the definition and provide; various stresses they are being characteristics of wetlands (Gopal and subject to; and the various legal and Sah, 1995). policy approaches adopted in India for Importance of wetlands: their conservation and management. Wetlands are considered to have unique Distribution and extent of wetlands in ecological features which provide India: numerous products and services to India, with its varying topography and humanity (Prasad et al., 2002). climatic regimes, supports diverse and Ecosystem goods provided by the unique wetland habitats (Prasad et al., wetlands mainly include: water for 2002). The available estimates about the irrigation; fisheries; non-timber forest areal extent of wetlands in India vary products; water supply; and recreation. widely from a lowest of 1% to a highest of Major services include: carbon 5% of geographical area, but do support sequestration, flood control, groundwater nearly fifth of the known biodiversity recharge, nutrient removal, toxics (Space Applications Centre, 2011). These retention and biodiversity maintenance wetlands are distributed in different (Turner et al., 2000). geographical regions ranging from Multiple-use water services: Himalayas to Deccan plateau. Initial attempts to prepare wetland inventory of Wetlands such as tanks, ponds, lakes, and India were made between 1980s and early reservoirs have long been providing 1990s (Table 1). As per the: Country multiple-use water services which include report of Directory of Asian Wetlands water for irrigation, domestic needs, (Woistencroft et al., 1989); and the fisheries and recreational uses; Directory of Indian Wetlands 1993 (WWF groundwater recharge; flood control and and AWB, 1993), the areal spread of silt capture. wetlands in India was around 58.3 m ha. The southern States of Andhra Pradesh, But, Paddy fields accounted for nearly Karnataka and Tamil Nadu have the 71% of this wetland area. However, as largest concentration of irrigation tanks, per the Ministry of Environment and numbering 0.12 million (Palanisami et Forests (1990) estimates, wetlands al., 2010), and account for nearly 60% of occupy an area of about 4.1 m ha, but it India's tank-irrigated area. Similarly, excludes mangroves. The first scientific there are traditional tank systems in the mapping of wetlands of the country was States of Bihar, Orissa, Uttar Pradesh carried out using satellite data of 1992– and West Bengal, accounting for nearly 1993 by Space Applications Centre (SAC), 25% of net tank irrigated area (Pant and Ahmadabad. The exercise classified Verma, 2010). Tanks play a vital role of wetlands based on the Ramsar harvesting surface runoff during Convention definition. This inventory monsoon and then allowing it to be used estimated the areal extent of wetlands to later. Apart from irrigation, these tanks be about 7.6 m ha (Garg et al., 1998). The
www.ijar.org.in 159 International Journal of Academic Research ISSN: 2348-7666; Vol.3, Issue-12(2), December, 2016 Impact Factor: 4.535; Email: [email protected] are also used for fisheries, as a source of municipal, industrial, hydropower, water for domestic needs and nutrient agricultural, and recreational water rich soils, fodder grass collection, and supply; and for flood control (Central brick making. These uses have high value Water Commission, 2009). As per the in terms of household income, nutrition recent estimates, total live water storage and health for the poorest of the poor capacity of completed reservoir projects is (Kumar et al., 2013a). about 225 billion cubic metres (BCM) and the area covered by reservoirs is around Tanks are also very important from the 2.91 m ha (Central Water Commission, ecological perspective as they help 2010). These reservoirs also support a conserve soil, water and bio-diversity wide variety of wildlife. Many of the (Balasubramanian and Selvaraj, 2003). In reservoirs such as Govind Sagar Lake addition, tanks contribute to formed by diverting river Satluj (Bhakra groundwater recharge; flood control and Dam, Punjab) and Hirakud reservoir silt capture (Mosse, 1999). Water from (Sambalpur, Orissa) are a major tourist tanks has also been used for domestic and attraction. livestock consumption. Over the years, the multiple-use dependence on tanks has As per official estimates, tourism only increased (Kumar et al., 2013a). contribution to India's GDP and Similarly, ponds in north-eastern States employment in 2007–2008 was 5.92% and of India are used for fisheries (Sarkar and 9.24% respectively (Government of India, Ponniah, 2005) and irrigating 2012). These are very important numbers homesteads (CGWB, 2011 and Das et al., as wetlands (such as coral reefs, beaches, 2012). reservoirs, lakes and rivers) are considered to be a significant part of the Lakes, such as, Carambolim (Goa); tourism experience and are likely to be a Chilka (Orissa); Dal Jheel (Jammu and key part of the expansion in demand for Kashmir); Deepor Beel (Assam); tourism locations (MEA, Khabartal (Bihar); Kolleru (Andhra 2005 and Ramsar Convention on Pradesh); Loktak (Manipur); Nainital Wetlands and WTO, 2012). Every year, (Uttarakhand); Nalsarovar (Gujarat); and on an average nearly seven million Vembanad (Kerala), have long been tourist visit Kerala's backwaters, beaches providing recreational, tourism, fisheries, and wildlife sanctuaries; three million irrigation and domestic water supply visit Uttarakhand's lakes and other services (Jain et al., 2007a and Jain et al., natural wetlands; one million visit Dal 2007b). These lakes also contribute to Lake; and 20,000 visits Lake Tsomoriri. groundwater recharge and support a rich and diverse variety of aquatic flora and In terms of growth in fish production in fauna. India, wetlands play a significant role. At the moment, majority of fish production Further, surface reservoirs have also in the country is from inland water played an important role in providing bodies (61% of total production), i.e. irrigation and domestic water security in rivers; canals; reservoirs; tanks; ponds; both rural and urban areas. and lakes (Table 2). It increased from Approximately 4700 large reservoirs 0.2 million tonne in 1950–1951 to about (capacity of not less than 1 million cubic 5.1 million tonne in 2010–2011. Carp metre) have been built in India so far for constitute about 80% of the total inland
www.ijar.org.in 160 International Journal of Academic Research ISSN: 2348-7666; Vol.3, Issue-12(2), December, 2016 Impact Factor: 4.535; Email: [email protected] aquaculture production. Presently, the municipal wastewater. A well designed State of West Bengal occupies the constructed wetland should be able to topmost position (30% of total inland fish maintain the wetland hydraulics, namely production) followed by Andhra Pradesh, the hydraulic loading rates (HLR) and Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and Orissa the hydraulic retention time (HRT), as it (Ministry of Agriculture, 2012). Overall, affects the treatment performance of a fisheries accounts for 1.2% of India's total wetland (Kadlec and Wallace, 2009). Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and 5.4% However, one of the major constraints to of total agricultural GDP. field-scale constructed wetland systems in India is the requirement of a relatively In India too, wetlands are polluted large land area that is not readily through agricultural runoff and discharge available. Thus, for Indian conditions, of untreated sewage and other waste batch-fed vertical sub-surface flow from urban areas. Under normal wetlands that require just about 1/100th conditions, wetlands do retain pollutants of land area and 1/3rd HRT than the from surface and sub-surface runoff from surface flow systems have been suggested the catchment and prevent them from (Kaur et al., 2012). entering into streams and rivers. However, because of increased Urbanization and land use changes: urbanization and land use changes, the Between 1951 and 2011, total population nutrient loading in wetlands far exceed in India increased from 0.4 billion to their capacity to retain pollutants and 1.2 billion with an average decadal remove them through nitrification, growth rate of around 22%. During the sedimentation, adsorption, and uptake by 90 year period from 1901 to 1991, the aquatic plants. This adversely affects the number of urban centers doubled while wetland water quality and its urban population has increased eightfold biodiversity. Such wetlands show drastic (Bassi and Kumar, 2012). This magnitude changes in nutrient cycling rates and of growth exerted tremendous pressure species lose (Verhoeven et al., 2006). on wetlands and flood plain areas for Various scholars in India have mainly meeting water and food demand of focused on the usefulness and potential of growing population. Between 1950–1951 constructed wetlands in pollution and 2008–2009, total cultivated land in abatement on experimental scale (Billore India increased from about 129 to et al., 1999, Juwarkar et al., 156 m ha. Also, area under non- 1995 and Kaur et al., 2012). Also, role of agricultural uses (commercial or wetland plants in ameliorating heavy residential use) increased from 9 to metal pollution both in a microcosm and 26 m ha (Data Source: India stat). In natural condition is well established most of the major river basins of India, (Dhir et al., 2009). Typha, the increase in area for both agricultural Phragmites, Eichhornia, Azolla, and non-agricultural use was at the cost and Lemna are some of identified potent of conversion of flood plain areas, wetland plants for heavy metal removal primary forests, grasslands and (Rai, 2008). associated freshwater ecosystems to meet demands of growing population (Zhao et Constructed wetlands are considered to al., 2006). For instance, about 34,000 ha be a viable option for treatment of of the water spread area of the Kolleru
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Lake (Andhra Pradesh) have been industrial and municipal wastewater reclaimed for agriculture in recent years discharges, all of which cause widespread (MoEF, n.d.). eutrophication (Liu and Diamond, 2005 and Prasad et al., 2002). Already, most of the river basins in southern and western India are As a result of intensification of experiencing environmental water agricultural activities over the past four scarcity, which means the discharge in decades, fertilizer consumption in India these basins has already been reduced by has increased from about water withdrawals to such levels that the 2.8 million tonne in 1973–1974 to amount of water left in the basin is less 28.3 million tonne in 2010–2011 (Data than that required by the freshwater Source: Indiastat). As per estimates, 10– dependent ecosystems (Smakhtin et al., 15% of the nutrients added to the soils 2004). through fertilizers eventually find their way to the surface water system (Indian Urbanization exerts significant Institute of Technology, 2011). High influences on the structure and function nutrient contents stimulate algal growth, of wetlands, mainly through modifying leading to eutrophication of surface water the hydrological and sedimentation bodies. Studies indicate that 0.5 mg/l of regimes, and the dynamics of nutrients inorganic Nitrogen and 0.01 mg/1 of and chemical pollutants. Impact of organic Phosphorus in water usually urbanization is equally alarming on stimulate undesirable algal growth in the natural water bodies in the cities. A study surface water. Runoff from agricultural found that out of 629 water bodies fields is the major source of non-point identified in the National Capital pollution for the Indian rivers flowing Territory (NCT) of Delhi, as many as 232 through Indo-Genetic plains (Jain et al., cannot be revived on account of large 2007a and Jain et al., 2007b). Water from scale encroachments (Khandekar, 2011). lakes that experience algal blooms is Similarly, between 1973 and 2007, more expensive to purify for drinking or Greater Bengaluru Region lost 66 other industrial uses. Eutrophication can wetlands with a water spread area of reduce or eliminate fish populations around 1100 ha due to urban sprawl (Verhoeven et al., 2006) and can also (Ramachandra and Kumar, 2008). result in loss of many of the cultural Further, poor management of water services provided by lakes. bodies, lack of concrete conservation plans, rising pollution, and rapid increase Along with runoff from agricultural in localized demands for water are fields, untreated wastewater also pushing these precious eco-balancers to contributes significantly to pollution of extinction (Indian National Trust for Art water bodies. Less than 31% of the and Cultural Heritage, 1998). domestic wastewater from Indian urban centres is treated, compared to 80% in Agricultural, municipal and industrial the developed world. In total of 35 pollution: metropolitan cities, treatment capacity Water in most Asian rivers, lakes, exists for only 51% of the sewage streams and wetlands has been heavily generated. Conditions in smaller urban degraded, mainly due to agricultural centers are even worse as treatment runoff of pesticides and fertilizers, and capacity exist for only about 18% of the
www.ijar.org.in 162 International Journal of Academic Research ISSN: 2348-7666; Vol.3, Issue-12(2), December, 2016 Impact Factor: 4.535; Email: [email protected] sewage generated in Class I cities Ramsar Sites were identified for (population size of 100,000 or more but conservation and management under the other than metropolitan cities) and 9% of Programme (MoEF, 2007). Several the sewage generated in Class II towns measures were taken to arrest further (population between 50,000 and 100,000) degradation and shrinkage of the (Table 3). Actual sewage treatment will identified water bodies due to be further low due to inadequacy of the encroachment, siltation, weed infestation, sewage collection system and non- catchment erosion, agricultural run-off functional treatment plants. Thus, there carrying pesticides and fertilizers, and is a huge gap in generation and wastewater discharge. Subsequently in treatment of wastewater in Indian urban 1993, National Lake Conservation Plan centers and most of sewage is discharged (NLCP) was carved out of NWCP to focus without treatment in the natural water on lakes particularly those located in bodies such as streams and rivers urban and peri-urban areas which are (Central Pollution Control Board, 2009). subjected to anthropogenic pressures. Initially, only 10 lakes were identified for Policy support: conservation and management under the Until the early part of 2000, the policy plan (MoEF, 2007). There is also a support for wetland conservation in India National River Conservation Plan was virtually non-existent. The action on (NRCP), operational since 1995, with an wetland management was primarily objective to improve the water quality of influenced by the international the major Indian rivers through the commitments made under Ramset implementation of pollution abatement Convention and indirectly through array works, to the level of designated best use. of other policy measures, such as, The new draft National Water Policy, National Conservation Strategy and 2012 which is cleared recently by the Policy Statement on Environment and National Water Resources Council also Development, 1992; Coastal Zone recognizes the need for conservation of Regulation Notification, 1991; National river corridors and water bodies Policy and Macro level Action Strategy on (including wetlands) in a scientifically Biodiversity, 1999; and National Water planned manner. Further, the policy Policy, 2002 (MoEF, 2007 and Prasad et emphasizes that the environmental needs al., 2002). of aquatic eco-system, wetlands and embanked flood plains should be As a signatory to Ramsar Convention on recognized and taken into consideration Wetlands and recognizing the importance while planning for water resources of protecting such water bodies, the conservation (Ministry of Water Government of India identified two sites, Resources, 2012). i.e. Chilika lake (Orissa) and Keoladeo National Park (Rajasthan), as Ramsar Over the years, number of designated Wetlands of International Importance in Ramsar Sites has increased to 26 1981 (MoEF, 2012). Thereafter in 1985– (Ramsar Convention on Wetlands, 2012), 1986, National Wetland Conservation number of rivers under NRCP has Programme (NWCP) was launched in increased to 39 and number of wetlands close collaboration with concerned State covered by the NWCP and NLCP has Governments. Initially, only designated increased to 115 and 61 respectively
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(MoEF, 2012). However these initiatives The main reason is that only selected proved to be too little considering the number of wetlands has received extent of ecologically sensitive wetland significant attention (by way of financial ecosystems in the country and the fact and technical assistance from the central that only a selected few wetlands were government) under the wetland taken up for conservation and conservation programmes (like NWCP management purpose (Dandekar et al., and NLCP) while the remaining ones 2011) (Table 4). continue to be in neglected state. Majority of research work on wetland Water quality monitoring plan needs to management in India relates to the be devised. immunological aspects and Conclusion: ecological/environmental economics of wetland management. But, the physical In India, wetland ecosystems support (such as hydrological and land-use diverse and unique habitats and are changes in the catchment) and socio- distributed across various topographic economic (such as population growth and and climatic regimes. They are changes in economic activities) processes considered to be a vital part of leading to immunological changes have hydrological cycle and are highly not been explored substantially. Further, productive systems in their natural the institutional aspects (policies, rules, forms. Wetlands not only support large regulation and organizations) of wetland biological diversity but also provide a management have received limited wide array of ecosystem goods and attention and attracted the imagination services (Wetlands Rules, 2010). In India, of research scholars only recently. Thus wetlands provide multiple services, more research emphasis on the physical, including irrigation, domestic water socio-economic and institutional factors supply, freshwater fisheries and water for influencing condition of wetlands and recreation. They are also playing their use is required in order to arrive at important role in groundwater recharge, better and comprehensive management flood control, carbon sequestration and strategies for wetlands that are facing pollution abatement. However, growing stress from a variety of management of wetlands has received anthropogenic and climatic factors. inadequate attention in the national water sector agenda. As a result, many of References and Notes: the wetlands in urban and rural areas are 1. Agarwal, 2011. M. Agarwal Migratory subject to anthropogenic pressures, birds in India: migratory birds dwindling including land use changes in the Nature, December (2011) catchment; pollution from industry and households; encroachments; tourism; and 2.ATREE, 2010, Ashoka Trust for over exploitation of their natural Research in Ecology and the resources. India is signatory to Ramsar Environment (ATREE) Comments on Convention on Wetlands and has drafted Draft Wetlands (Conservation and Wetland (Conversation and Management) Management) Rules 2009, Ashoka Trust Rules in 2010 but still no significant for Research in Ecology and the progress has been made on the Environment, Bangalore (2010) conservation and wise use of wetlands.
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3. Balasubramanian and Selvaraj, 2003, | R. Balasubramanian, K.N. Selvaraj, 11.Kumar et al., 2013b, M.D. Kumar, N. Poverty, Private Property and Common Bassi, M.V.K. Sivamohan, L. Pool Resource Management: The Case of Venkatachalam, Agriculture in West Irrigation Tanks in South India. Bengal: can the new policies trigger a [Working Paper No. 2] second green revolution, Rev. Dev. 4. Bassi and Kumar, 2012, N. Bassi, M.D. Change, 18 (1) (2013) Kumar, Addressing the civic challenges: 12. MoA, 2012, Ministry of Agriculture perspective on institutional change for (MoA), Annual Report 2011–2012, sustainable urban water management in Department of Animal Husbandry, India, Environ. Urban. Asia, 3 (1) (2012), Dairying & Fisheries, Ministry of pp. 165–183 Agriculture, Government of India, New 5.S.K. Billore, N. Singh, J.K. Sharma, P. Delhi (2012) Dass, R.M. Nelson, Horizontal subsurface 13. Pant and Verma, 2010, N. Pant, R.K. flow gravel bed constructed wetland with Verma, inks in Eastern India: A Study in Phragmites karka in Central India, Exploration, International Water Water Sci. Technol., 40 (3) (1999), pp. Management Institute-TATA Water 163–171 Policy Research Program and Centre for 6. Control Board, Ministry of Development Studies, Hyderabad and Environment and Forests, Government Lucknow, India (2010) of India, New Delhi (2008) 14.Sarkar and Ponniah, 2005,U.K. 7. Central Pollution Control Board, Sarkar, A.G. Ponniah (Eds.), Evaluation Ministry of Environment and Forests, of North-east Indian Fishes for Their Government of India, New Delhi (2010) Potential as Cultivable, Sport and Ornamental Fishes Along With Their 8.M. Sengupta, R. Dalwani (Eds.), Conservation and Endemic Status, Proceedings of Taal 2007: The 12th National Bureau of Fish Genetic World Lake Conference, Jaipur, India, 28 Resources, Lucknow, India (2005) October–2 November 2007, Ministry of Environment and Forest, Government of 15. R.K. Turner, J.C.J.M. van der Bergh, India, New Delhi (2008) T. Soderqvist, A. Barendregt, J. van der Straaten, E. Maltby, E.C. van Ireland, 9. Dandekar et al., 2011, P. Dandekar, S. Ecological-economic analysis of wetlands: Bhattacharya, H. Thakkar, Wetland scientific integration for management (Conservation and Management) Rules and policy, World Bank, 2012 2010, Welcome, But a Lost Opportunity: This Cannot Help Protect the Wetlands, 16. World Bank, Turn Down the Heat: Why a 4 °C Warmer World Must Be 10. A. Das, R. GI, B.U. Choudhury, G.C. Avoided, The World Bank, Washington, Munda, D.P. Patel, S.V. Ngachan, P.K. DC (2012) Ghosh, A.K. Tripathi, S. Das, M. Kumar, Natural resource conservation through indigenous farming systems: wisdom alive in north-east India, Indian J. Tradit. Knowl., 11 (3) (2012), pp. 505–513
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Ambient air quality status over Vijayawada – A Case Study
*1G .Aravind,2U .Monika,2K .Himana,2M .Akhila Priya,2G. Jyothsna,2 P.Devi Priya ,1CH.Srinivasa Reddy .
*1,2Department of Botany, Andhra Loyola College, Vijayawada - 520008, Andhra Pradesh, India 1Department of Botany, PB Siddhartha College of Arts and Sciences, Vijayawada, India
Abstract: The analysis shown great variations from Police control room than the Auto Nagar and Benz Circle. Particulate matter and gaseous pollutants in the atmosphere has been increasing due to rapid increase in urbanization, congestion of roads, older vehicles and inadequate inspections of vehicles. Even though it is directly linked to the health of public. which may lead to narrowing of the airways . Long-term exposure may also cause Asthma, cancer and premature deaths. To meet the above an Air Quality Index (AQI) has been proposed to present the status of Vijayawada air quality. It is a rating scale in quantifying air pollution based on measured air pollutants for reporting monthly status of pollution at various locality. In the present study, an AQI has been calculated based on measured pollutants such as SO2, NO2, RSPM and Total Suspended Particulate Matter (TSPM) at selected residential area of Vijayawada city in 2015. keywords: Respirable Suspended Particulate Matter (RSPM), Total Suspended Particulate Matter (TSPM), Air Quality Index (AQI), pollutants.
Introduction: The atmosphere is having where the famous shine of the Kanaka tremendous capacity to dilute and Durga is situated on. The east side there disperse air pollutants. The winds carry is Mogalrajpuram hill range with a them, the turbulence mixes well them, famous temple of the holy mother Mary. the heat energy transforms them, the At present Vijayawada is having all the precipitation washes them down but yet bad situations of typical urban centre. there is a limit to this dilution. In urban The canals in the summer will have centers, when the emissions are more, nothing but drainage affecting the health the concentrations built up (in spite of of the surrounding population in the dilution) and ask for concerted efforts to neighborhood. control air pollution. Vijayawada is a commercial city and historical city According to Altshuller, A.P and Bufalini, situated at the geographical centre of the JJ (1965), Materials that are emitted in AP state in India. It is situated on the the atmosphere are subjected to a banks of River Krishna. (Latitude 160 03’ number of interesting and unusual 11’’ N and longitude 80o 03’91’’E) the reactions. These reactions lead too many climate is tropical with hot summers and products whose deleterious effects have moderate winters. The city is peculiar in now been recognized as one of the most its own geographical setting. The city is pressing problems in urban areas surrounded by hills on all sides with throughout the world. These effects can Indrakiladri Hills range on the west be observed in reduced visibility eye www.ijar.org.in 166 International Journal of Academic Research ISSN: 2348-7666; Vol.3, Issue-12(2), December, 2016 Impact Factor: 4.535; Email: [email protected] irritation, plant damage, cracking of attention to these substances that cause rubber and corrosion of metals. Many of undesirable effects. the problems confronting chemists 2.Methodology participating in the study of the photochemical aspects of air pollution 2.1.Sources of Air pollution in have been roughly reviewed by Leighton Vijayawada City mainly the actions of the people are the The air sampling station of present study primary cause of pollution increase, the is on Auto Nagar, Benz Circle and Police attendant pollution problems also Control Room of Vijayawada city during increase proportionately. The first 2015 January-December. Autonagar, significant change in man’s impacts on which is predominantly industrial nature came with the discovery of fire. pollution area. The industrial pollution is Prehistoric man built a fire in his cave for also slowly and steadily increasing in cooking, heating and to provide light. The Vijayawada. Agro based industrial problem of air pollution came into activity is predominant around the city. existence at that time. Since then man is The industrial base consists of solvent making rapid strides of progress in extraction plants, rice mills, oil and dal science and technology in utilizing the mills etc. Auto nagar industrial estate natural resources for better comforts. His located in the eastern part of the city eagerness to increase comforts leads to near Patamata, covering 340 acres, rapid industrialization and urbanization. houses, industrial units which are mostly The adverse effects of increase in small and medium in nature. Benz Circle industrialization and urbanization are and Police control room Traffic Pollution, obsolescence of the infrastructure, the which are predominantly traffic polluted pollution of the city atmosphere, the lack Vijayawada is well connected to the rest and bad quality of drinking water, of the country by national highways NH- overcrowding and traffic difficulties, the 5, NH-9 and NH-221. There are a decreases in areas of greenery etc. number of heavy trucks, busses, lories, According to Seinfeld (1986), cars, three wheeler autos as well as scooters playing on this national Air pollution may be defined as any highways besides the floating pollution atmospheric condition in which all major streets within the city are substances are present at concentrations connected with local public transport as high enough above their normal ambient well as individual transports like car and levels to produce a measurable effect on scooters the three wheeler autos are the man, animals, vegetation or materials. By major sources of transportation for ‘substances’ we mean any natural or middle class population. All these manmade chemical elements or contribute to traffic air pollution in the compounds capable of being airborne. city. These substances may exist in the atmosphere as gases, liquid drops or solid 3. Result and discussions: particles. Our definition includes any The sulfur dioxide (SO2 ) , Nitrogen substance, whether noxious or benign; dioxide (NO2) , Respire able Suspended however, in using the term ‘measurable Particulate Matter (RSPM), and Total effect’ we will generally restrict our Suspended Particulate Matter (TSPM) concentrations are fluctuating www.ijar.org.in 167 International Journal of Academic Research ISSN: 2348-7666; Vol.3, Issue-12(2), December, 2016 Impact Factor: 4.535; Email: [email protected] throughout the year. However Auto Nagar, Benz Circle and Police concentrations levels compared to control room of Vijayawada city. The prescribed air quality standards were reasons for high particulate matter in reported during entire period of study in general, may be vehicles, commercial the form of bar diagrams fig 1 to fig 3. activities, Industrial activities, solid The annual average of Auto Nagar, Benz waste burning, re-suspension of traffic Circle and Police control room of dust, commercial and domestic use of Vijayawada city, Auto Nagar shows more fuels, etc. The major sources of high concentrations Air pollution in the city, RSPM levels in Vijayawada are vehicle and next the Benz Circle Moderate than traffic, burning of solid refuse and re- the Police control room of Vijayawada suspension of traffic dust during dry city when compare to last year to this season. Man uses the atmosphere not year. only as a resource but also a place for dumping wastes. He takes from it oxygen, 4. Conclusion a necessary ingredient for his own The concentration of SPM is greater in survival and return to it a mixture of all the stations when compared with gases and solids, the byproducts of other parameters in all seasons in the combustion, respiration and other energy study. In the present article the air transferring activities thus tampering the pollution concentrations of conventional ecosystem. pollutants like SO2, NO2, RSPM and TSPM have observed at three stations of Ambient Air Quality Status In Vijaywada (μg/m3)
NOV
SEP TSPM JUL RSPM MAY NO2
MAR SO2
JAN 0 50 100 150 200 250
fig 1,Benz Circle 2015
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DEC NOV OCT SEP AUG TSPM JUL RSPM JUN MAY NO2 APR SO2 MAR FEB JAN 0 100 200 300 400
fig 2,Auto Nagar 2015
NOV
SEP TSPM JUL RSPM MAY NO2 SO2 MAR
JAN 0 50 100 150 200 250 300
fig 3,Police Control Room 2015
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References
1) Altshuller, A.P and Bufalini, J.J. (1965). Photochemical aspects of air pollution: a review photo chem. Photobiol.4: 96 - 146. 2) Altshuller, AP and Bufalini, J.J (1971). Photochemical aspects of air pollution: a review environ.sci.technol. 5:39- 64. 3) Bird, R.B., Stewart, W.E. and Lightfoot, E.N. (1964). Transport phenomena, willey, New York, p.780. 4). Sharma M., Kiran YNVM and Shandilya K. (2003).Investigation into formation of Atmospheric sulphate under High PM10concentration. Atmospheric Environment 37 (2003) 2005- 2017. 5). Sharma, M., Maheshwari, M., and Pandey, R. (2001) Development of air quality index for data interpretation and public information. IIT-Kanpur, Report submitted to Central Pollution Control Board Delhi. 6). Sharma, M., Aggrawal, S, Bose P. (2002). Meteorology-based Forecasting of Air Quality Index using Neural Network. Proceedings of International Conference ICONIP’02- SEAL’02-FSKD’02 on Neural Network, Singapore, November, 2002.
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Solarizing India – for Energy generation and Conservation
Dr. (Smt.) B.V.L.A. Manga, Reader, Department of Political Science, Maharajah's (Autonomous) College, Vizianagaram - 535 002. Abstract: In less than two centuries of industrial revolution, the actions of human beings have led to deterioration of resources on the earth –beautiful and fragile result of millions of evolution. The time has come to act, to repair and prepare for the future. So that humanity will have further progressed in its evolution in a more conscious and fair world. Today, our planet is running out of steam because it does not any longer have its own natural means to compensate man’s ecological print. Natural balances prove to be more fragile than men have been used to imagine for decades. India has been facing the energy balance crisis for many decades. Thus solar energy able to reduce emission and no adding infrastructural cost expenses like solar panel and micro inverters requirement.
Key words: Natural balances, solar energy, earth –beautiful
Introduction long span of time is less. Moreover, the cost of solar plants has been decreasing India has been facing the energy balance as a sign of encouragement to increase crisis for many decades. The electricity the number of installations. The cost of generation primarily depends on coal solar panels has reduced from reserves, secondly on hydro power $76.67/watt in 1977 to $0.74 /watt in followed by natural gas. Coal depletion 2013. Following this trend, the prices are has motivated the country to look for expected to decrease by the end of 2017. other sources to meet its energy demand. There are a few draw backs of Solar India has a tremendous opportunity for Power Generation. As this process non-conventional energy resources. mainly depends on climatic condition, India is the first country to setup a suitable battery bank has to be installed separate government body for the for longer period of operation, affecting renewable resources development, the cost of the system. Since the power Ministry of New and Renewable Energy produced through each panel is very low, (MNRE) which is making special tariffs to produce a huge amount of power, and schemes to reduce the carbon more number of PV panels must be emission. The motivation of solar energy employed in series and parallel, which adding the country to meet its energy follows the requirement of a vast area demand is in exhaustibility, reliability, network. Besides these, solar energy has and ease of installation in limited period become an emerging strategy across the of time. globe.
Energy Generation - eco-friendly In less than two centuries of industrial revolution, the actions of human beings The Solar Power Generation is eco- have led to deterioration of resources on friendly as it does not have any harmful the earth –beautiful and fragile result of emissions and is a noise free operation. millions of evolution. The time has come The installation and running costs for a to act, to repair and prepare for the www.ijar.org.in 171 International Journal of Academic Research ISSN: 2348-7666; Vol.3, Issue-12(2), December, 2016 Impact Factor: 4.535; Email: [email protected] future. So that humanity will have billion tones, making it the fourth largest further progressed in its evolution in a emitting country. The world must more conscious and fair world. Today, almost completely decarbonizes in the our planet is running out of steam next 30-35 years, and the vast majority of because it does not any longer have its fossil fuels have to be left in the ground, own natural means to compensate man’s if we are to have any hope of tacking ecological print. Natural balances prove climate change effectively. The warning to be more fragile than men have been is based on one of the major findings of used to imagine for decades. The erosion “Trends in Global CO2 Emissions 2014 of biodiversity has reached a unique level Report” that the scientific case behind in life’s history on Earth. 20C as a “Safe” level of global warning – a figure that has underpinned climate
Ninety percent of CO2 emissions policies around the globe is rapidly originate from fossil fuel combustion weakening. and, therefore, are determined by the following three factors : Emerging trends
Energy demand or level of energy India is rapidly emerging as one of the – intensive activity; in particular, related most attractive markets for renewable to power generation, basic materials energy investments in the world. industry and transport. Depending on the location the average Changes in energy efficiency. solar insulation varies from 4-7 Kwh/m2 Shifts in fuel mix, such as from with around 1500-2000 sunshine hours carbon-intensive coal to low-carbon gas, per year. The following figure represents or from fossil fuels to nuclear or the current scenarios of power trend, renewable energy. showing that our energy depends on the availability of coal and next to that
India’s CO2 emissions in 2013 continued depicts the energy harnessed from the to increase by 4.4 percent to about 2.1 hydro power station. Figure: Cumulative installed capacity of Solar Photo Voltaic System in India
5000 4097 4000
3000 2632 2319 2000 MW 1205 1000 461 161 0 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015
From the above figure, we still have a lot of scope in the above area of the www.ijar.org.in 172 International Journal of Academic Research ISSN: 2348-7666; Vol.3, Issue-12(2), December, 2016 Impact Factor: 4.535; Email: [email protected] solar power generation for energy micro-operatives and micro enterprises generation and conservation. India has and creation of employment taken the following measures both on opportunities for youth and women. demand and supply side. In 2006, the rural electrification programme was Renewable solar energy for fruits and the first step taken by the government vegetables drying is viable particularly of India to recognize the importance of in developing countries, where labour solar power. This programme includes costs are low and cost of fossil fuel solar pumps; street lighting systems, energy is very higher. The solar latrines, and solar home systems. preservation of fruits and vegetables to Thus, this programme gave an idea of enhance their shelf life is necessary for off-grid application. the large consumer base in our country. This preservation is made In 2007, India brought semiconductor easy through solar energy system. policy encouraging IT and electronic industries. Silicon and PV Conclusion : Thus solarizing India manufacturing industries were also plays a vital role in reducing the included in this policy. This move demand – supply gap by installing roof helped in the manufacturing industry. top and solar parks. Facilitating closer government and industry co-operation Solar mission of the Indian Railways is and creating awareness about the to achieve the target of harnessing benefits of solar energy among solar energy of 10 percent of Indian consumers promote the growth of solar Railways Energy Consumption by sector in India. Certainly there is a ray 2020. The Indian Railways has of hope that India can emerge as one of planned to set up 1,000 MW plants in the leaders in solar energy in the Railway/Private land and on railway world. buildings, with the support from Railway Energy Management References: Company. 1) Akbar Ahmed, Dr. Paulson Now the time has come to gradually Samuel, and Y Amar “Solarizing India : adopt battery less solar street lights, Tapping the excellent potential” in particularly in cities where power Akshay Urja, Vol.9, Issue 3, Dec. 2015. availabilities is reliable. Thus solar 2) Subhash Sharma “Climate energy able to reduce emission and no change mitigation : Proactive adding infrastructural cost expenses Approach” in Yojana, Vol.59, Dec 2015. like solar panel and micro inverters 3) Reethu Madhur “Energy requirement. The integration of Solar Security in India – Opportunities and Thermal Energy and Solar Challenges” in Yojana, Vol.42, May Photovoltaic Technologies in solar food 2014. processing technology helps in 4) Aswini, K. Swain “Competition processing of raw produce. The use of in Renewable energy resources and solar cabinet dryer has led to value regularization” in Yojana, Vol.42, May addition of products to farmers, 2014 establishment of co-operatives and
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