sign in sign up
<<
Home , Mental operations

BORIGLOS.doc - 1 Glossary ABC model of . A model that considers antecedents in the environment that elicit desired behavior, which is then strengthened when followed by appropriate consequences. Accelerated curriculum. Programs for the gifted and talented that offer advanced courses and/or grade skipping. Accommodation. Altering or adjusting cognitive structures affected by new information. Active listening. A technique whereby the listener summarizes essential aspects of what the speaker has tried to say or the feeling the speaker tried to convey. Active responding. Learner behavior that emphasizes asserting, volunteering, or actively seeking out information. Adaptation. As identified by Piaget, a central drive of humans to adapt to the world as they experience it. Adaptive behavior. Skills that most people learn without formal instruction, such as personal care, feeding, and social skills. Advance organizer. A summary of the concepts, generalizations, and themes to be learned, presented at a general and inclusive level. Affectional bonds. Long-lasting bonds between a child and a parent. Age-equivalent scores. The obtained scores of those in a norming sample who are of various ages. Antecedents. Stimuli present in an environment that make a behavior more likely to occur. Anticipatory . An organized framework usually presented to learners at the beginning of a lesson that helps them relate past with present learning and that places the lesson into a context that the learners can relate to and focus on. Applied behavior analysis. An approach to classroom management that applies behavioristic principles to modify behavior in socially important areas. Assimilation. Expanding or enriching cognitive structures with new information or . BORIGLOS.doc - 2

Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). A disorder that has its onset before age 7, lasts at least six months, and is characterized by an inability to sustain , impulsivity, hyperactivity, and deficits in rule-governed behavior. Attention deficit. Difficulty staying with or completing an activity over a period of time; becoming easily bored and uninterested in activities relative to others. Attribution theory. A perspective on motivation that assumes that people seek to understand why they succeed or fail. Authentic assessment. Testing that covers the content that was taught in the manner in which it was taught and that targets specific behaviors that have applicability to advanced courses, other programs of study, or careers. Authentic problems. Problems encountered in the real world for which the expected solution is uncertain and the task then yields multiple solutions, each with advantages and disadvantages. Automaticity. Learning a procedure so thoroughly that it can be carried out quickly with little thinking or effort. Behavioral schemata. Patterns of action or sequences of behavior that the child uses to explore and respond to objects in her environment. Behavioral setting. The immediate environment in which a behavior occurs. . A school of in whose cardinal tenet is that any conclusion made about human development must be based on scientific of overt behavior and the observable events that strengthen and elicit it. . An intensive study of persons or situations singly or in small numbers. Categorization. The process by which the simplifies information that enters short-term . Causal schemata. Beliefs about the sequential nature of observed data in which effects are attributed to causes. Centering. The questioning by a member of a group about how that individual will personally benefit from the group; a preoccupation with fairness. BORIGLOS.doc - 3

Classical conditioning. The process by which an unconditioned, neutral stimulus and an unconditioned response are paired repeatedly to become a conditioned stimulus that elicits a conditioned response. Classroom management tradition. An approach emphasizing the organization and management of instructional activities in order to prevent misbehavior. Clinical method. Research that studies a small group of subjects in everyday, natural settings. Coaching. An aspect of instruction by which the teacher helps learners master particular skills through the skillful use of practice and prompts. Coercive power. Leadership based on punishment or coercion. Cognitive apprenticeship. The notion that learners can best become more skilled at gathering and using knowledge for themselves by observing experts. Cognitive strategies. General methods of thinking that improve learning across a variety of subject areas. Cognitive style. The means by which individuals process and think about what they learn. Commanding stimuli appeal. The use of assertive commands or statements by an instructor to focus learner attention. Communication disability. An impairment that involves speech, language, vision, or hearing. Comprehension monitoring. Cognitive strategies that help learners derive meaning from what they read. Conceptual conflict. The result when our existing beliefs or ways of explaining things don’t produce the outcomes we predicted. Concerns theory. A view that conceptualizes the teacher’s growth and development as a process of passing through concerns for self (teacher) to task (teaching) to impact (pupil). Concrete operational stage. The third of Piaget’s cognitive developmental stages, characterized by an of the laws of conservation and a readiness to engage in other mental operations using concrete stimuli. BORIGLOS.doc - 4

Conditioned response. In classical conditioning, a response that is elicited by some previously neutral stimulus; occurs by pairing the neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus. Conditioned stimulus. A stimulus that through the conditioning process has acquired the power to generate a conditioned response. Congruent communication. Communication that uses statements that are directed at a learner’s actions, that reflect an accurate or honest evaluation of learner performance, that help learners believe in themselves and their own abilities, and that attribute learner achievement to internal rather than external factors. Consequences. Stimuli or events that follow behavior; consequences can be negative or positive. Constructivism. An approach to learning in which learners are provided the opportunity to construct their own sense of what is being learned by building internal connections or relationships among the ideas and facts being taught. Content validity. A measure of the degree to which a test covers all the content that was taught in the manner in which it was taught. Continuous reinforcement schedule. Reinforcement of every occurrence of a behavior. Control group. The baseline group against whom changes in the experimental group are compared. The experimental group’s stimulus is withheld from the control group. Cooperative learning. A teaching method that uses heterogeneous groups of learners who are responsible for one another’s learning with respect to a common goal. Cooperative learning. The assignment of students of varying abilities and ethnicities and of both genders to small groups with a common goal in which each member has a role. Correlational study. Research that tries to determine whether a relationship exists between two variables. Correlation coefficient. A numerical index on a −1.0 to +1.0 scale that indicates the degree to

which two sets of scores are related. Criterion-referenced grading. The linking of grades to a standard of mastery or achievement. BORIGLOS.doc - 5

Cultural compatibility. The goal of designing instruction to incorporate relevant features of the learners’ culture. Culturally responsive teaching. Instructional methods designed to be compatible with the learning and cognitive styles of a particular ethnic or cultural group. Decay theory. A theory that holds that information dissolves or dissipates from our working memory unless it is rehearsed. Declarative knowledge. Verbal information: the facts, concepts, principles, and theories we learn from lectures, studying textbooks, or watching television. Deficiency/growth needs theory. A theory of motivation that posits that humans have an innate hierarchy of needs that drives all activity. Deficit model. A view of parent participation that assigns the blame for the lack of participation on parents attitudes, temperament, and conditions. Dependent variable. The variable that is the presumed effect of an independent variable. Descriptive research. A means of measuring variables through questionnaires, interviews, or systematic , or a combination of these practices. Developmental stage. A period of development during which a person’s physical, mental, or psychological functioning is different from the periods preceding and following it. Developmental theories. Theoretical approaches for explaining the process of human development. The four major theories are biological, learning, cognitive-developmental, and psychoanalytic. Direct explanation teaching. A variety of teaching methods that make explicit to learners at the outset of a lesson the academic competencies, strategies, generalizations, or procedures to be taught. Direct instruction. Instructional methods that present information explicitly through lecturing, questioning, and demonstration. Direct instruction is particularly suited to the acquisition of facts, rules, and action sequences. BORIGLOS.doc - 6

Discovery learning. The organization of knowledge around fundamental themes and principles rather than discrete facts. Discrepancy appeal. The use of novel, unique, or surprising stimuli to focus the attention of learners. Discrimination training. Reinforcement that occurs only in the presence of a particular stimulus in order for the subject to discriminate the occasions when a reward will occur and when it will not. Displacement theory. A theory that holds that, once new information enters working memory, existing information is pushed out and replaced by incoming data. Distancing. Behaviors that challenge authority and leadership to test the limits of group commitments. Domain-specific knowledge. Knowledge of facts, concepts, and principles pertaining to a specific area or topic. Drive theory. A theory of motivation that is based on the assumption that all activity is directed toward reducing the tension triggered by needs and drives. Dual-coding theory. A theory that holds that complex networks of verbal representations and images reside within long-term memory to promote long-term retention. Ecosystem. Systems and subsystems coexisting in dynamic, mutually dependent relationships. Education. The varied and informal ways in which children learn the customs, attitudes, beliefs, values, social skills, and other behaviors that they require to be successful members of a family, cultural group, and society. Most such education takes place outside the school. . A discipline that focuses on theoretical and empirical instructional knowledge. Elaboration. Associating what you are learning with a particular image or relating old learning to new. Emotional appeal. A characteristic of an instructional stimulus that draws on the emotional response of learners to focus learner attention. BORIGLOS.doc - 7

Empathy. The ability to read someone else’s feelings and match them to the observer’s own feelings. Empowerment model. A view of parent participation that involves giving parents both the power and the knowledge to deal successfully with the school system. Engaged learning time. The amount of time learners spend thinking about, acting on, or working with a learning task. Equilibrium. The result of accommodation; the restoration of cognitive balance by altering cognitive structures to take into account new data. Ethnography. A research technique in which the researcher acts as an observer, recorder, and interpreter and makes his or her point of view explicit. Exosystem. A subsystem beyond the immediate environment of the child that can indirectly influence the behavior of the child. Expectancy (Pygmalion) effect. Often referred to as a “self-fulfilling prophecy,” the correlation between high teacher expectations and high learner achievement and low teacher expectations and low learner achievement. Experimental group. A group that is given a stimulus (such as a program of instruction) that presumably causes a change in the group members’ behavior. Experimental study. Research in which the independent variable is changed so that its effects on the dependent variable can be seen. Expert power. The legitimation of an individual’s leadership because others perceive that individual as an expert. Extended-response essay. An essay question that allows the student to determine the length and complexity of a response; it is a good means of assessing communication ability as well as achievement. Extinction. A procedure that involves identifying and eliminating the specific reinforcer for a particular inappropriate behavior. BORIGLOS.doc - 8

Fading. The removal of external learning supports and the simultaneous provision of independent practice to promote transfer. Field-dependence. A cognitive style that influences learners to perceive complex stimuli in terms of larger patterns and relationships. Field-independence. A cognitive style that influences learners to perceive complex stimuli in terms of the discrete, individual elements that constitute it. Flexible-response tests. Tests that measure higher thought processes such as analysis, synthesis, and decision-making behaviors usually through performance-based assessments. Formal operational stage. The fourth and final of Piaget’s developmental stages, characterized by abstract thinking, logical reasoning, and other forms of higher-order conceptualization. Gender-fair instruction. The use of educational strategies, curriculum materials, and instructor- learner interactions that counteract sex-role stereotypes. General ability tests. Tests that assume that a single, general trait or aptitude underlies differences in school achievement among learners. Generalizability. The reproducibility of research results across contexts, settings, and learners. General knowledge. Knowledge useful for learning across a variety of school tasks. Gifted and talented. Children and youth who are identified as possessing abilities that offer evidence of high performance in areas such as , achievement, creativity, and task persistence. Goal conflicts. Conflicts that arise as a result of learner-teacher or learner-learner disagreement about what should be accomplished in the classroom. Goals. Educational priorities that focus on the subject matter, societal concerns, and/or learner interests and are used to guide the formation of objectives. Grade weighting. Assigning different degrees of importance to different performance indicators that are then combined into a grade. Group. Two or more persons engaged in interactions around a common goal so that each member of the group influences the others. BORIGLOS.doc - 9

Group ability tests. Ability tests designed for administration to large groups of learners on one occasion. Group cohesiveness. The degree to which members of a group have relationships, common goals, and a social structure within that group. Group conflict. Disruptions that destabilize group relationships, structures, and goals. Guided practice. Teacher-provided activities used to encourage learners to organize a response to what has been modeled or demonstrated, often with prompts and questions. Hearing disability. An inability to hear well; may range from mild disability to total deafness. Heterogeneous grouping. In education, assigning learners to classes or learning groups in a manner that insures that these groups will include a diverse mixture of learners. Holistic scoring. Estimating the overall quality of a performance by giving a single value that represents a specific category of accomplishment. Homogeneous grouping. The tracking or ability grouping of learners into instructional clusters that are defined by aptitude as measured by ability tests. Horizontal relationships. Students’ relationships with peers. Humanistic tradition. An approach to classroom management that emphasizes the critical role of communication and between teacher and students. Hyperactivity. A greatly increased rate of activity and/or restlessness. Hypothesis. A prediction about how the variables in a question are related to one another. Hypothetico-deductive reasoning. The ability to pose hypotheses and draw conclusions from observations. Immediate memory. Our information- capacity that holds sensory data for less than a second before it is lost or transferred to our working memory. Impact stage. The stage of teaching when instructors begin to view their learners as individuals with individual needs. Impulsivity. A failure to stop and think before responding to a task. Independent practice. The solitary attempt of a learner to master skills. BORIGLOS.doc - 10

Independent variable. A variable that is thought to produce a desired effect or outcome. Index of item difficulty. The appropriateness of an ability test question for its intended audience. It is represented by the proportion of individuals in a test tryout who answered the item correctly. Index of item discrimination. An ability test question’s or task’s actual reflection of the overall trait or ability that the test is presumed to measure. Indirect instruction. Instructional methods best suited for the learning of concepts, patterns, and . Indirect instruction involves the expression of learner ideas, teacher- mediated discussion, and group problem solving. Individual ability tests. Ability tests administered by one examiner to one learner at each testing session. Individualized education plan (IEP). A written educational plan, revised annually, that provides a detailed road map of the kinds of services a child will receive and how those services will be evaluated. Information-processing model. A model of learning that examines how we learn using the “mind as computer” metaphor. Instinct theory. An early school of thought about motivation that assumed that individual and collective actions and were a result of inherited and innate instincts. Instructional events. Elements of the teaching process that allow learners to acquire and transfer new information and skills. Instructional management. Two broad components of teaching skill: (1) expertise in planning for instruction and (2) expertise in delivering instruction. Instructional validity. The belief that tests must be valid for improving instruction and learning. Intelligence. A global trait signifying an individual’s overall ability to adapt to and succeed in his or her environment. Intentional learners. Students who find their own approaches or systems for achieving educational goals. BORIGLOS.doc - 11

Interference theory. A theory that holds that subsequent learning competes with prior learning and interferes with what is contained in working memory. Intermittent reinforcement schedule. A procedure by which only certain responses are followed by the delivery of a reinforcer. Interpersonal conflicts. Conflicts between members of a class group over individual needs for affiliation, power, and achievement. Interval schedule. Delivery of reinforcers after the first response made following a predetermined period of elapsed time. Intrinsic motivation. Motivation to engage in an activity for its own sake. Intrinsic reinforcement. A strengthening of behavior that occurs in the absence of any external uses of reinforcers. IQ–achievement discrepancy. An achievement level different from what would be predicted given a learner’s score on an ability test. Joint cognitive venture. An activity focused on a clear cognitive goal whose various components are carried out by different classroom participants: learner, peers, and teachers.

Keyword method. An elaboration strategy whereby the learner transforms one of two related pieces of information into a keyword familiar to him- or herself to help remember the other piece.

Language acquisition device. A built-in neurological device programmed to pick up the regular features of any language or communication. Laws of conservation. The understanding that changes in certain properties of an object (e.g., shape) do not change other properties of the object (e.g., mass). Lead management. Use of expert and referent power to develop self-control and to persuade students to enjoy the satisfaction of doing good work. Learning disability. Any learning disorder presumed to be the cause of a learner achieving significantly below what his or her IQ predicts. BORIGLOS.doc - 12

Learning style. The classroom or environmental conditions under which an individual prefers to learn. Least restrictive environment. According to Public Law 94-142, the environment that maintains “the greatest degree of freedom, self-determination, dignity, and integrity of body, mind, and spirit for the individual while he or she participates in treatment or receives services.” Least-to-most prompting. Prompting learners with the least intrusive methods before progressing to relatively more intrusive forms of prompting. Legitimate power. Leadership based on a specific role rather than on the nature of an individual. Limit testing. Challenges to teacher authority and leadership; the questioning by an individual of how he or she will personally benefit from a group. Often occurs during the storming stage of group development. Linking mechanisms. Opportunities for interaction between the various systems and subsystems within the family-school environment. Locus of causality. In attribution theory, a generalized belief about the causes of success and failure of our actions. Long-term memory. The information storage capacity in which new information is integrated through rehearsal, elaboration, and organization with information that is already known or residing within long-term memory. Low-profile classroom control. A set of coping strategies and techniques used to stop misbehavior, especially surface behaviors, without disrupting the flow of a lesson. Macrosystem. The outermost layer of a child’s ecosystem, consisting of the larger culture or society in which the exosystem and microsystem exist. Mainstreaming. An approach to educating learners with developmental disabilities that seeks to maximize opportunities for interaction with nondisabled peers. Mediation. Thinking that uses symbols to represent objects or events in one’s environment. BORIGLOS.doc - 13

Mental retardation. A developmental disability characterized by significantly below-average intellectual functioning and significantly below-average adaptive behavior. Mesosystems. Relationships between systems or linking mechanisms in a child’s ecosystem, which are often as important as the events that occur within systems. Metacognition. Thinking about thinking; the use of cognitive strategies for finding and organizing information and remembering when and where to use them. Microsystem. The most central layer of a child’s ecosystem, including all of the settings and subsystems where the child lives or spends significant amounts of time. Minority group. A social group that occupies a subordinate position with respect to the society as a whole and that shares a sense of collective identity. Modeling. Demonstrating what learners are about to learn; the process of being attentive to, remembering, imitating, and being rewarded for imitating specific behaviors. Multimodal assessment. The evaluation of performance through a variety of forms. Multiple ability tests. Tests that do not assume that a single trait underlies differences in school achievement between learners and instead measure a number of specific and distinct abilities. These tests assign several separate scores representing different aspects of learning ability. Natural reinforcers. Reinforcers that occur naturally in the setting where a behavior occurs; also, changes in stimulation due to the behavior itself, such as hitting the correct keys on a piano when trying to play a particular song. Nature/nurture question. A longstanding debate about the relative importance to development of genetic influences and environmental factors. Negative reinforcement. A procedure that increases the likelihood of a response being repeated by removing an aversive stimulus immediately following that response. Normal distribution. A classic distribution of scores in which most scores fall symmetrically around the mean with fewer scores on the upper and lower ends, which makes a frequency distribution of scores look bell-shaped. BORIGLOS.doc - 14

Normalization. The principle that learners are entitled to programs that allow them to experience the respect and dignity to which any person in their culture or society is entitled. Norm crystallization. The convergence of expectations into a shared perspective by the group. Norm diffusion. The formation of expectations among a group of learners as a result of past individual experiences and expectations. Norm group. The group of individuals upon whom a test is standardized. Norm-referenced grading. The assignment of grades or scores based on how one learner’s achievement compares with the achievement of other learners. Norms. Shared expectations among group members regarding how they should think, feel, and behave; the principal regulators of group behavior. Objectives. Statements that specify the skills learners acquire in order to achieve important goals. Object permanence. The knowledge that objects that are not currently visible (such as a car that has passed) still exist. This knowledge typically develops when a child has reached 6 months. Operant conditioning. A type of learning in which the probability or likelihood of a behavior occurring is changed as a result of procedures that follow that behavior. Operational definition. The description of a variable in the precise manner in which it will be measured or demonstrated. Operational schemata. Mental operations performed on objects or events, the results of which lead to some logical outcome. Organization. As a form of information processing, ordering and systematizing new information so that one can remember and use it efficiently.

Parallel distributed processing model. A model of learning that suggests that learners may not always learn in orderly, sequential ways, but instead use sources of information simultaneously to construct their own meanings. Participation structure. The social structure that governs classroom conversation. The most common form of participation structure is a one-to-one question-and-answer format. BORIGLOS.doc - 15

Passive responding. Learner behavior in which the learner receives or waits for information. Perceived self-efficacy. An appraisal or evaluation that a person makes about his or her personal competence at a particular task; an individual’s personal expectations, internal standards, and self-concept. Percentile rank. Scores that indicate where an individual’s score ranks in comparison with others of the same age or grade. Performance testing. Tests that use direct measures of learning rather than indicators that suggest that learning has taken place. Portfolio assessment. Assessment of a learner’s entire body of work in a defined content area in order to demonstrate the student’s growth and achievement. Positive reinforcement. The condition of administering a stimulus, following a response, that increases the likelihood of that response occurring again. Pragmatics. The cultural rules of language usage. Predictive validity. In instruction, the usefulness of a test for predicting how much learners will benefit from some future instructional program; the correlation between a learner’s ability before an instructional program and his or her achievement after the program. Preoperational stage. The second of Piaget’s stages of ; characterized by egocentrism and the increasing ability to mediate, but with a continued dependence on immediate experience. Primary trait scoring. An analytical scoring technique that requires a test developer to first identify the most salient characteristics or primary traits when observing a product, process, or performance. Principle of indirect measurement. The assumption that ability can be measured by giving different learners identical tasks under identical conditions and recording how rapidly and skillfully each masters them. Procedural conflicts. Disagreements between members of a group over classroom rules and routines. BORIGLOS.doc - 16

Procedural knowledge. Know-how knowledge: action sequences we use to complete tasks, such as booting a floppy disk or writing an outline. Project-based learning. An approach to learning that argues that intrinsic motivation is marshaled, generated, and sustained in a learning environment that recognizes the importance of the interrelationships among learning tasks, learner disposition, and teachers. Prompts. Supplementary or additional aids that teachers use to increase the likelihood that learners will engage in successful practice. Propositional networks. Extensive networks of interconnected ideas stored in long-term memory that provide representations and images that help us retain information for a long time. Prosocial behaviors. Intentional, voluntary behaviors intended to help others. Psychometric approach. A set of beliefs about ability testing that assumes that the effects of traits can be systematically observed and recorded, that repeated observations of the effects of a trait will overcome observational imprecision, that ability is best measured as a quantity rather than as a cognitive process, and that the amount of ability can be established through relative rather than absolute measurement. Psychophysical appeal. Any variation in the color, size, intensity, or pitch of stimuli in the visual field of learners that results in the learners’ making an attending response. Public Law 94-142. The Education for All Handicapped Children Act of 1975, which guaranteed that all children who needed special education would receive a free individualized education plan, assured instructional fairness for learners with disabilities, established procedural due process, and provided federal funding to meet the provisions of the law. Punisher. A stimulus received following a response that decreases the likelihood that the response will happen again. Punishment. In operant conditioning, an action taken following a response that decreases the likelihood that the response will happen again. BORIGLOS.doc - 17

Qualitative item analysis. The process by which test developers check questions, tasks, and directions for clarity, style, bias, and conciseness. Qualitative research. Research conducted to describe or create hypotheses about the relationship between independent and dependent variables. Quantitative item analysis. The process by which test developers examine each test question to determine whether they are of appropriate difficulty and whether each item reflects the overall trait or ability that the test is presumed to measure. Quantitative research. Research conducted to test previously stated relationships between independent and dependent variables. Randomization. A process to help ensure experimental generalizability by giving large numbers of individuals an equal opportunity to be included in a study in either the experimental or the control group. Ratio schedule. Application of reinforcers after a set number of responses, such as every third response. Reciprocal teaching. Teaching that provides alternative representations or elaborations of the content to be learned through the vehicle of group discussion. Redundancy principle. The assumption that conclusions about a learner’s abilities can be accurately measured by observing the learner using these abilities in a variety of circumstances and contexts. Referent power. Leadership earned because of a of an individual’s trustworthiness, fairness, and concern for members of the group. Regular Education Initiative (REI). The mainstreaming of learners with disabilities into regular classrooms where those learners receive individualized services. Rehearsal. Repeating to yourself what you are reading or hearing. Reinforcement. In operant conditioning, actions taken following a response that increase the likelihood that the response will occur again. Reinforcement can be both positive and negative. BORIGLOS.doc - 18

Reliability. The degree to which a test produces consistent scores on repeated testings. Response alternatives. The answer choices portion of a multiple- choice question. Restricted-response essay. An essay that poses a specific problem for which the student must proper information, organize it in a suitable manner, derive a defensible conclusion, and express it according to specific criteria. Restricted-response tests. Assessment methods that limit the range of possible answers, such as true-false or multiple-choice tests, and are usually intended to test knowledge, comprehension, and application behaviors. Reward power. Leadership based on rewards or benefits that an individual can give to members of a group. Routine. A procedure organized around a particular time, concept, or place that helps guide learners through the day. Rubrics. Scoring standards composed of model answers that are used to score performance tests. Rules. General statements defining acceptable and unacceptable behaviors.

Schedule of reinforcement. A rule for when reinforcers will be given following performance of a desired behavior. Schema of attachment. Positive cognitive structure influencing vertical relationships. Schemata. Elaborate cognitive structures or networks made up of ideas and concepts that are used to interpret one’s environment and guide behavior. Schema theory. Cognitive structures of integrated units that organize large amounts of information. Schooling. Learning that takes place within the special academic context and culture of formal educational structures, primarily through words, processes, and questions. Self-concept. A schema that an individual holds toward him- or herself. Self-determination theory. An approach that holds that an attitude of determination is the foundation for motivated behavior. BORIGLOS.doc - 19

Self-directed instruction. An instructional method that places much of the responsibility for learning on the learner by using metacognition, subvocal rehearsal, guided practice, and self- evaluation. Self-efficacy theory. An approach to motivation that emphasizes an individual’s personal expectations, internal standards, and self-concept. Self-esteem. A global evaluation or judgment of one’s worth. Self-fulfilling prophecy. The correlation that has been observed between expectations and performance. Sensorimotor stage. The first of Piaget’s stages of cognitive development, characterized initially by only reflex actions but later by the learning of object permanence and the beginnings of internal cognitive mediation. Sex-role stereotypes. The overextension of sex roles as well as the rigid application of sex roles to individuals without taking personal qualities into account. Situated learning. The teaching of cognitive and metacognitive skills specific to an academic discipline. Situational cues. Stimuli in the learner’s behavioral environment that predispose the learner to behave in a certain manner. Social . How one thinks and becomes concerned about other people’s actions and feelings. Social needs. Needs for affiliation, power, and achievement that are either not present or not as strong outside a group context. Social organization. The relationships—roles, functions, and common goals—between adults and children during learning. Social structure. Roles and functions that members of a group assume. Sociolinguistics. The study of how cultural groups differ in the courtesies and conventions of language rather than in the grammatical structure of what is said; the social conversation of speech. BORIGLOS.doc - 20

Stage of group formation. In , a period of group development in which the concerns of the group and functioning of the group are different from the periods preceding and following. Stages of identity. Discrete periods of personality development during which the individual confronts an identity crisis he or she must overcome to pass successfully to the next stage. Standard deviation. A measurement of variability and clustering around a mean. Standardization. The administration of a test to all persons in a defined group in the same way under the same conditions. Standard scores. Scores that indicate where a particular learner’s raw score ranks among the scores of other learners in the norming group. Stem. The statement portion of a multiple-choice question. Stimulus control. In operant conditioning, the control of the occurrence of a response by a dependable signal or cue, which indicates that a reinforcer will occur if the correct response is emitted. Structuring. Getting learners ready to learn by selecting, organizing, and previewing the content to be presented. Surface behaviors. Normal developmental behaviors children find themselves doing when confined to a small space with large numbers of other children. Survival stage. The first stage of teaching during which beginning teachers focus primarily on their own well-being rather than on their learners or the process of teaching. Symbolic schemata. The mental representations of objects, events, and experiences without the need to perform some type of action on them. Systems-ecological perspective. A view of child development that considers the family, school, and peer group as a type of social ecosystem in which each part is dependent on and affected by the other parts. Task analysis. A process for identifying the behavioral components of more complex skills and arranging them in a hierarchical sequence. BORIGLOS.doc - 21

Task persistence. An attribute usually determined by such characteristics as a learner’s ability to concentrate on detail, impose high standards on herself or himself, persist in achieving personal goals, evaluate personal performance, and devote a high level of energy to academic tasks. Task stage. The second stage of teaching in which a teacher’s concerns focus on improving his or her teaching skills and mastering the content being taught. Test blueprint. A table used to identify the type of behavior and content to be tested. Test fairness. A pattern of evaluation in which the teacher provides an authentic assessment of what has been taught, motivates learners toward higher levels of effort, is sensitive to learner differences, accurately communicates performance and progress to learners and other parties, and efficiently uses teacher and learner time and effort. Testing constraints. The amount of time, reference material, degree of help (if any) from others, specialized equipment, prior knowledge of the task, and scoring criteria that test-takers can have during a performance assessment. Test-retest reliability. The correlation of the scores of one group of learners taken on one occasion with the scores of the same group of learners taken on another occasion. Test validity. The capacity of a test to measure what it says it is measuring. Tracking. Grouping learners into different classes according to scores on standardized tests of learning ability. Transfer of learning. The process whereby skills learned in one situation or under one set of conditions are demonstrated in a different situation or under a different set of conditions. Unconditioned response. A reaction that automatically follows an unconditioned stimulus. Unconditioned stimulus. A stimulus that naturally or automatically elicits an unconditioned response. Validity. The degree to which a test measures what the test is intended to measure. Variables. Variations in conditions in a given situation. Vertical relationships. Students’ relationships with adults, such as parents and teachers. BORIGLOS.doc - 22

Visual disability. An inability to see well that cannot be corrected with eyeglasses. Wait-time 1. The amount of time a teacher gives a learner to respond to a question. Wait-time 2. The interval of time after a learner’s response before the teacher speaks. Working memory. The information storage capacity that receives data from immediate memory and holds them for about 10 to 20 seconds. Zone of proximal development. Vygotsky’s metaphor describing the range of skills and abilities bounded by what a learner can do independently and what a learner needs adult assistance in performing.