Behaviourist and Social/Cognitive Theories

Introduction

By the end of this Unit, you should be able to:

• explain personality development from the behaviourist, social learning and cognitive approaches, • identify key principles of operant conditioning, social learning and cognitive processes associated with personality,

• compare and contrast the key ideas and structure of personality among the theories.

1 Behaviourist and Learning Aspects

The Radical Behaviourism of B. F. Skinner:

• Personality is a group of responses to the environment

• Radical determinism – All behaviour is caused by environmental contingencies

• Operant Conditioning – Behaviour is changed by its consequences – “Skinner box” (operant chamber)

• Limits to observable behaviour

Operant Conditioning

• The status of a consequence as reinforcement or punishment is empirically determined – If the preceding response increases after the consequence occurs, it is a reinforcement – If the preceding response decreases after the consequence occurs, it is a punishment

• Reinforcement or punishment can occur through adding or removing a stimulus – For rats: food, noise, electric shock, etc. – For humans: money, praise, hugs, stickers, candy, chores, spanking, imprisonment, etc.

2 Operant Conditioning

What happens after the response occurs?

Stimulus Stimulus is Added is Removed

Response Positive Negative What Increases Reinforcement Reinforcement happens to the response? Response Positive Negative Decreases Punishment Punishment

Applying Behaviourism

Implications for Therapy: Example:

• Since personality is conditioned and Modifying Type A learned, therapy is based on teaching Personality desirable habits and behaviours, and on extinguishing undesirable ones By using operant conditioning, people – Applies the principles of operant are able to learn to conditioning to design a society reduce their negative behaviours

– Sets up a controlling environment by using positive reinforcement

3 Bandura’s Social-Cognitive Learning Theory

• Self-system – The set of cognitive processes by which a person perceives, evaluates and regulates his or her own behaviour, so that it is functionally efficient and appropriate

• How can new behaviours be acquired in the absence of reinforcement? – Observational Learning (also called vicarious learning and modelling) ◦ Learning a behaviour by watching another ◦ e.g. Learning Aggressive Behaviour (Bobo doll experiments)

Bandura’s Social-Cognitive Learning Theory

• Factors that influence modelling:

– Outcome expectancy People are more likely to imitate behaviours that they believe lead to positive outcomes

– Characteristics of the model Age, gender, status, competence, etc.

– Characteristics of the behaviour Simple and obvious behaviours

– Attributes of the observer Self-esteem, dependence, cognitive development

4 Bandura’s Social-Cognitive Learning Theory

• Processes underlying • Self-regulation observational learning People’s control over their own – Attention achievements by – Retention – Setting goals for themselves – Motor reproduction – Evaluating their success – Motivation – Rewarding themselves

• Self-efficacy: A belief about how • Includes self-efficacy and competently one will be able to enact schemas a behaviour in a particular situation • Focuses on internal control of • Self-efficacy determines: behaviour – If we even try to act – How long we persist in our behaviour – How success or failure affects future behaviour

Failure of Self-regulation: Breakdown of the Self-system

Situational and physical factors that interfere with normal self-regulation

Source: Friedman & Schustack, 2014, p.258.

5 Cognitive Aspects of Personality

• Roots in Gestalt Psychology – Human beings seek meaning in their environments – We organise the sensations we receive into meaningful perceptions

• Schema Theory – A cognitive structure that organises knowledge and expectations about one’s environment – Determines how we think and act

• Script – Schemas for familiar events, e.g. eating at a restaurant

Cognitive Aspects of Personality

• Categorisation – We tend to organise events, objects and people into categories ◦ Advantage: quickly understand complex information ◦ Disadvantage: stereotyping

• Control of Attention – We notice salient environmental features, and combine these with our current goals to decide where to direct our attention – Individual differences in attention e.g. Attention-Deficit Disorder

6 Cognitive Aspects of Personality

• George Kelly’s Personal Construct Theory

– People actively endeavour to understand the world and construct their own theories about human behaviour

– “Every man is, in his own particular way, a scientist” - Kelly

Example: Think of: A teacher you liked, your boss, a successful person you know

– Which two are similar? How?

– Who is different? How?

Applying Cognitive Theory

• Implications for therapy

– Uses understanding of perception, cognition and attribution to change thought processes

– Emotions and behaviours can be changed by changing cognitions

7 Summary

• Skinner’s theory emphasises that personality is a repertoire of behaviours learned. Contingencies or reinforcers are created by society to control the selfish nature of the individual. It is a deterministic theory, and there is no free will.

• Bandura emphasises observational learning. A person’s internal processes of goal planning and self-reinforcement result in self-regulation of behaviour. • The cognitive perspective sees the essence of personality is found in the way people think. People differ from one another in the way we perceive events and interpret our environment.

Reflection Questions

1. What is the role of reward and punishment in learning?

2. What are some practical ways for bringing about behaviour change, both in ourselves and in others? 3. What are some skills and habits you have learnt from your parents through observational learning? How were these behaviours modelled? 4. How does our innate tendency to categorise things interact with our tendency to stereotype?

8 References

• Bandura, A. (1999). Social cognitive theory of personality. In D. Cervone & Y. Shod (Eds.). The coherence of personality. New York: Guilford.

• Friedman, H.S. & Schustack, M.W. (2014). Personality: Classic theories and modern research. Harlow, UK: Pearson Education Limited.

• Hall, C.S. & Lindzey, G. (1970). Theories of personality (2nd ed.). New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

• Kelly, G.A. (1969). Clinical psychology and personality: The selected papers of George Kelly. Edited by Brendan Maher. New York: Wiley.

• Skinner, B.F. (1971). Beyond freedom and dignity. New York: Knopf.

• Walker, B.M. & Winter, D.A. (2007). The elaboration of Personal Construct Psychology. Annual Review of Psychology, 58, 453-477.