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Cognitive Science: an Introduction to the Study of Mind FM-Friedenberg-4747.qxd 8/22/2005 10:17 AM Page i COGNITIVE SCIENCE FM-Friedenberg-4747.qxd 8/22/2005 10:17 AM Page ii FM-Friedenberg-4747.qxd 8/22/2005 10:17 AM Page iii COGNITIVE SCIENCE An Introduction to the Study of Mind Jay Friedenberg Manhattan College Gordon Silverman Manhattan College FM-Friedenberg-4747.qxd 8/22/2005 10:17 AM Page iv Copyright © 2006 by Sage Publications, Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. For information: Sage Publications, Inc. 2455 Teller Road Thousand Oaks, California 91320 E-mail: [email protected] Sage Publications Ltd. 1 Oliver’s Yard 55 City Road London EC1Y 1SP United Kingdom Sage Publications India Pvt. Ltd. B-42, Panchsheel Enclave Post Box 4109 New Delhi 110 017 India Printed in the United States of America on acid-free paper. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Friedenberg, Jay. Cognitive science : an introduction to the study of mind / Jay Friedenberg, Gordon Silverman. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and indexes. ISBN 1-4129-2568-1 (pbk.) 1. Cognitive science—Textbooks. I. Silverman, Gordon. II. Title. BF311.F743 2006 153—dc22 2005009522 050607080910987654321 Acquiring Editor: Jim Brace-Thompson Associate Editor: Margo Beth Crouppen Production Editor: Sanford Robinson Editorial Assistant: Karen Ehrmann Typesetter: C&M Digitals (P) Ltd. Indexer: Jeanne Busemeyer Cover Designer: Janet Foulger FM-Friedenberg-4747.qxd 8/22/2005 10:17 AM Page v Contents Preface xv Acknowledgments xxiii 1. Introduction: Exploring Inner Space 1 A Brave New World 1 What Is Cognitive Science? 2 Representation 3 Digital Representations 6 Analog Representations 7 The Dual-Coding Hypothesis 7 Propositional Representations 8 Computation 9 The Tri-Level Hypothesis 10 The Classical and Connectionist Views of Computation 12 The Interdisciplinary Perspective 12 The Philosophical Approach 15 The Psychological Approach 16 The Cognitive Approach 17 The Neuroscience Approach 18 The Network Approach 18 The Evolutionary Approach 19 The Linguistic Approach 20 The Artificial Intelligence Approach 20 The Robotics Approach 21 In Depth: Categories of Mental Representation 22 Minds On Exercise: Analogical Reasoning 24 FM-Friedenberg-4747.qxd 8/22/2005 10:17 AM Page vi 2. The Philosophical Approach: Enduring Questions 29 What Is Philosophy? 29 The Mind-Body Problem 30 Flavors of Monism 33 Flavors of Dualism 34 Evaluating the Dualist Perspective 36 Functionalism 38 Evaluating the Functionalist Perspective 40 The Free Will–Determinism Debate 41 The Issue of Determinism 41 The Issue of Free Will 43 Evaluating the Free Will–Determinism Debate 44 The Knowledge Acquisition Problem 45 Evaluating the Knowledge Acquistion Debate 47 The Mystery of Consciousness 49 The What-It’s-Like Argument 50 Mind as an Emergent Property 52 Evaluating the Emergent View of Mind 53 Consciousness and Neuroscience 54 Consciousness and Artificial Intelligence 56 Overall Evaluation of the Philosophical Approach 59 In Depth: Dennett’s Multiple Drafts Theory of Consciousness 60 Minds On Exercise: Decision Making 63 3. The Psychological Approach: A Profusion of Theories 65 What Is Psychology? 65 Psychology and the Scientific Method 67 Mental Atoms, Mental Molecules, and a Periodic Table of the Mind: The Voluntarist Movement 68 Evaluating the Voluntarist Approach 71 Structuralism: What the Mind Is 72 Evaluating the Structuralist Approach 73 Functionalism: What the Mind Does 74 Evaluating the Functionalist Approach 76 The Whole Is Greater Than the Sum of Its Parts: Mental Physics and the Gestalt Movement 77 Evaluating the Gestalt Approach 81 Mini-Minds: Mechanism and Psychoanalytic Psychology 82 Evaluating the Psychoanalytic Approach 84 Mind as a Black Box: The Behaviorist Approach 85 Evaluating the Behaviorist Approach 87 FM-Friedenberg-4747.qxd 8/22/2005 10:17 AM Page vii Overall Evaluation of the Psychological Approach 88 In Depth: Insight Learning 89 Minds On Exercise: Introspection 91 4. The Cognitive Approach I: History, Vision, and Attention 95 Some History First: The Rise of Cognitive Psychology 95 The Cognitive Approach: Mind as an Information Processor 97 Modularity of Mind 98 Evaluating the Modular Approach 99 Theories of Vision and Pattern Recognition 100 Template Matching Theory 100 Evaluating Template Matching Theory 101 Feature Detection Theory 103 Evaluating Feature Detection Theory 103 A Computational Theory of Vision 105 Evaluating the Computational Theory of Pattern Recognition 106 Feature Integration Theory 108 Evaluating Feature Integration Theory 111 Theories of Attention 112 Broadbent’s Filter Model 113 Evaluating the Filter Model 115 Treisman’s Attenuation Model 115 The Deutsch-Norman Memory Selection Model 116 The Multimode Model of Attention 116 Kahneman’s Capacity Model of Attention 117 Evaluating the Capacity Model of Attention 119 Evaluating the Model-Building Approach 119 In Depth: Biederman’s Recognition-by-Components Theory of Pattern Recognition 120 Minds On Exercise: Silhouettes and Object Constancy 122 5. The Cognitive Approach II: Memory, Imagery, and Problem Solving 125 Types of Memory 125 Sensory Memory 126 Working Memory 127 Long-Term Memory 131 Memory Models 133 The Modal Model 134 Evaluating the Modal Model 135 FM-Friedenberg-4747.qxd 8/22/2005 10:17 AM Page viii The ACT* Model 135 Evaluating the ACT* Model 137 The Working Memory Model 137 Evaluating the Working Memory Model 139 Visual Imagery 139 The Kosslyn and Schwartz Theory of Visual Imagery 140 Image Structures 141 Image Processes 142 Evaluating the Kosslyn and Schwartz Theory 146 The Imagery Debate 147 Problem Solving 149 The General Problem Solver Model 153 Evaluating the General Problem Solver Model 154 The SOAR Model 155 Evaluating the SOAR Model 156 Overall Evaluation of the Cognitive Approach 158 In Depth: Search in Working Memory 159 Minds On Exercise: Memory Effects 161 6. The Neuroscience Approach: Mind As Brain 163 The Neuroscience Perspective 163 Methodology in Neuroscience 164 Techniques for the Study of Brain Damage 164 Evaluating Techniques for the Study of Brain Damage 165 Brain Recording Techniques 166 Computerized Axial Tomography (CAT) 167 Positron Emission Tomography (PET) 167 Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) 168 The Electrical Stimulation Technique 169 The Small Picture: Neuron Anatomy and Physiology 170 The Big Picture: Brain Anatomy 170 Directions in the Nervous System 172 The Cortex 173 The Split Brain 174 The Neuroscience of Visual Object Recognition 175 Visual Agnosias 176 Apperceptive Agnosia 177 Associative Agnosia 178 Face Perception 180 FM-Friedenberg-4747.qxd 8/22/2005 10:17 AM Page ix The Neuroscience of Attention 181 Models of Attention 185 A Component Process Model 185 Distributed Network Models 186 The Neuroscience of Memory 187 Learning and Memory 188 The Hippocampal System 198 Models of Hippocampal Function 190 Neural Substrates of Working Memory 192 Evaluating the Neuroscience of Working Memory 195 Neural Substrates of Long-Term Memories 195 The Neuroscience of Executive Function and Problem Solving 197 Theories of Executive Function 199 Overall Evaluation of the Neuroscience Approach 201 In Depth: Binding and Neural Synchrony 202 Minds On Exercise: Neural Functions 203 7. Outline: The Network Approach: Mind as a Web 207 The Network Perspective 207 Principles Underlying Artificial Neural Networks 208 Characteristics of Artificial Neural Networks 210 Early Conceptions of Neural Networks 212 Back Propagation and Convergent Dynamics 215 Artificial Neural Network Typologies 219 Evaluating the Connectionist Approach 221 Advantages 221 Problems and Disadvantages 222 Semantic Networks: Meaning in the Web 224 Characteristics of Semantic Networks 225 A Hierarchical Semantic Network 226 Evaluating the Hierarchical Model 228 Propositional Semantic Networks 230 Evaluating Semantic Networks 231 Overall Evaluation of the Network Approach 233 In Depth: NETtalk 234 Minds On Exercise: Free Association 236 8. The Evolutionary Approach: Change Over Time 239 The Evolutionary View 239 Evolutionary Psychology 240 A Little Background: Selection 241 FM-Friedenberg-4747.qxd 8/22/2005 10:17 AM Page x Evolved Psychological Mechanisms 244 Evolution and Cognitive Processes 247 Categorization 247 Memory 248 Logical Reasoning 250 Judgment Under Uncertainty 253 Language 256 Sex Differences in Cognition 257 Evolutionary Computing 261 Artificial Life 263 Neural Darwinism 265 Evaluating Evolutionary Psychology 266 Overall Evaluation of the Evolutionary Approach 269 In Depth: A Stage Theory of Evolution 270 Minds On Exercise: Memory for Object Location 272 9. The Linguistic Approach: Language and Cognitive Science 275 The Linguistic Approach: The Importance of Language 275 The Nature of Language 276 Language Use in Primates 278 Evaluating Language Use in Primates 280 Language Acquisition 282 Evaluating Language Acquisition 284 Language Deprivation 284 Evaluating Language Deprivation 287 Philosophy and Linguistics: The Linguistic Relativity Hypothesis 288 Evaluating the Linguistic Relativity Hypothesis 290 Cognition and Linguistics: The Role of Grammar 291 Evaluating Universal Grammar 294 Neuroscience and Linguistics: The Wernicke-Geschwind Model 294 Evaluating the Wernicke-Geschwind Model 297 Artificial Intelligence and Linguistics: Natural Language Processing 298 Speech Recognition 299 Syntactic Analysis
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