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Geomorphic Analysis of River Character and Behaviour in Three Semi-Arid, Mountainous Catchments in the Eastern Cape, South Africa

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Geomorphic Analysis of River Character and Behaviour in Three Semi-Arid, Mountainous Catchments in the Eastern Cape, South Africa Geomorphic analysis of river character and behaviour in three semi-arid, mountainous catchments in the Eastern Cape, South Africa Siviwe Pamela Sekese A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Magister Scientiae in the Department of Earth Sciences, University of the Western Cape Supervisors: Dr J Glenday Dr M.C Grenfell October 2019 0 http://etd.uwc.ac.za/ Abstract The analysis of what controls why rivers are the way they are, and how and why they change is crucial in predicting river dynamics and deriving classification systems that can assist management. A variety of factors control the pattern of fluvial styles in a river system across spatial scales. The geomorphic response of a river to an individual control, such as stream power for example, will vary due to a combination of other contributing factors such as geology and climate. The variation in fluvial style along river longitudinal profiles has been less well described in non-perennial rivers in semi- arid settings than for wetter systems. Therefore, a scientifically informed understanding of the fluvial geomorphology within dryland river systems can aid in improving management and rehabilitation approaches. This study investigated and characterized the geomorphology of rivers in three semi- arid, mountainous, meso-scale catchments with the aim of understanding the controls on channel properties and the implications for river classification frameworks for South African non-perennial rivers. In the Baviaanskloof, Kouga and Kromme study catchments, rivers flow in valleys where the bedrock material exerts some degree of lateral or vertical confinement. As a result, the variations in their river characteristics were expected to correlate with variations in the valley width. Valleys can be broadly classified as confined or unconfined, with related differences in their vegetation structure, topographic gradient and groundwater-surface water interactions. In this study, valley specific stream power has been used to predict or explain fluvial styles, sediment distribution and wetland formation processes. These variables change along a river's longitudinal profile with geologic and climatic controls influencing their distribution and pattern. The study employed an automated method for determining valley confinement and specific stream power using the Valley Bottom Extraction Tool. This algorithm mapped the extent and shape of unconfined valley bottoms using readily available spatial data such as a Digital Elevation Model (DEM) and mapped stream channels as input data. Unconfined valleys had large sedimentary fills with a well-developed floodplain whereas confined valleys are set within exposed bedrock or raised terrace material, limiting the formation of floodplains. An advanced terrain analysis method was developed to calculate specific stream power continuously along the heterogeneous valleys of the three sample catchments. Valley i http://etd.uwc.ac.za/ metrics were generated for calculating valley specific stream power using a 5 m resolution DEM to determine slope and flow accumulation grid surfaces and a discharge proxy estimated from a rainfall surface and flow accumulation. The method substituted channel width with valley width because bankfull channel width is problematic to measure or estimate for the highly variable flows and the multiple- thread and flood-out styles common in non-perennial rivers. Results showed that the Kouga catchment had the largest peak in valley specific stream power, attributed to its larger size and confined valley nature, compared to other catchments. Variations in valley specific stream power were strongly driven by variation in slope and valley width in all three catchments. Longitudinal profile analysis showed that the valley specific stream power was more variable in Baviaanskloof, followed by the Kromme then Kouga catchments, which indicated that more numerous fluvial styles would likely be found in the Baviaanskloof compared to the other two catchments. Channel and planform dynamics data, associated with the variations in valley confinement and valley specific stream power were subsequently collected in the field. A dataset of thirteen variables for 16 sites was derived from the Geographical Information System analyses and field measurements including valley parameters (valley confinement, and valley specific stream power) and channel-reach parameters (elevation, channel width, channel cross-sectional area, channel depth, width to depth ratio, channel roughness, channel slope, median grain size, bed and bank material texture, and fluvial style). Discriminant plots of energy versus resistance (valley specific stream power against sediment properties) provided an integration of the variables which resulted in thirteen fluvial styles with homogenous properties. Six fluvial styles were identified in the Baviaanskloof, three in the Kouga and four in the Kromme main river. This framework can be used to develop new assessment methods designed for non-perennial rivers systems in which considers the valley specific stream power, an empirical indices which encompasses all boundary conditions within valley and river reaches rather than reading landscapes as similar river types. ii http://etd.uwc.ac.za/ Declaration I Siviwe Pamela Sekese (3346091) declare that Geomorphic analysis of river character and behaviour in three semi-arid, mountainous catchments in the Eastern Cape, South Africa is my own work, that it has not been submitted for any degree or examination in any other university, and that all the sources I have used or quoted have been indicated and acknowledged by complete references. Full name: Siviwe Pamela Sekese Date: ..................................07 October 2019 Signed......................................... iii http://etd.uwc.ac.za/ Acknowledgements I would like to thank the following people and organisations for their support, without which, this research would not have been feasible: My supervisor Dr Grenfell. The door to his office was always open whenever I ran into a trouble spot or had a question about my research or writing. He consistently allowed this thesis to be my own work, but steered me in the right the direction whenever he thought I needed it. Thank you for the insightful comments and encouragement, but also for the hard questions which incited me to widen my research from various perspectives. My second supervisor, Dr Glenday from SAEON for the continuous support of the MSc study and related research. For her patience, motivation, and immense knowledge. Her guidance helped me in all the time of research and writing of this thesis. I could not have imagined having a better supervisor and mentor for MSc study. The MSc study was funded by the South African based non-governmental organization, Living Lands in conjunction with the Water Research Commission. The “Living Landers” offered support and patience during the time period of the research (and the memorable Indabas and dance floors), I am forever grateful. To Liezl, Ancia, Faith and Julia: Thank you for your support and friendship, we make a great project team! Special thanks to the National Research Foundation for sponsoring my studies and travel costs to academic conferences; I have travelled and learned within my research field because of this opportunity. I was also fortunate to have academic support from the South African Observation Network through fieldwork and logistical assistance and being a conduit to speak about my research. I am also thankful for the landowners and various governmental institutions in the Baviaanskloof, Kouga and Kromme catchment that provided invaluable information and giving permission to conduct studies on their properties, and taking the time to listen and talk about “water” in the catchments. I express my sincere gratitude to the staff at the Earth Science Department, particularly the Institute of Water Studies for facilitating a great atmosphere to complete my research successfully. Particularly Mr Solomons, who went above and beyond in helping me through GIS algorithms and any other machine learning issues. To my family, for the endless moral support, and encouragement during the course of my study. Thank you for your prayers and believing in me and my abilities as a young, black female researcher. The constant affirmation was motivating. This accomplishment would not have been possible without them iv http://etd.uwc.ac.za/ Table of contents Abstract ................................................................................................................................ i Declaration ......................................................................................................................... iii Acknowledgements ........................................................................................................... iv Table of contents ................................................................................................................ v List of Figures ..................................................................................................................... v List of tables ....................................................................................................................... vi List of appendices ............................................................................................................ vii List of acronyms .............................................................................................................
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